CHAPTER 1:

HEAT TRANSFER
BFB 41003 BUILDING SERVICES
HEAT TRANSFER

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HOT AND HUMID COLD AND DRY

BODY ENVELOPE
BUILDINGS AND HEAT TRANSFER

■ The original purpose of a building is to provide shelter and to maintain a

comfortable or at least liveable internal temperature.
■ To feel comfortable in a thermal sense, a human has to be able to release a
well-defined amount of Heat. To maintain body temperature within a narrow
band, the heat produced by an occupant must be released to the indoor
environment. If too much heat is lost, room temperature should be increased
or warmer clothes be worn.
■ The heat transfer on the human skin, the indoor temperature and the heat
transfer through the building envelope are factors that influence thermal
comfort.
BUILDINGS AND HEAT TRANSFER
■ Understanding heat transfer is particularly important in buildings for:

i) determining the design of the building fabric,

ii) designing the passive and active systems necessary to deliver the
required thermal conditions for the minimum consumption of
resources.
BUILDINGS AND HEAT TRANSFER
■ Heat transfer is particularly important in buildings for determining the
design of the building fabric, and for designing the passive and active
systems necessary to deliver the required thermal conditions for the
minimum consumption of resources.
■ The heat transfer mechanisms of a building are similar to that of the body
(except evaporative skin cooling).
■ A building losses or gains heat by conduction, convection and radiation.
■ The amount of the heat transferred by each these mechanisms depends on
the construction of the building envelope (skin)
(how the walls, roof and ground level are built)
■ GENERAL THEORY

– THE FLOW OF HEAT : ENERGY TRANSFER BETWEEN 2

REGIONS DUE TO A DIFFERENCE IN TEMPERATURE
– HEAT TRANSFER: THE TRANSFER OF MOTION FROM A
MORE EXCITED GROUP OF MOLECULES TO LESS EXCITED
GROUP (FIG. 1)
i.e. FROM REGION OF HIGHER TEMPERATURE TO LOWER Fig. 1 Heat transfer on a
molecular level. When
TEMPERATURE hot, excited molecules
are blended with cool,
unexcited molecules;
– THE RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER DEPENDS ON : the result is a level of
molecular excitation
i. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (temperature)
between the two
ii. THE AREA PERPENDICULAR TO THE HEAT FLOW PATH (Fig 1) extremes
iii. THE RESISTANCE TO HEAT TRANSFER OF WHATEVER MEDIUM
SEPARATES THE TWO AREAS

