Hidi & Renninger 2006 Interest Theory

Educational Psychologist
ISSN: 0046-1520 (Print) 1532-6985 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hedp20
The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development
Suzanne Hidi & K. Ann Renninger
To cite this article: Suzanne Hidi & K. Ann Renninger (2006) The Four-Phase Model of Interest
Development, Educational Psychologist, 41:2, 111-127, DOI: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4
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Published online: 08 Jun 2010.
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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 41(2), 111–127
Copyright © 2006, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
RENNINGER
INTEREST DEVELOPMENT
AND HIDI
The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development

Suzanne Hidi
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
University of Toronto
K. Ann Renninger
Department of Educational Studies
HIDI AND RENNINGER Swarthmore College
Building on and extending existing research, this article proposes a 4-phase model of interest
development. The model describes 4 phases in the development and deepening of learner inter-
est: triggered situational interest, maintained situational interest, emerging (less-developed) in-
dividual interest, and well-developed individual interest. Affective as well as cognitive factors
are considered. Educational implications of the proposed model are identified.
The level of a person’s interest has repeatedly been found to 2006). Such misconceptions are likely to owe their origin to
be a powerful influence on learning. Specifically, interest has vocational interest research that shows the stability of exist-
been found to influence: ing interests (cf. Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000). Findings
from the large-scale group surveys of vocational interest re-
• Attention (Ainley, Hidi, & Berndorff, 2002; Hidi, 1995; search can be misunderstood to suggest that if interest is not
Hidi, Renninger, & Krapp, 2004; McDaniel, Waddill, present, it cannot develop. Such studies simply record the
Finstad, & Bourg, 2000; Renninger & Wozniak, 1985; U. presence of interest; they do not address whether, how, and
Schiefele, 1998). why interests develop or how individual interest—a rela-
• Goals (Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter, & Elliot, tively enduring predisposition to reengage particular con-
2000; Harackiewicz & Durik, 2003; Pintrich & Zusho, 2002; tents over time—can be encouraged to develop. The desire to
Sansone & Smith, 2000; Senko & Harackiewicz, 2002). reengage content over time to problem solve and seek an-
• Levels of learning (Alexander, 1997; Alexander & swers to questions is a necessity for all students, if equal ac-
Murphy, 1998; Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, & Elliot, 2002; cess to learning is to be achieved.
Hoffmann, 2002; Koeller, Baumert, & Schnable, 2001; In this article, we propose a four-phase model of interest
Krapp & Fink, 1992; Renninger, 1989, 1990; Renninger, development and suggest its potential for supporting educa-
Ewen, & Lasher, 2002; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Sadoski, tional intervention. Interest is a psychological state that, in
2001; U. Schiefele, 1999; U. Schiefele & Krapp, 1996; later phases of development, is also a predisposition to
Schraw & Dennison, 1994; Wade, Buxton, & Kelly, 1999). reengage content that applies to in-school and out-of-school
learning and to young and old alike. Although we are not ad-
Even though interest has been recognized as an important dressing the physiological correlates of interest in this text,
condition for learning, educators continue to wrestle with the they are acknowledged. The Four-Phase Model of Interest
difficulties of working with academically unmotivated stu- Development builds on and extends empirical studies of in-
dents (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000). They do not have a clear terest and learning.1 In proposing this model, we draw on the
understanding of their potential role in helping students to ways in which researchers have measured interest and char-
develop interest. In fact, teachers often think that students ei- acterize their studies as describing early or late phases in the
ther have or do not have interest, and might not recognize that emergence of interest.
they could make a significant contribution to the develop- The model is described in full later in this article. Here,
ment of students’ academic interest (Lipstein & Renninger, basic characteristics of the four-phase model are overviewed
Correspondence should be addressed to K. Ann Renninger, Department

of Educational Studies, Swarthmore College, 500 College Avenue, 1It should be noted that this model extends and further details a
Swarthmore, PA 19081–1397. E-mail: krennin1@swarthmore.edu three-phase model of interest on which we collaborated with Krapp (2002).
