REVISION SUMMARY OF GSP 106 (NATURAL SCIENCE)

Made by EKWEOBA DAVID (TRUMP)

Chapter 1

THE ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT

Science comes from the Latin word scientia meaning knowledge. Science is a
method of investigating nature and a way of knowing about nature that discovers
reliable knowledge about it.

Science can be divided into two branches – Formal sciences & Empirical sciences.

FORMAL SCIENCES deal with deductive analysis of formal systems (i.e. systems
independent of direct human influence) and they include mathematics, logic,
theoretical physics, statistics e.t.c.

EMPIRICAL SCIENCES follow a pattern of observation, induction, deduction,

testing and evaluation and they include physics, chemistry, biology, psychology,
geology, medical sciences.

Scientific disciplines can also be grouped according to the phenomena they deal
with. They are

A. Natural sciences or Life sciences: it deals with natural objects and it is

subdivided into
i) Physical sciences eg Physics, Chemistry
ii) Biological sciences eg Biology, Botany, Zoology

B. Medical sciences: eg Anatomy, Surgery

C. Pharmaceutical sciences

D. Social Sciences: eg Anthropology, Geography, Sociology

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The origin and development of science has been grouped into four historic
periods

1. Origins of Science in Antiquity (Ancient Science): Historians trace the origin of

science to Egyptians and Babylonians. The Greeks were influenced by Egyptian
mathematics and Babylonian astronomy. The Greek scientific thoughts had a
more secular approach and were connected to philosophy. Pre-Socratic
philosophers in ancient Greece are Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Pythagoras,
Heraclitus Democritus; while the Socratic philosophers include Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle, Alexander the Great, Ptolemy of Alexandria. Science in the Roman
Empire period was concerned with systematizing knowledge gained in the
preceding Hellenistic (Greek) period and the knowledge from the vast areas the
Romans conquered.

2. The Middle Ages or Medieval Period: the two phases in this period are

(i) The Dark Ages (AD450 – 800): there was little progress in science as
medieval Europe recovered from the chaos that followed the fall of Rome.
(ii) The Renaissance Period (9th – 15th century AD): it is considered to be the
bridge between the middle ages and modern history.

3. Rise of Modern Science (1400AD – present time)

(i) Scientific Revolution: this was the emergence of modern science. There
were historic changes in thought and belief, social and institutional
organization in Europe from 1550 – 1700 AD beginning with Nicholas
Copernicus who asserted a sun-centered (heliocentric) cosmos and ended with
Isaac Newton who proposed universal laws and a mechanical universe (hatch).
(ii) The classic age of science (18th – 19th century): the individual branches of
science developed into the traditional forms by which they are still recognized
today.

4. The 20th Century Scientific Revolution: new science disciplines appeared which
are progressively utilized both in technical and research establishments.

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Chapter 2

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY & INVENTIONS

Two elements are believed to govern man’s technical progress; (1) Discovery or
recognition of new natural objects; (2) eventual practical application to be shared
by others.

Fire was the most important discovery of Paleolithic man (Stone Age); which not
only warmed his body but was also used in the preparation of cooked food. The
development of writing took place about 2500 BC. Technology made possible the
beginning of civilizations in the great valleys of the Near East, in Mesopotamia
and Egypt.

The stages of development of different technologies include:

1. Stone Age: this period is known for the development of simple tools from wood
and stone and the discovery of fire.

2. Bronze Age: in this period, man developed the ability to work with metal and
the introduction of wheel.

3. Iron Age: in this period, man developed the ability to work with harder metals
like copper and tin. Weapons making was enhanced by iron smelting. Inventions
of machines led to rapid development of industrial and agricultural processes.

4. Computer and Internet Age

Science, technology and inventions enhance the standard of living of a nation. The
motivations for S&T include war, economic growth, prestige, science for its own
sake etc.

Science seeks to discover facts about the material universe and fit those facts into
conceptual schemes called theories or laws that will clarify the relations among
them, while technology is the application of scientific knowledge to solve human
problems.