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Very broadly, the mechanisms of heat transfer can be
described as:
■ Conduction
■ Convection
■ Radiation
Mode of heat transfer
Controlling Heat Transfer in Green
Buildings
■ Conduction
■ Conduction is the transfer of heat across a solid substance.
■ Every material has a specific conductivity (U-value) and resistance (the inverse of the U-
value, called the R-value). Insulation is made of materials with particularly high
resistance to conductive heat transfer (high R-values).
■ In climates with significant indoor/outdoor temperature differentials, it is important to
insulate the entire building envelope—roof, walls, and foundation. Although heated or
air conditioned buildings in any climate benefit from insulation, the greater the
indoor/outdoor temperature differential, the more insulation is needed.
Controlling Heat Transfer in Green
Buildings
■ Convection
■ Convection is the transfer of heat in a fluid or gas, such as in air. Green buildings achieve
natural ventilation by using convective forces, such as wind, and differences in humidity and
temperature.
■ Typically, we experience convection as unwanted heat loss. It is what we experience when
we feel a cold draft next to a leaky window or when a door is opened and cold air rushes in.
Methods of preventing convective heat transfer include:
• providing an air barrier; sealing gaps around windows, doors, electrical outlets, and other
openings in the building envelope providing air-lock entrances
• using heat recovery ventilators, which transfer 50%–80% of the heat from exhaust air to
intake air in cold climates, and vice versa in hot ones. They are an excellent way to ensure
adequate ventilation in a tightly sealed house, while maintaining high energy efficiency.
Controlling Heat Transfer in Green
Buildings
■ Radiation
■ Radiation is the transfer of heat from a warmer body to a cooler one (regardless of
position). The way to stop radiation heat transfer is by using reflective surfaces.
■ A reflective roof, for instance, can reduce solar heat gain through the roof by up to 40%.
Radiant barriers in attics or crawlspaces can also be used to reflect heat away from or back
into occupied spaces of a building. Using light pavement surfaces (or better yet, reducing
pavement as much as possible) will lower ambient air temperature around a building, thus
reducing the building’s cooling load.
■ High-performance window glazing often includes a thin film or films to reflect infrared light
(heat) either out of a building (in a hot climate) or back into a building (in a cold climate).
■ Passive solar design in cold climates usually involves allowing the sun’s radiation to enter a
building and be absorbed into thermal mass for re-release later.
CONDUCTION
CONDUCTION
■ Conduction is the diffusion of internal heat within a body as a result of a
temperature difference across it.
■ This is particularly important in buildings where there may be a
temperature difference between the inside and outside of a building. For
example in a cooled building during the hot day.
■ Conduction is one of the main potential heat transfer mechanisms by which
the internal heating or cooling can be lost to the outside, resulting in high
operating costs, high carbon emissions and occupant discomfort.
■ For building materials it is sometimes thought that conductivity is expressed
by the U-Value. However, U-Value are the reciprocal of the sum of the thermal
resistances of a body plus its inside and outside surface thermal
resistances.
■ Conductivity is more accurately expressed by a material's R-Value, which is
the reciprocal of its thermal resistance and does not include a surface
component.
CONDUCTION
■ Conduction can be inhibited by insulating materials which have a high
thermal resistance and so help reduce heat transfer between the inside and
outside.
■ An insulating effect can also be achieved by the thermal mass of building
components. Thermal mass describes the ability of a material to absorb,
store and release heat energy. Thermal mass can be used to even
out variations in internal and external conditions, absorbing heat as
temperatures rise and releasing it as they fall.
■ In building design, this can useful for evening-out and delaying extremes in
thermal conditions, stabilising the internal environment and so reducing the
demand for building services systems.
Conduction
■ Heat will tend to diffuse from higher temperature parts of a
body to lower temperature parts.
■ Simple conductive heat transfer (in watts) through a uniform
body can be calculated from Fourier's Law:

q = k A dT / s

where
A is the area of the body (m2)
k is the body's thermal conductivity (W/m°C)
dT is the temperature difference across the body (°C)
s is the body's thickness (m)
 DEFINITION AND TERMS: SI UNIT
Temperature C

Temperature interval Deg C

Heat J (joule)
Calorific value J/kg
Specific heat capacity J/kg deg C
Heat flow rate W (watt)
Density of heat flow rate W/m2
Conductivity (k-value) W/m deg C
Transmittance W/m2 deg C

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 1. Thermal conductivity (k):

 Amount of heat energy 2. Thermal resistivity (r):

conducted through unit area of • Reciprocal of conductivity.
unit thickness with unit
temperature difference between r = 1/k
the two faces.
 Watts per square meter of
surface area for temperature
difference of 1C per meter
thickness.

3. Thermal conductance (C): 4. Thermal resistance (R):

– This is the surface to surface
conductance of a material or
• This is resistivity (r) multiplied by
construction and is given as the number
of joules per second (watts) transmitted thickness (x).
through 1m2 of the material with 1C R = x/k
difference in surface temperatures.
– If thickness  then conductance .

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 Heat transfer coefficient.
a. Terms ending in ‘ANCE’ designate overall properties of a material and the
symbols used are capital letters.

– Conductance = C
– Resistance =R
– Transmittance = U

b. Terms ending in ‘IVITY’ refer to unit thickness (one meter) of a material and
the symbols used are lower case.