112 HIDI AND RENNINGER
briefly. The first phase of interest development is a triggered supported by neuroscientific research (LeDoux, 2000a,
situational interest. If sustained, this first phase evolves into 2000b; Panksepp, 1998, 2003; Panksepp & Moskal, in press)
the second phase, a maintained situational interest. The third and distinct from cognitive evaluation approaches to motiva-
phase, which is characterized by an emerging (or less-well tion (Hidi, 2003; Hidi et al., 2004).3 Typically, the affective
developed) individual interest,2 may develop out of the sec- component of interest describes positive emotions accompa-
ond phase. The third phase of interest development can then nying engagement, whereas the cognitive component refers to
lead to the fourth phase, a well-developed individual interest. perceptual and representational activities related to engage-
Each phase of interest is characterized by varying ment. However, even though interest has a highly energizing
amounts of affect, knowledge, and value. The length and positive affective character, it can also be operative in many
character of a given phase is likely to be influenced by indi- affectivelynegative situations (Panksepp, 2003). In each of the
vidual experience, temperament, and genetic predisposi- four phases of interest, the roles of affect and cognition vary.
tion. The four phases are considered to be sequential and Second, both the affective and cognitive components of
distinct, and represent a form of cumulative, progressive de- interest have biological roots (Hidi, 2003). Neuroscientific
velopment in cases where interest is supported and sus- research on approach circuits in the brain (e.g., Davidson,
tained, either through the efforts of others or because of 2000) and on seeking behavior (e.g., Panksepp, 1998, 2000;
challenges or opportunity that a person sees in a task. How- Panksepp & Moskal, in press) indicate that interested activity
ever, without support from others, any phase of interest de- has a biological foundation in all mammals. Panksepp and
velopment can become dormant, regress to a previous his colleagues specifically argued that the seeking system is
phase, or disappear altogether (Renninger, 2000; Renninger an evolutionary and genetically ingrained emotional brain
& Hidi, 2002; Renninger, Sansone, & Smith, 2004). The system. It is a biological foundation of the psychological
proposed model (a) provides a description of how interest state of interest in the sense that the person is engaged physi-
can develop and deepen, (b) points to the need for research- cally, cognitively, or symbolically with the object of his or
ers to identify the phase of interest that they are investigat- her interest.
ing and the impact of their methods on the way in which Third, interest is the outcome of an interaction between a
they interpret and report their findings, and (c) suggests person and a particular content (Hidi & Baird, 1986; Krapp,
ways in which educators could support students to develop 2000; Renninger & Wozniak, 1985; H. Schiefele, Krapp,
interest for particular content. Prenzel, Heiland, & Kasten, 1983). The potential for interest
Before providing further detail about the proposed model, is in the person but the content and the environment define
we review background information on the conceptualization the direction of interest and contribute to its development.
and measurement of interest as a motivational variable. This Thus, other individuals, the organization of the environment,
review is based on articles, chapters, and books in the educa- and a person’s own efforts, such as self-regulation, can sup-
tional, cognitive, and social psychological literatures that port interest development (Renninger, 2000; Renninger &
have implications for understanding the dynamics of interest Hidi, 2002; Renninger et al., 2004; Sansone & Smith, 2000;
development; WebSpirs was used to identify relevant re- Sansone, Weir, Harpster, & Morgan, 1992; Schraw &
sources. Dennison, 1994). This means that interest is always content
specific and not a predisposition that applies across all activ-
ities (Krapp, 2000; Krapp & Fink, 1992; Renninger, 1989,
BACKGROUND 1990, 2000). Even those students who are highly motivated
to achieve generally have interest(s) only for a discrete set of
Interest as a motivational variable refers to the psychological specific content areas (Renninger et al., 2002). Moreover, if a
state of engaging or the predisposition to reengage with par- person has an emerging or a well-developed individual inter-
ticular classes of objects, events, or ideas over time. Here,
these classes of objects, events, or ideas are termed content.