Subdivisions of science & technology are as follows:

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1. Basic sciences

2. Sciences in application

3. Classical Low Technology

4. Science-based High Technology

Some early contributors to S & T includes

• Robert Boyle regarded as the ‘Father of Chemistry’ and famous for his
discoveries on the physics of gases.
• Marcellor Malpighi referred to as the ‘Father of Microscopy’.
• Robert Hooke discovered the cells of plants.
• Isaac Newton a physicist and a mathematician remembered mainly for his
laws on motion
• Michael Faraday remembered for his discovery of electricity.
• James Watt invented the steam engine.

Some modern contributions to S&T include the Zipper (Zip fastener) which was
invented by W. L. Judson. The jet engine was invented in 1930 by Frank Whittle.
The invention of antibiotics sprang directly from the pure scientific research of
Alexander Fleming.

Chapter 3

NATURE & SCOPE OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Technology can be defined as ‘systematic knowledge and action usually of

industrial process but applicable to any recurrent activity’.

The beneficial effects of technological development are:

 Increased production of goods and services

 Reduced physical labour
 Higher living standard

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Adverse effects of technological development include;

• Environmental pollution
• Depletion of natural resources
• Technological unemployment
• Creation of unsatisfying jobs

The relationship between science, technology and engineering is that science

seeks to acquire knowledge while technology is concerned with the use of the
knowledge to solve practical problems; whereas engineering is the creation of
plans, designs and means for achieving desired objectives. Technology deals with
the tools and techniques of carrying out the plans.

Chapter 4

TRANSPORT & COMMUNICATION

Both transportation and communication are fundamental processes in man’s

civilization. There are six main modes of transportation and they are land, water,
air, cable, pipeline, and space. Each mode of transportation can further be
classified into engine powered and engineless vehicles.

Engine powered land vehicles are two wheeled motorcycles, four wheeled
vehicles (such as buses, cars, trucks), trains and snowmobiles. The most
elementary means of transportation is walking.

The major vehicles of water transportation are boats, ships and rafts. Air
transport is the fastest kind of transportation and engine powered crafts like
airplanes, helicopters are used,

Problems of modern transportation include

 Traffic safety
 Declining fuel reserves
 Environmental problems

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Types of communication based on the communication channel used are

1. Verbal communication: this is further divided into oral communication and

written communication.
2. Non verbal communication

Types of communication based on purpose and style are

1. Formal communication
2. Informal communication

All these different kinds of communication are put into two major groups;

1. Interpersonal communication
2. Mass communication: this can further be classified into graphic &
electronic communication.

The internet is a collection of various computer networks, linked together and

communicating by a common protocol known as Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) or Internet Protocol (IP). The internet standard high-level protocol for
transferring files from one computer to another is known as File Transfer
Protocol (FTP).

Chapter 5

SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

Modern inventions and discoveries have improved man’s progress in various

areas such as communications, transportation, agriculture, health & war. The
invention of the wheel revolutionized trade & war. Communication was greatly
improved with the invention of telegraph, telephone, radio & television.

Behind all these laudable gains of technological development are some social
problems.

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 • Pollution: pollution is the release of substances (pollutants) or energy into
the environment in quantities which are harmful. They include chemicals,
garbage, noise, acids, toxic gases. Types of environmental pollution are
i) Land pollution: caused mainly by industrial wastes, refuse and metal
scraps.
ii) Water pollution: it could be caused by industrial wastes, oil spillage,
pesticides etc. Biomagnifications is a process whereby contaminants
eaten by animals are absorbed in their tissues and are passed up the
food chain and concentrated when they are eaten by other animals.
iii) Air pollution: air pollutants include exhaust fumes, domestic and factory
smoke, poisonous gases.
iv) Noise pollution
• Acid rains: acid rain is rain, smog or snow containing large amounts of nitric
acid, sulphuric acid and carbonic acid, making it acidic and corrosive.
• Industrial waste emissions.
• Greenhouse effect: increase in the atmospheric concentration of
greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs and
nitrous oxides) alter the flow of heat energy in the atmosphere.
• Depletion of the ozone layer
• Loss of biological diversity
• Problems associated with the disposal of nuclear wastes
• Problems of overpopulation and hunger
• Problem of overdependence on machines.