– Conductivity =k
– Resistivity =r

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■ CONDUCTION: HEAT TRANSFER FROM ONE PARTICLE TO ANOTHER IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH IT
(THROUGH SOLID MATERIALS)

■ CONDUCTOR (METALS) VS INSULATOR (WOOD, ASBESTOS, GASES AND CERAMICS)

■ THERMAL CONDUCTANCE : THE RATE OF HEAT FLOW THROUGH A UNIT AREA OF A BODY PER UNIT OF
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE

■ THE CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Q = C x A x (T1-T2)
where
Q : CONDUCTIVE HEAT TRANSFER (BTUH OR W)
C : MATERIAL CONDUCTANCE (BTU/HR.FT2.OF OR W/M2.OC)
A : SURFACE AREA (FT2 OR M2)
T1 : HIGHER TEMPERATURE (OF OR OC)
T2 : LOWER TEMPERATURE (OF OR OC)

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■ THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OR CONDUCTIVITY
: THE ABILITY OF A SUBSTANCE TO TRANSMIT HEAT BY CONDUCTION

C =
k
x
where

C : MATERIAL CONDUCTANCE (BTU/HR.FT2.OF OR W/M2.OC)

k : THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY (BTUH/FT.OF OR W./M.OC)
x : THICKNESS (IN OR CM)

■ THERMAL RESTIVITY (r)

r = 1 M.OC/W
k

■ THERMAL RESISTANCE (R)

1
R = M2.OC/W
C

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■ RESISTANCE (R) & RESISTIVITY (r) THE INSULATING QUALITY OF MATERIAL
■ CONDUCTANCE (C) & CONDUCTIVITY (k) THE ABILITY OF MATERIAL TO CONDUCT HEAT

■ THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN R, r, C AND k

1 1 k
C = = =
R rx x

1 x
R = = rx =
C k
■ NOTICE THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN CONDUCTANCE (C) AND CONDUCTIVITIY :
 k FOR SAND AND GRAVEL OR STONE AGGREGATE CONCRETE POURED IN PLACE
: 12 BTUH/FT2.OF
 THICKNESS OF THAT CONCRETE : 2 IN.
 SO, TOTAL CONDUCTANCE (C) : 6 BTUH/FT2.OF

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■ IN PRACTICE, THE RESISTANCE (R-VALUE) OF MATERIAL IS MOST COMMONLY USED

■ THE R-VALUE : THE NUMBER OF HOURS (OR SECONDS) REQUIRED FOR 1 BTU
(JOULE) TO PENETRATE 1 FT2 (OR M2) OF A MATERIAL FOR EACH DEGREE OF
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO SIDES

■ THE HIGHER THE R-VALUE, THE SLOWER (MORE HOURS REQUIRED FOR) THE HEAT
TRANSFER THROUGH A MATERIAL

■ TOTAL THERMAL RESISTANCE, WHEN HEAT FLOWS THROUGH A SERIES OF

SEVERAL MATERIALS

R = R1 + R2 + R3 +…
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 CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS RESISTANCE

FT2.F/BTUH M2.OC/WATT

R1 DRYWALL 0.450 0.079

Q Q
R2 6” FIBERGLASS BATT 19.000 3.346
Fig 2.6 hal 51 kng
R1 R2 R3 R4 R3 1” INSULATIVE SHEATHING 1.320 0.232

R4 WOOD SIDING 0.810 0.143

Section through a Typical Cavity Wall

TOTAL R-VALUE 21.580 3.800

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CONVECTION
 CONVECTION
■ DEFINITION
 : HEAT TRANSFER BEING CARRIED BY A LIQUID OR GAS (FLUID MOTION)
 COMBINATION OF CONDUCTION + FLUID FLOW

■ CONVECTION IS DIVIDED INTO :