There are at least three ways in which interest can be distin- 3Motivational theories that address learning are based on cognitive frame-
guished from other motivational variables. First, interest in- works that focus on thought, feelings, and belief (Meyer & Turner, 2002).
cludes both affective and cognitive components as separate but These theories describe affect and knowledge as outcomes, rather than media-
tors, of cognition. In achievement goal theory, for example, achievement goals
interacting systems (Hidi & Berndorff, 1998; Hidi &
are considered to influence affective reactions to engagement (Ames, 1992;
Harackiewicz, 2000; Hidi et al., 2004; Krapp, 2000, 2002; Dweck & Leggett, 1988). In self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1997;
Rathunde, 1998; Renninger, 1989, 1990, 2000), a position Zimmerman, 2000a, 2000b), an individual’s beliefs about his or her ability to
produce successful outcomes and attain identified goals have been described
as critical to increasing achievement motivation and performance. In task
2Elsewhere, emerging individual interest has been discussed and studied value theory (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992, 2002), student mo-
as less developed individual interest as compared to a well-developed indi- tivation is described as resulting from beliefs and expectations about activity.
vidual interest (Renninger, 2000). The label was changed to acknowledge In self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000),
that in terms of interest development, a less developed individual interest is a person’s ability to satisfy basic psychological needs is a function of his or her
an emerging individual interest. valued outcomes, or goals.
INTEREST DEVELOPMENT 113
est for content (e.g., facilitation), then related new content, stimuli (Renninger & Hidi, 2002; also see discussions in
opportunities, or challenge provides additional ideas and Bergin, 1999; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000).
could be said to trigger the psychological state of inter- Although the terms situational and individual interest
est—although the psychological state that is triggered would were first used to distinguish between the ways in which re-
be related to the developing predisposition (Renninger, searchers identified and measured interest (Hidi & Baird,
2000). 1986, 1988; Krapp et al., 1992; Renninger, 1990), this dis-
Two types of interest have been the primary focus of edu- tinction has since been verified empirically (e.g., Ainley et
cational research to date: situational and individual interest al., 2002; Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Mitchell, 1993;
(e.g., Alexander, Kulikowich, & Schulze, 1994; Hidi, 1990, Renninger & Hidi, 2002).
2000; Krapp, 2000; Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992; Situational interest has been shown to positively influence
Renninger, 1990, 2000; Schraw & Lehman, 2001).4 Situa- cognitive performance such as reading comprehension (Alex-
tional interest refers to focused attention and the affective re- ander & Jetton, 1996; Hidi, 1990; Hidi & Baird, 1988) and
action that is triggered in the moment by environmental stim- work with computers (Azevedo, 2004; Cordova & Lepper,
uli, which may or may not last over time (Hidi, 1990; Hidi & 1996; Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1997;
Baird, 1986), whereas individual interest refers to a person’s diSessa, 2000; Edelson & Joseph, 2004; Lepper & Cordova,
relatively enduring predisposition to reengage particular con- 1992). In addition, situational interest has been shown to nar-
tent over time as well as to the immediate psychological state row inferencing (McDaniel et al., 2000), focus attention (Hidi,
when this predisposition has been activated (Krapp & Fink, 1995; McDaniel et al., 2000), enable integration of informa-
1992; Renninger, 2000; Renninger & Wozniak, 1985). tion with prior knowledge (Kintsch, 1980), and enhance levels
When a person who picks up a magazine in a waiting of learning (Mitchell, 1993; Schraw, Bruning, & Svoboda,
room fixates on an article about which he or she knows very 1995; Schraw & Dennison, 1994; Wade, 1992; Wade & Ad-
little, his or her interest has been triggered by the situation. ams, 1990).