Chapter 6

THE ORIGIN OF MAN

The creationist theory based on the Holy Scriptures projects that each species was
created specifically and perfectly and that no living thing originated either
gradually or rapidly from ancestral form. Later on, the theory of evolution was
put forward. According to this theory, this single cell organism appeared about 34

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billion years ago after the formation of the earth crust. Larmak theory was the
first to explain evolution without supernatural tendencies. The evolutionary
account gained impetus with the Charles Darwin theory of evolution in 1858.

According to evolution, man evolved from ape-like ancestors which also gave rise
to apes (orangutan, gorilla, chimpanzee). Man, gorilla, orangutan and
chimpanzees belong to the same zoological family – Hominidae (great apes). The
main ancestors of man are the Homo Habilis which had small hairs, with small
supra orbital ridge. Language and rudimentary culture started with them. From
the Homo Habilis evolved the Homo erectus. The neck was more developed and
this made their neck not to look hanging like the Homo habilis. From the Homo
erectus evolved the Homo Sapiens (NEANDERTAL), which looked very much like
the modern man. The modern man (Homo sapiens) has his brain and other organs
more developed because of extensive usage.

Chapter 7

HUMAN ECOLOGY AND POPULATION DYNAMICS

Ecology is the branch of biology dealing with the study of relationships of living
organisms. A population is defined as a collective group of organisms of the same
species living and interbreeding within a given area. Man’s ecology is determined
by its natural and cultural environments. Culture is the state of civilization of a
people and it is usually adaptive.

The human population has remarkably increased in the recent past and the
increase is still continuing. Factors that encourage population growth include
better health care, sanitation & industrialization.

Human population has responded to three revolutions, all of which has led to
increase in population:

1. Cultural Revolution: this involved the settling down of the early man in
small groups to form communities and accumulate a culture which

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 distinguishes him from all other animals in the transmission of information
by social means.
2. Agricultural Revolution: this started around 9,000 BC and changed man
from his nomadic way of life into farming which involved settlement for
longer periods so as to harvest his crops.
3. Industrial revolution: this was the age of industrial growth that resulted in
higher standards of living.

The cumulative impact of human activities on the biosphere is a function of (a)

the size of human population and (b) the environmental impact per person.

A population has various characteristics which are the unique possession of the
group and are not characteristics of individuals that make up the group. These
characteristics are as follows:

• Population density: it is the population size in relation to some unit of

space, often expressed as number per unit area or volume. Eg. 1000
trees/acre
• Growth rate: it is the rate at which the population is growing. It is obtained
by dividing the change in population by the period of time taken for the
change to occur.
• Natality or Birth rate: this is the rate at which new individuals are added to
the population by reproduction.
• Mortality or Death rate: it is the rate at which individuals are lost by death.
• Population age distribution: it is the ratio of the various age groups in a
population.
• Population growth form: this is the pattern of increase of the population
with time. There are two common growth forms – the J-shaped growth
form and the S-shaped or Sigmoid growth form.
• Carrying capacity: it is the maximum number of individuals that can occur
in a given environment at a given time.
• Population dispersal: this is the movement of individuals or their offspring
into or out of a population. It takes three forms – Immigration, Emigration

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 & Migration. Dispersal is influenced by barriers and by the inherent power
of movement of the individuals.
• Dispersion: this is the way individuals are distributed in space. The three
broad patterns of dispersion are Random distribution, Uniform distribution
& Clumped distribution.

Chapter 8

BIOLOGICAL & AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

Research is a systematic investigation or study of a subject for new findings or

facts. Scientific research is a methodic study in order to prove a hypothesis or
answer a specific question.

The steps involved in the process of scientific method include:

a) Observation
b) Problem definition: these are explanations to specific observations.
c) Hypothesis formation: this is a possible solution to a problem.
d) Experimentation: at its simplest, changes are made to an independent
variable and the effects are observed on a dependent variable. It can be
classified into;
i) Manipulated (or Independent) Variable: this is the variable that you will
be changing during the experiment.
ii) Responding (or Dependent) Variable: this is the variable that changes as
a result of changes in the manipulated variable.
iii) Controlled Variables (or Controls): these are all the variables that you
will keep constant throughout the experiment.

e) Analysis and Interpretation of Data: it helps to identify relationship

between variables.