 FORCED CONVECTION : WHEN THE FLUID MOTION IS CAUSED BY A FAN/PUMP

 NATURAL (FREE) CONVECTION: WHEN THE FLUID MOTION IS CAUSED BY TEMPERATURE

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE SOLID SURFACE AND THE FLUID IN CONTACT WITH IT

■ SURFACE CONDUCTANCE/FILM CONDUCTANCE/FILM

COEFFICIENT (f)

: THE TRANSFER OF HEAT FROM AIR TO SURFACE OR FROM SURFACE TO AIR

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Natural & Forced Convection
Heat transfer through a double-pane window

Heat convects from the warm airflow to the first

layer of glass, conducts through the glass,
convects from the first layer of glass to the
second layer, conducts through the glass, and then
convects into the air stream on the cool side.

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CONVECTION IN BUILDING
Convective air movement in buildings is very important to:
■ Help moderate internal temperatures.
■ Reduce the accumulation of moisture, odours and other gases that
can build up during occupied periods.
■ Improve the comfort of occupants.
Air movement in buildings can be 'forced' convection (for example driven
by fans), or 'natural' convection resulting from pressure differences
between one part of the building and another.
In winter, convective air currents in the attic continuously circulate because heat flow is upward causing the
warm light air to rise and cooler heavier air to drop.

In summer, heat flow is down. The lighter warmer air stays at the top of a sealed, unventilated attic and at the
ceiling of the rooms in the house.
CONVECTION IN BUILDING
Natural air movement can be either wind driven, or buoyancy driven.
■ Wind-driven air movement is caused by a difference in pressure
between the inside and outside of the building caused by wind.
■ Buoyancy-driven air movement is caused by the tendency for warm air
to expand, and so become less dense and more buoyant, rising
through the general air mass. Conversely cool air contracts, becoming
more dense and less buoyant and falling through the air mass. This
can create circulating currents of rising and falling air.
Wind Driven VS Buoyancy Driven
 CONVECTION IN BUILDING
■ Convection heat transfer in building results from the movement of air
of different temperatures and can be used to maintain internal
comfort, either through heat exchange between the air and the
internal surfaces of a building, or by heat exchange with sources of
heating or cooling, sometimes driven by fans.
■ Convection can be noticeable above hot radiators where warm air
rises, or next to window where there may be a cold downdraught.
These effects can be exploited at a larger scale in systems such as
displacement ventilation, ventilation and in passive building
design through effects such as the stack effect.
■ THE CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Q = f x A x (T1-T2)
where
Q : CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER (BTUH OR W)
f : FILM CONDUCTANCE/COEFFICIENT (BTU/HR.FT2.OF OR W/M2.OC)
A : SURFACE AREA (FT2 OR M2)
T1 : HIGHER TEMPERATURE (OF OR OC)
T2 : LOWER TEMPERATURE (OF OR OC)

■ THE RATE OF CONVECTION DEPENDS ON :

 THE SURFACE ROUGHNESS AND ORIENTATION
 THE DIRECTION OF FLOW
 THE TYPE OF FLUID
 WHETHER THE PROCESS IS FREE OR FORCED

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RADIATION
RADIATION
■ RADIATION: HEAT TRANSFER BY ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
(EXAMPLE : THE SUN’S RAYS AND THE HOT COALS OF A FIRE)
■ WHEN RADIANT ENERGY COMES IN CONTACT WITH AN OBJECT OR MEDIUM, IT CAN
BE:
 REFLECTED FROM THE SURFACE (ULTRAVIOLET RAYS TO GLASS)

 ABSORBED BY THE MATERIAL

 TRANSMITTED THROUGH

■ WHEN NO RADIANT ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED, THE MATERIAL IS SAID TO BE

OPAQUE
■ WHEN RADIANT ENERGY PASSES THROUGH, THE MATERIAL IS SAID TO BE
TRANSPARENT
■ GLASS AND OTHER INORGANIC CRYSTALS ARE TRANSPARENT TO VISIBLE LIGHT AND
TO RADIANT ENERGY FROM THE HOT SUN