Situational interest is always motivating. It can be initiated Similarly, individual interest has been found to have a
by something in the environment such as the magazine in the positive impact on attention, recognition, and recall
waiting room, a text about baseball that a teacher gives a (Renninger & Wozniak, 1985); persistence and effort (Krapp
child (Bergin, 1999), or mathematics software that students & Lewalter, 2001; Prenzel, 1992; Renninger & Hidi, 2002;
with little interest for mathematics are willing to explore Renninger & Leckrone, 1991); academic motivation (Ainley,
(Renninger et al., 2004). However, individuals also may re- 1998; Alexander & Murphy, 1998; Harackiewicz & Durik,
spond to the affordances of the environment due to a genetic 2003; U. Schiefele, 2001); and levels of learning (Renninger
predisposition (Carson, 2002) or prior experience. For exam- et al., 2002; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; U. Schiefele, 1999; U.
ple, a child with an ear for music may rivet to the opportunity Schiefele & Krapp, 1996). In addition, the positive affect as-
to learn how to play a piano (Suzuki, 1983). Similarly, a per- sociated with the levels of interest generated from both situa-
son with a background in mathematics can become interested tional and individual factors has been found to contribute to
in technology because it allows an enhanced pursuit of math- cognitive performance (Ainley et al., 2002; Krapp, 2002b).
ematical questions (Renninger & Shumar, 2002, 2004).
If the person who picks up the magazine recognizes the
relevance of the article to a topic that he or she has been try- THE DEVELOPMENT AND DEEPENING OF
ing to understand for some time and feels a surge of excite- INTEREST: THE FOUR-PHASE MODEL OF
ment, this person can also be said to have an individual inter- INTEREST DEVELOPMENT
est for that topic. Like situational interest, individual interest
is always motivating; it builds on what a person perceives, Both situational interest and individual interest have been
cognitively represents to oneself, and considers as possibili- described as consisting of two phases. In situational inter-
ties for activity (Renninger, 1990, 2000). As such, individual est, these involve a phase in which interest is triggered and
interest is internally driven, although not exclusively so. A a subsequent phase in which interest is maintained (Bergin,
person with an individual interest can also experience situa- 1999; Harackiewicz et al., 2000; Hidi, 2000; Hidi & Baird,
tional interest given appropriate levels of environmental 1986; Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000; Mitchell, 1993). In indi-
vidual interest, the two phases include an emerging individ-
ual interest and well-developed individual interest
4A number of additional terms have also been used in the interest liter- (Renninger, 2000). The proposed four-phase model inte-
ature; for example, topic interest, intrinsic interest, and personal interest grates these conceptualizations.
(see discussions in Hidi, 2000; Renninger 2000). Although the labels are The four-phase model of interest development describes
different, an emphasis on a particular relation between affect and cognition phases of situational and individual interest in terms of both
characterizes each term, and each one can be understood in terms of situa-
tional or individual interest. For purposes of this article, review of the in-
affective and cognitive processes. It also identifies situational
terest literature that includes these additional terms is mapped to situa- interest as providing a basis for an emerging individual inter-
tional or individual interest. est. Building on the work of researchers who have suggested
that situational interest supports the development of individ- White, 1989; Hidi & Baird, 1986, 1988; Renninger & Hidi,
ual interest (e.g., Alexander, 1997, 2004; Alexander & 2002; Sadoski, 2001).
Jetton, 1996; Hidi & Anderson, 1992; Hidi & Berndorff, 2. Triggered situational interest is typically, but not ex-
1998; Krapp, 2002b; Renninger, 2000; Renninger & Hidi, clusively, externally supported (Bloom, 1985; Sloboda,
2002; Schraw & Lehman, 2001; Silvia, 2001), the four-phase 1990; Sosniak, 1990).
model describes early phases of interest development as pri- 3. Instructional conditions or learning environments that
marily consisting of focused attention and positive feelings. include group work, puzzles, computers, and so on have been
As such, it provides a rationale for identifying early phases of found to trigger situational interest (Cordova & Lepper,
interest development in terms of affect or liking. In contrast, 1996; Hidi & Baird, 1988; Hidi, Weiss, Berndorff, & Nolan,
because the later phases consist of positive feelings as well as 1998; Lepper & Cordova, 1992; Mitchell, 1993; Sloboda &
both stored value and knowledge, it is suggested that interest Davidson, 1995).