A scientific theory or law represents a hypothesis, or a group of related

hypothesis which have been confirmed through repeated experimental tests.

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Basic research or pure research is carried out by research institutions and
universities and it is aimed at increasing man’s knowledge. It is divided into two:

1. Free Fundamental Research: also known as pure research and it is driven by

curiosity.
2. Oriented Basic Research

Biology is the study of life and the study covers from molecules to organisms and
to entire ecosystems. Biology is divided into two major fields – Botany (which
studies plants) and Zoology (studies animals).

Advances in scientific research have boosted food production. Major areas in

agriculture in which research is carried out include crop science, soil science,
animal science, food science & technology, nutrition, agricultural economics,
agricultural extension.

Problems of modern agriculture include:

a) Excessive tillage
b) Risk of devastation (of crops by pests or disease outbreaks in a
monoculture.)
c) Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
d) Over dependence on pesticides
e) Depletion of water reserve
f) Loss of genetic diversity

Chapter 9

AGRICULTURE AS AN IMPORTANT INDUSTRY IN NIGERIA

Agriculture in Nigeria includes forestry, dairy farming, fruit cultivation, poultry

keeping, bee keeping, marketing and distribution of crops and livestock products.
Agriculture, currently contributes between 30 – 40 percent of the national GDP.

Importance of agriculture includes:

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  It is a source of livelihood for Nigerians.
 Employment of labour
 Source of raw materials to industries.
 Food security
 Foreign exchange earner
 Diversification of economy

Problems of agriculture in Nigeria include:

 Soil infertility
 Irrigation problems
 Poor infrastructure
 Dormant research institutions
 Lack of education and modernization
 Unserviceable machinery
 Lack of food processing machinery
 Land tenure problem
 Minimal implementation of government policies
 Impact of imported food
 Poor transportation
 Poor financing
 Unavailability of basic amenities
 Lack of investment

Solutions to problems of agriculture in Nigeria include:

 Use of improved tools and implements

 Soil improvement
 Crop protection (using herbicides and pesticides)
 Crop and animal improvement
 Animal health (and Medicare)
 Modern irrigation technology
 Provision of transportation, processing & storage facilities.

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 Chapter 10

SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA AND ITS MANAGEMENT

The substitution of Valine for glutamic acid in the sixth position of the beta
hemoglobin molecule is responsible for the abnormal function on
deoxyhemoglobin generation (sickle cell phenomenon).

Sickle cell anemia is prevalent in Africa, Southern Europe, Middle East and
South East Asia. People with sickle cell trait are protected from plasmodium
falciparum and so do not suffer malaria.

Sickle red blood cells can become trapped within blood vessels and thus
interfere with normal blood flow. Unfavourable conditions such as occur
during fever, low oxygen tension, infection, acidosis and dehydration make
RBCs containing sickle hemoglobin to become rigid, elongated and sickle
shaped.

In humans, genes coding for alpha chains and genes coding for beta chains of
the hemoglobin are located on chromosomes 16 & 11 respectively.

There are several variant types of hemoglobin that cause sickle cell disease,
namely Sickle Cell Anemia (HbS), Beta thalassaemia & Hemoglobin C.

The problems associated with sickle cell disease are both sociological and
psychological in nature. The education of the sickler suffers too.

The handling of sickle cell anemia proceeds in four ways

• Management of anemia
• Management of painful syndrome
• Management of infections
• Management of organ failure

Isocyanic acid is associated with anti-sickling property. Food substances such as

meat, cassava, beans, potatoes that contain traces of cyanide or urea are
recommended in the diet of a sickler. Sulphur containing food substances like egg,

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beans and potatoes should be taken regularly.food supplements such as selenium
and chikavit are recommended.

Screening methods for sickle cell disease include:

 Electrophoresis
 Amniocentesis
 Genetic test
 Fingerprinting
 Solubility method

Chapter 11

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

A substance is a definite variety of matter, all the specimens (samples) of which

have the same property. Substances can be classified into elements &
compounds. Compounds can either be organic or inorganic. Elements are
grouped into metals & non-metals.

