Chapter One: Research Overview

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Some
people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge
making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation,
comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning
generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
A. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
B. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
C. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
D. Desire to be of service to society;
E. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
I. Descriptive vs. Analytical:
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no
control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex
post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to
measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar
data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
In Analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 II. Applied vs. Fundamental:
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Thus, the central aim of
applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic
research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus,
adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
III. Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behavior.
IV. Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On the other
hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research.
In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about
doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the
researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable
results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then
sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials
concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
V. Some Other Types of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on
either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in
which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of
time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former
case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is
carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory
research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried
out.
The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research
is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies
are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research
is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of
the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research
can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion
oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds
and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need
of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according
to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is
a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions
regarding operations under their control.
RESEARCH APPROACHES

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach. The former
involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative
analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into
inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research. The purpose of inferential
approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of
population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics.
Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions
and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus
group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at
length in chapters that follow.
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance
of research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex
nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving
operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added importance, both
for government and business.
Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be
equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research
we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these
alternatives.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry,
working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature
of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is
necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of
research problems. These day nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose
of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a
few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to
know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
a. To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
b. To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
c. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
d. To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative-work;
 e. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a
sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a
better way.
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the preparation
of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”. Decisions
regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a research
study constitute a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.”
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the design
includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the desing decisions happen to be in
respect of:
i. (What is the study about?
ii. Where will the study be carried out?
iii. What type of data is required?
iv. What periods of time will the study include?
v. What will be the sample design?
vi. What techniques of data collection will be used?
vii. How will the data be analysed?
viii. In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions, one may split the overall research design into
the following parts:
A. the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;
B. the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
 C. the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
D. the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the
data.
 It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be
studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as: (1) research
design in case of exploratory research studies; (2) research design in case of descriptive and
diagnostic research studies, and (3) research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.
Exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative
research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view.
The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such
the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity
for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is
needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with
more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of
research design for such studies are talked about: (a) the survey of concerning literature; (b) the
experience survey and (c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.
Descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive research studies are those studies
which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group,
whereas diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated
are examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation
are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research comes under
this category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic
studies share common requirements and as such we may group together these two types of
research studies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to
define clearly, what he wants to measure and must find adequate methods for measuring it along
with a clear cut definition of ‘population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete
and accurate information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned.
The research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximise
reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research study. The design in
such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be
adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should
the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.

Hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as

experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships
between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce
bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually
experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we
often mean the design of experiments.
Professor R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with experimental designs. Beginning of such designs
was made by him when he was working at Rothamsted Experimental Station (Centre for
Agricultural Research in England). As such the study of experimental designs has its origin in
agricultural research.
Professor Fisher found that by dividing agricultural fields or plots into different blocks and then
by conducting experiments in each of these blocks, whatever information is collected and
inferences drawn from them, happens to be more reliable. This fact inspired him to develop
certain experimental designs for testing hypotheses concerning scientific investigations. Today,
the experimental designs are being used in researches relating to phenomena of several
disciplines. Since experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we
still use, though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture (such as treatment, yield, plot,
block etc.) in experimental designs.
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity. In other words, we can state the qualities of a
good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity
to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.