in these phases should be assessed by indicators of stored 4. Triggered situational interest may be a precursor to the
knowledge and repeated engagement, in addition to positive predisposition to reengage particular content over time as in
feelings (Renninger, 1989, 1990, 1998b). more developed phases of interest (Renninger & Hidi, 2002;
Importantly, differing levels of effort, self-efficacy, goal Renninger et al., 2004).
setting, and ability to self-regulate behavior have been found
to characterize each phase of interest, and changes in these
Phase 2: Maintained Situational Interest
variables occur when interest develops or recedes (Lipstein &
Renninger, in press; Renninger & Hidi, 2002). As Lipstein and Maintained situational interest refers to a psychological state
Renninger (2006) reported, the portrait of students who only of interest that is subsequent to a triggered state, involves fo-
have a triggered situational interest for writing indicates that cused attention and persistence over an extended episode in
they feel like they expend a lot of effort even if they have time, and/or reoccurs and again persists:
worked only a short amount of time. They also have little
self-efficacyabout their abilities to write, a discrete set of goals 1. Situational interest is held and sustained through
for themselves as writers as they simply want to get assigned meaningfulness of tasks and/or personal involvement
writing tasks done, and may be scaffolded by the presence of a (Harackiewicz et al., 2000; Mitchell, 1993).
topic of interest to persevere to write. This portrait varies from 2. A maintained situational interest is typically, but not
those of students in other phases of interest. For example, the exclusively, externally supported (Renninger & Hidi, 2002;
students with an emerging individual interest also feel as Sansone & Morgan, 1992; Sansone et al., 1992; Schraw &
though they expend a lot of effort but they also spend a lot of Dennison, 1994; Wolters, 1998).
time working on their writing. They have a high level of 3. Instructional conditions or learning environments pro-
self-efficacy about their abilities to write, have ambitious vide meaningful and personally involving activities, such as
goals for themselves as writers, and also find themselves project-based learning, cooperative group work, and
scaffolded by the presence of a topic of interest. one-on-one tutoring, can contribute to the maintenance of
A review of the existing empirical literature suggests the situational interest (Hidi et al., 1998; Hoffmann, 2002;
following as characteristics of each of the four phases of in- Mitchell, 1993; Renninger et al., 2004; Schraw & Dennison,
terest development. First, we define the phase. This is fol- 1994; Sloboda & Davidson, 1995).
lowed by description, information about the type of support 4. A maintained situational interest may or may not be a
that a person in this phase of interest typically needs, the way precursor to the development of a predisposition to reengage
in which educational or instructional conditions might con- particular content over time as in more developed forms of
tribute to the development of interest, and the developmental interest (Harackiewicz et al., 2000; Hidi & Baird, 1988;
progression related to this phase of development. Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Mitchell, 1993).
Phase 1: Triggered Situational Interest Phase 3: Emerging Individual Interest

Triggered situational interest refers to a psychological state Emerging individual interest refers to a psychological state
of interest that results from short-term changes in affective of interest as well as to the beginning phases of a relatively
and cognitive processing (Hidi & Baird, 1986, 1988; Mitch- enduring predisposition to seek repeated reengagement with
ell, 1993): particular classes of content over time:
1. Triggered situational interest can be sparked by envi- 1. Emerging individual interest is characterized by posi-
ronmental or text features such as incongruous, surprising in- tive feelings, stored knowledge, and stored value (Bloom,
formation; character identification or personal relevance; and 1985; Renninger, 1989, 1990, 2000; Renninger & Wozniak,
intensity (Anderson, Shirey, Wilson, & Fielding, 1987; Gar- 1985). Based on previous engagement, the student values the
ner, Brown, Sanders, & Menke, 1992; Garner, Gillingham, & opportunity to reengage tasks related to his or her emerging
individual interest and will opt to do these if given a choice 2000; Renninger et al., 2002; Renninger & Wozniak, 1985).