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ALL RADIATION TRAVELS IN A STRAIGHT LINE AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT
(186,000 MILES/SEC), BUT AT DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS

THE SHORTER THE WAVELENGTH, THE HIGHER THE ENERGY CONTENT

Electromagnetic Radiation & Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radiation
The rate of heat flow
depends on the
temperatures of the emitting
and receiving surfaces
Radiation received can
partly be absorbed and
partly reflected
Radiation transported
through electromagnetic
waves
Not bound with materials
■ Thermal radiation is absorbed well by :
- Water, water vapour, glass, wood, brick, stone, concrete,
asphalt, copper,
■ Thermal radiation is reflected well by :
- Aluminium foil
HEAT EXCHANGE PROCESS
IN A BUILDING
RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER
OF BUILDING
Heat is frequently measured in British Thermal Units (BTU). One BTU is equal to the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. A single burning match gives off
approximately one BTU of heat.

■ THE TOTAL HEAT TRANSFER

Q = U x A x (T1-T2)

where

Q : TOTAL HEAT TRANSFER (BTUH OR W)

U : THERMAL TRANSMISSION (BTUH/FT2.OF OR W/M2.OC)
A : SURFACE AREA (FT2 OR M2)
T1 : HIGHER TEMPERATURE (OF OR OC)
T2 : LOWER TEMPERATURE (OF OR OC)

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Principles of U-value
■ U-value is a measure of the rate of heat transfer through a one-square-metre area of a
material for every temperature degree difference under a standardized condition. (The
usual standard is a temperature gradient of 24 °C, at 50% humidity with no wind.)

■ It is a factor for consideration in the design of buildings, and the choice of building
materials.

■ The lower the U-value, the lower the rate of heat transfer per unit area and the higher
its resistance to heat flow, which is desirable in building construction.
U-value

U-value with SI units of Wm-2K-1

■ Q = rate of heat transfer in Watt (W);
■ A = area of the material calculated in square metres m2;
■ TDeq = the equivalent temperature difference in Kelvin scale (K).

1
U=
RT -Total thermal resistance.

■ The higher the R, the lower the U, the better.

U-values of Common Construction Materials
U-value of a standard single glazed window = 5.7 Wm-2K-1
U-value of a double glazed window = 2.8 Wm-2K-1
*Low-E glass (E = thermal emissivity)

■ This tells us there is less heat transfer through a double glazed window than a single
glazing, i.e., double glazing has a significantly better insulation performance.
Average U-Values

When a wall is composed of different construction materials with

different U-value.

Overall insulation of the wall depends upon the relative areas of constructions;

A1U1  A2U2  .. ..AnUn

U (average) =
A1 A2 ..An
Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV)
■ It is a value that indicates the average rate
of heat transfer into a building through the
building envelope excluding the roof.
■ OTTV three major components include:
1. Heat conduction through walls
2. Heat conduction through window glass
3. Solar heat gain through window glass
Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV)
Concept of OTTV
■ The solar heat gain through the building envelope constitutes a substantial
share of cooling load in an air-conditioned building. In non air-conditioned
buildings, the solar heat gain causes thermal discomfort. To minimise solar
heat gain into a building is, therefore, a very important consideration in the
design of an energy efficient building.
■ A design criterion for building envelope known as the overall thermal transfer
value (OTTV) has been adopted.
■ The OTTV aims at achieving the design of building envelope to cut down
external heat gain and hence reduce the cooling load of the air-conditioning
system.
Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV)
■ MS 1525:2014 (Energy efficiency and use of renewable energy for non-residential
buildings - Code of practice (Second revision)
&
■ MS 2680:2017 (Energy efficiency and use of renewable energy for residential
buildings - Code of practice)
OTTV of the building envelope for a building, having a total air-conditioned area
exceeding 1000 m2 should not exceed 50 W/m2 and should meet the requirement
specified in clause 5.4.2
5.4.2 In order to take advantage of daylight harvesting, the visible light transmission of the
daylight fenestration system should not be less than 30 %
OTTV CALCULATION
OTTV CALCULATION
OTTV CALCULATION
OTTV CALCULATION
 HEAT
CONDUCTION
THROUGH
WALLS
Solar absorptivity of wall α
■ Solar absorptivity α is a multiplication constant to the equivalent
temperature difference
■ depending on the exterior surface and colour.
■ For example, the solar absorptivity of black concrete is 0.91 while that of
brown concrete is 0.85.
■ The heat transfer is higher for concrete of darker colour.