*refer to text*

Chapter 12

ANALYSIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Some physical methods that are often employed to achieve complete separation
of organic mixtures are:

• Re-crystallization
• Fractional crystallization
• Simple distillation
• Fractional distillation
• Steam distillation

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 • Distillation under reduced pressure
• Solvent extraction
• Chromatography

*refer to text for details*

Chapter 13

COMMON CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND THEIR USES

Factors that affect the rate of chemical reaction are;

• The material phase in which the reaction is taking place

• The surface area of the reactants
• The concentration of the reactants
• Temperature

Chemical reactions which involve burning of substances in air (oxygen) are termed
combustion.

Eg. 2Mg + O2 ---> 2MgO

S + O2 ---> SO2

Rusting of iron is a slow combustion process because iron burns slowly in air and
the presence of moisture.

Acid-base reactions (neutralization reactions) are those chemical reactions in

which a Hydrogen ion (H+) producing substance which is an acid combines with an
Hydroxide ion (OH+) producing compound which is a base.

H + OH ----> H2O

Acid base water (neutral)

*refer to text for details*

Chapter 14
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 CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

The conventional sources of energy fall into two main categories;

1. Traditional fuels eg. Fire wood, crop waste.

2. Carbon bearing fossil fuels eg. Coal, oil & natural gas

The traditional fuels together with nuclear fuels & renewable energy sources are
known as non-fossil fuels.

Energy exists in many forms, such as heat, electrical, chemical, mechanical e.t.c.
These forms of energy can be grouped into two types – Kinetic and Potential.

Kinetic energy is energy in motion. Mechanical kinetic energy is calculated using

the equation;

KE = ½ MV2

Where K.E is kinetic energy measured in joules (j). M = mass measured in

kilograms (kg). V = velocity measured in metre per second (m/s).

Electrical energy is obtained from the movement of electrical charges. It can be

calculated using;

E = IVt

E = electrical energy (J), I = current measured in amperes (A), V = voltage (V), t =

time measured in seconds (s).

Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in traverse waves. They

include visible light, solar energy, x-rays, radio waves. The speed (C), the
frequency (f) and the wavelength (λ) of the electromagnetic radiations are related
thus:

C = Fλ

C = speed of wave (m/s), F = frequency of wave (Hz), λ = wavelength (m)

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Thermal (or heat) energy is the internal energy in substances. It is measured in
Celsius (oC)

Potential energy is stored energy or the energy due to the position of an object.

P.E = mgh

Where P.E = potential energy (J), M = Mass (kg), g = acceleration due to gravity
(m/s2), h = height.

Nuclear energy is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.

Fossil fuels are in solid form (eg coal), liquid form (oil, bitumen) and gaseous form
(natural gas).

Coal is classified into three main types (1) Lignite (2) Bituminous (3) Anthracite.
The intermediate stages during coalification are peat – lignite – sub-bituminous –
bituminous – anthracite.

Petroleum is a naturally occurring oily, bituminous liquid composed of

hydrocarbons and organic compounds. Petroleum can be classified into
Paraffinic, Naphthenic & Asphaltic. The basic refining unit is the distillation unit.
The products of distillation of crude oil are:

 Petroleum gas (< 0 oC)

 Petrol (40 – 200 oC)
 Kerosene and Heating oil (200 – 250oC)
 Gas oil and Diesel Oil (250 – 350oC)
 Lubricating oil (350 – 500oC)
 Bitumen (> 500 oC)
 Waxes
 Graphite

Chapter 15

ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY

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Industrialization and development demand an increased consumption of energy.
In addition, fossil fuels are exhaustible and they contribute to air pollution; hence
the need for alternative sources of energy.

Solar Energy: the energy from the sun is mainly due to nuclear fusion reactions
occurring deep inside the sun. The supply of solar energy is inexhaustible, clean &
non-polluting. No running costs, no moving parts and so little maintenance.
However, it is diffused and so needs to be collected from a large area and it are
intermittent and available in the day only.

Nuclear Energy: nuclear reactors produce electricity using nuclear energy.

Wind Energy: the applications of wind energy are for water pumping and
electricity generation.

Geothermal Energy: this the energy obtained from the heat inside the earth.

Biomass and Biogas.