(Bloom, 1985; Flowerday & Schraw, 2003; Katz, Based on previous engagement, the student values the oppor-
Kanat-Maymon, & Assor, 2003; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; tunity to reengage tasks for which he or she has a well-devel-
Renninger & Shumar, 2002). The student begins to regularly oped individual interest and will opt to pursue these if given a
generate his or her own “curiosity” questions about the con- choice (Renninger, 1989, 1990; Renninger & Hidi, 2002;
tent of an emerging individual interest (Renninger, 1990; Renninger & Leckrone, 1991; Renninger et al., 2004). A
Renninger & Shumar, 2002). As an outcome of such curios- well-developed individual interest may result in a student
ity questions or self-set challenges, students may redefine generating and seeking answers to curiosity questions
and exceed task demands in their work with an emerging in- (Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2002).5 The
dividual interest (Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Renninger, student is likely to be resourceful when conditions do not im-
Boone, Luft, & Alejandre, in press; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; mediately allow a question concerning a well-developed in-
Renninger et al., 2004). The student is likely to be resource- dividual interest to be answered (Renninger & Hidi, 2002;
ful when conditions do not immediately allow a question Renninger & Shumar, 2002). A well-developed individual
about content of emerging individual interest to be answered interest enables a person to anticipate subsequent steps in
(Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; processing work with content (Renninger & Hidi, 2002).
Renninger & Shumar, 2002). An emerging individual inter- Well-developed individual interest produces effort that feels
est can enable a person to anticipate subsequent steps in pro- effortless (Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Renninger & Hidi,
cessing work with content (Renninger & Hidi, 2002) and 2002; Renninger et al., 2004). A well-developed individual
produce effort that feels effortless (Lipstein & Renninger, interest enables a person to sustain long-term constructive
2006; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Renninger et al., 2004). and creative endeavors (Izard & Ackerman, 2000; Tomkins,
2. An emerging individual interest is typically but not ex- 1962) and generates more types and deeper levels of strate-
clusively self-generated (Cobb, 2004; Nolan, 2006; gies for work with tasks (Alexander & Murphy, 1998;
Renninger & Shumar, 2004; Sosniak, 1990). An emerging Renninger, 1990; U. Schiefele & Krapp, 1996). A well-de-
individual interest requires some external support, in the veloped individual interest leads a student to consider both
form of models or others such as peers, experts, and so on; the context and content of a task in the process of problem so-
such support can contribute to increased understanding lution or passage comprehension (Renninger et al., 2002).
(Heath & Roach, 1999; Krapp & Lewalter, 2001; Renninger, Well-developed individual interest promotes self-regulation
2000; Renninger et al., in press) and be presented in the form (Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Renninger et al., 2004;
of tasks or environments that challenge and provide opportu- Sansone & Smith, 2000).
nity (Nolan, 2006; Pressick-Kilborn & Walker, 2002; 2. A well-developed individual interest is typically but not
Renninger, 2000; Renninger & Shumar, 2002, 2004). A exclusively self-generated (Bloom, 1985; Nolan, 2006;
learner with emerging individual interest also may need en- Pressick-Kilborn & Walker, 2002; Renninger et al., 2002;
couragement from others to persevere when confronted with Renninger et al., 2004; Renninger & Shumar, 2004; Sloboda,
difficulty (Bloom, 1985; Carey, Kleiner, Porch, Farris, & 1990). Well-developed individual interest may also benefit
Burns, 2002; Renninger & Shumar, 2002; Sosniak, 1990). from external support; support in the form of models or others
3. Instructional conditions or the learning environment such as peers, experts, and so on also can contribute to in-
can enable the development of an emerging individual inter- creased understanding (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, &
est (Hannover, 1998; Hoffmann, 2002; Krapp & Lewalter, Whalen, 1993; Renninger, 2000). A learner with well-devel-
2001; Lipstein & Renninger, 2006; Pressick-Kilborn & oped individual interest will persevere to work, or address a
Walker, 2002; Renninger et al., 2004; Renninger & Shumar, question, even in the face of frustration (Fink, 1998; Prenzel,
2002, 2004). 1992; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Renninger & Leckrone, 1991).
4. An emerging individual interest may or may not lead to 3. Instructional conditions or the learning environment
well-developed individual interest (Bloom, 1985; Lipstein & can facilitate the development and deepening of well-devel-
Renninger, 2006; Sloboda, 1990). oped individual interest by providing opportunities that in-
clude interaction and challenge that leads to knowledge
building (Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Renninger & Shumar,
Phase 4: Well-Developed Individual Interest
2002; Sloboda, 1990).