U Value (wall – Uw and window/fenstrian –Uf)

■ heat transfer coefficients or thermal transmittances
■ The lower the U-value of an element of a building's fabric, the more slowly
heat is able to transmit through it, and so the better it performs as an
insulator.
 HEAT
CONDUCTION
THROUGH
WINDOWS
194 x Correction Factor x Window to Wall
ratio x Shading Coefficient
SOLAR HEAT
GAIN
THROUGH
WINDOWS
Shading Coefficient of the glazing SC
■ The shading coefficient is the ratio of the solar heat gain through a particular type of
glass under a specific set of conditions to the solar heat gain through that of double
strength sheet clear glass under the same conditions.
■ The higher the shading coefficient is, the lower the shading performance of the glass.

Correction Factor CF
■ The solar factor is the hourly radiation per unit area for horizontal and vertical surfaces.
■ Energy simulation has calculated solar factors at various orientations.
Building Design and OTTV
The OTTV of a building is affected by the following factors:
• Building orientation (Temperature Difference)
• Material of walls and roof (U-value)
• External finish and colour of walls (Solar Absorptivity)
• Type of glass (Shading Coefficient)
• Shading of windows (External Shading Multiplier)
Sample OTTV Calculation
Calculate overall thermal transfer
value (OTTV) of the building.
Temperature outside the building is
32.5 ºC and the indoor temperature is
23 ºC. Assume that the four
elevations of the building are
identical, the wall is painted with
white paint and the windows using
6mm double-glazed glass. U- value of
the wall is 1.9 Wm-2C-1. U- value of
the window is 3.1 Wm-2C-1. Shading
coefficient SC, 0.3. Determine
whether this building follows the OTTV
standard in Malaysia (50 Wm-2) or
not
■ Façade area = 36m x 10m = 360m2
■ Glass area = glass wall + window = (10m x 4m) + 18 unit x (3m x 2m) = 148m2
■ Constant = 15
■ Solar absorption factor (white paint) = 0.15
■ Window to wall ratio = 148 / 360 = 0.411
■ 1 – WWR = 1 – 0.411
■ U value of the wall = 1.9 Wm-2C-1.
■ Heat conduction through wall = 15 x α x(1- WWR) x U
■ Each façade = OTTV x Area
■ Façade area = 36m x 10m = 360m2
■ Glass area = glass wall + window = (10m x 4m) + 18 unit x (3m x 2m) = 148m2
■ Constant = 6
■ Window to wall ratio (WWR) = 148 / 360 = 0.411
■ U value of the window = 3.1 Wm-2C-1
■ Heat conduction through window = 6 x WWR x U
■ Each façade = OTTV x Area
■ Façade area = 36m x 10m = 360m2
■ Glass area = glass wall + window = (10m x 4m) + 18 unit x (3m x 2m) = 148m2
■ Constant = 194
■ Window to wall ratio (WWR) = 148 / 360 = 0.411
■ SC = 0.3
■ CF based on orientation
■ OTTV = (total OTTV for all facades) / Total area of facades
Total OTTV = 34 W/ m2 < 50 W/ m2 (OK!)