Chapter 16

ELECTRICITY AND SOME HOUSEHOLD APPLICATIONS

Electricity was discovered by Michael Faraday.

Alexandro Volta constructed the first electric battery called Pile in 1799. This
voltaic cell has copper as the positive pole and zinc as the negative pole.

The magnetic effect of the electric current was discovered by Hans Christian
Oerstad.

George Ohm defined the resistance in a conductor as

R (resistance) = V/I

Where V = potential difference and I = current

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The electron was discovered by J.J. Thompson. Electrons in motion constitute an
electric current.

An electric insulator is any material that has no free electrons to form an electric
current. The unit of electric current is called Ampere (A). The unit of electric
energy is Watts (W)

To calculate the amount of electric energy expended, we use the formula;

Electric energy (W) = Voltage (V) * Current (A) * Time (t)

W = VIt

Electric power (P) = Voltage (V) * Current (I)

Chapter 17

EXPLORATION OF THE SOLID EARTH

Geology is the study of the solid earth, oceanography deals with the oceans and
meteorology is concerned with the earth’s atmosphere.

The earth could be classified into four spheres:

1. Lithosphere; the solid, rocky outer layer of the earth.

2. Hydrosphere; oceans lakes and rivers.
3. Atmosphere; the mixture of gases that envelope the earth.
4. Biosphere; comprises of all living things found in all the spheres.

As one moves into the earth’s interior, different layers will be observed as well as
variations in temperature and pressure. For every 40 metres you descend, the
temperature rises by 10 oC.

The different layers that make up the earths interior are:

I. The Crust: the outer skin of the solid earth. The crust ranges from 5 – 40
km.
II. The Mantle: it is below the crust and it is roughly 3,000 km thick.
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III. The Core

Alfred Wegener postulated that all the continents had once been joined together
in a single land mass called Pangaea. This hypothesis that the earth’s continents
slowly moved over the earth’s surface is known as continental drift.

A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a
definite chemical composition while a rock is an aggregate of one or more
minerals or mineraloids. Exposed bedrocks or rocks constantly undergo
weathering to form soil.

Soil is a mixture of rock particles, decayed organic matter, air, water and minerals.
Soil has layers called horizons – horizon A (topsoil), horizon B (subsoil), horizon C
(weathered rock).

Chapter 18

SPACE SCIENCE AND SPACE EXPLORATION

Space environment is the region above sea level and beyond. The earth’s
environment ends at the magnetopause (the end of the magnetosphere). Outer
space is the region where the earth gravitational attraction has no effect.

Space environment could be grouped into interplanetary space, interstellar space

& intergalactic space. Interplanetary space also called the heliosphere is the
space surrounding the sun. It has four principal components, which are solar
wind, magnetic field, cosmic rays & neutral gas.

Stars are held together by their own gravity in enormous clusters. These clusters
are called galaxies. Our own galaxy is called Milky Way and contains about 100
billion stars.

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Optical telescopes, radio telescopes and special cameras that are sensitive in
various electromagnetic spectrum and satellites equipped with various gadgets
have been used to observe the outer space.

National Space Research and Development Agency was established on 1st August
2001.

Chapter 19

PUBLIC HEALTH

Components of public health include;

I. Disease control/prevention
II. Mental and behavioral health
III. Environmental health
IV. Health care delivery
V. Supportive services

Disease control and prevention is aimed at the control of endemic, epidemic and
pandemic diseases. Endemic diseases are diseases that are always present in a
community such as malaria. Epidemic is a condition of sudden outbreak of
disease where many people are affected such as measles. Pandemic disease
sweeps through many continents such as AIDS.

Mental health is more than freedom from mental disease. The two types of
mental illness are neurosis (psychoneurosis) and psychosis.

Environmental health recognizes the influence of the human environment on

man’s health. The process of taming the environment so that it does not hazard
to man’s health is known as environmental sanitation.

Health care delivery includes maternal & child health, immunization.

Factors associated with maternal mortality are;

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1) Obstetric factors
a) Direct obstetric factors (factors associated with pregnancy complications)
b) Indirect obstetric factors (medical conditions aggravated by pregnancy)
2) Health service factors (poor quality health care provision)
3) Reproductive health factors
4) Socio-economic factors (eg poverty, malnutrition)
5) Cultural factors (eg superstitutions)
6) Poor transportation infrastructure

Possible preventive actions against maternal mortality include;

I. Prenatal screening care

II. Community education
III. Family planning
IV. Provision of improved facilities

Supportive services include school health services, health education, public

health nursing services, laboratory services and vital statistics.

Chapter 20

STRESS

Stress is your body’s way of responding to any kind of demand or threat.

According to Hans Seyle, stress is the rate of all wear and tear in life.

Stress is positive (eustress) when the situation offers an opportunity to a person

to gain something, but it is negative (distress) when a person faces social, physical
and emotional problems.

Factors that are responsible for causing stress are called stressors. Stressors can
be physical, psychological or socio-cultural.

The stages of stress (General Adaptation syndrome G.A.S) are as follows;

1. The alarm reaction stage

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 2. The stage of resistance (adaptation)
3. The stage of exhaustion

Stress can be managed by doing the following:

a) Engage socially
b) Physical exercises
c) Set aside relaxation time
d) Taking healthy diets

Ineffective stress management strategies include escape or leaving the situation,

psychological defence mechanism and drug abuse.

Chapter 21

AIDS

The Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is the most serious and deadly
sexually transmitted disease. The causative agent is the Human Immune
Deficiency Virus (HIV).

HIV infests cells of the immune system especially certain white blood cells and
scavenger cells in the tissues known as macrophages. It infests cells by binding
unto the CD4 (T4) lymphocyte, thus, gaining entry into the cells and destroying
them. Insufficient CD4 cells in the blood and body tissues reduce the efficient
functioning of the immune system, thus exposing the body to all sorts of infection
especially opportunistic infections like tuberculosis, pneumonia.

Stages of HIV infection are:

1. Acute stage: during this stage, HIV is not detectable (1 – 3 weeks after
infection)
2. Latency stage: this is a stage with symptoms but the infection is
detectable. (6 – 12 weeks after infection)
3. Clinical AIDS stage: this is the period from HIV infection to development of
full blown AIDS and ranges from 6 months to 7 years or more.

Mode of transmission of AIDS includes:

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 • Through sexual intercourse
• From infected blood
• From pregnant mother to child

Factors that encourage the spread of AIDS include:

1. Multiple sexual partners

2. Prostitution
3. Perverse sexual practices
4. Cultural practices
5. Use of contraceptives

Control of AIDS can be achieved through:

a) Avoidance of indiscriminate sexual relationships

b) Use of condoms
c) Promoting safe motherhood
d) Use of sterilized instruments
e) Screening of blood before transfusion
f) Avoidance of drug addiction
g) Stoppage of risky cultural practices
h) Effective health care system
i) AIDS education programme
j) Raising the socio-economic status of women

Chapter 22

NUTRITION AND HEALTH

Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and other
substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and
disease of an organism.

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Human nutrition refers to the provision of essential nutrients necessary to
support human life and health. Nutrients are the nourishing substances we obtain
from food.

For a nutrient to be regarded as an essential nutrient, it must have the following

characteristics;

1. A specific biological function of the nutrient must be identified.

2. It’s omission from the diet must lead to a decline in certain aspect of
human health.
3. If the omitted nutrient is restored before permanent damage occurs, those
aspects of human health hampered by it’s absence should be restored.

Classes and sources of nutrients are:

A. Carbohydrate: a macro-nutrient that provides a major source of energy to

the body and it is gotten from sugars and starches.

B. Lipids (Fats & Oils): a macro-nutrient that yields more energy than
carbohydrates.
C. Proteins: a macro-nutrient that repairs worn-out tissues and necessary for
growth.
D. Vitamins: there are thirteen (13) vitamins grouped into two. (i). Fat soluble
vitamins (vit A,D,E,K) (ii.) Water soluble vitamins.
E. Minerals: they are simple inorganic substances. There are about sixteen
(16) essential minerals. They are divided into major minerals and trace
minerals based on dietary needs.
F. Water: it exists chemically as H2O.

Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Physical health can be classified into
structural health and chemical health.

For questions, comments, requests and enquiries: contact 0815 463 6967 (Whatsapp)

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