Well-developed individual interest refers to the psychological
state of interest as well as to a relatively enduring predisposi- Considered sequentially and from a developmental per-
tion to reengage with particular classes of content over time: spective, the characteristics of each phase of interest may be
considered mediators of subsequent development and the
1. A well-developed individual interest is characterized
by positive feelings, and more stored knowledge and more 5Curiosity questions refer to the type of verbal or nonverbal questioning
stored value for particular content than for other activity in- that a learner generates in the process of organizing and accommodating new
cluding emerging individual interest (Renninger, 1989, 1990, information (Renninger, 2000; see also Lindfors, 1987).
deepening of interest as well as outcomes of previous devel- gotiations in which facilitators engage and that she might en-
opment. Most of the research on interest to date has been de- joy this type of work. It should be noted that although in the
scriptive. Only a few studies have been conducted that have example of Julia, the topic of facilitation is self-relevant, this
addressed the development of interest over time (e.g., Fink, aspect of a topic or content is not a necessary condition for in-
1998; Gisbert, 1998; Krapp & Fink, 1992; Krapp & Lewalter, terest development. Instead, Julia might have found an article
2001; Renninger & Leckrone, 1991), or provide evidence of about dinosaurs, become interested in the topic, and through
causal relationships among phases of interest. Mitchell continued engagement, developed an individual interest for
(1993), for example, demonstrated that although group work, dinosaurs.
puzzles, and computers would trigger adolescent students’ The article she found about facilitation, and the sense of
interest in math, only personal involvement and the possibilityit suggested, maintained Julia’s situational interest.
meaningfulness of tasks maintain their interest over time.
Harackiewicz et al. (2000) further demonstrated that factors Once she returns to reading the article, Julia makes
that maintained college student interest were better predic- notes and decides to follow up on what she has read.
tors of continuing interest than were factors that only trig- She makes plans to go to the library, search the
gered their interest. More recently, Harackiewicz et al. Internet, and talk to her advisor about her options.
(2002) replicated these findings and distinguished interest
from students’ goals and performance. Further work that es- Even though she had little, if any, knowledge about facilita-
tablishes the predictive validity of the proposed four phases tion prior to reading the article, she did have knowledge of
of interest development and examines the relations among related information such as different types of jobs that in-
them is the next needed step for interest research. volve helping people, including helping others settle their
differences. It is likely that this type of related information
(Pressik-Kilbourn & Walker, 2002; Renninger & Shumar,
Case Illustration
2002) combined with the concreteness of the content
The following case illustration provides an example of how (Sadoski, 2001) initially triggered her interest and rendered
the four phases of interest development appear to be linked: the article accessible, despite Julia’s lack of background
knowledge on the topic. It is also likely that it was this
Julia is in her last term of college. While nervously combination of related prior knowledge and text character-
waiting for a medical appointment, she picks up and istics that enabled her to sustain her situational interest for
flips through a magazine. Her attention is drawn to an the content of the article (Harackiewicz et al., 2000; Mitch-
article about a man who is an engineer and who re- ell, 1993).
cently gave up his partnership in a successful consult- Certainly, as Julia gained more knowledge and repeatedly
ing practice to become a facilitator. A facilitator is a sought out opportunities to reengage with ideas about facili-
person who tries to help people or groups resolve con- tation, her sense of possibility was confirmed. She continued
flicts before they go to litigation. Julia likes the idea of to hold positive feelings, and her valuing of the facilitator
working with people and wants to read more even role increased. Julia’s efforts to find more information about
though she has never heard of the occupation of facili- this type of job and her identification with its possibility sug-
tator before now. Meanwhile, she is called to meet the gest that through repeated engagement or magnification, as
doctor. She carefully marks the page she is reading and referred to by Silvia (2001), an individual interest for facilita-
leaves the magazine on the table. Following her ap- tion was emerging.
pointment, she goes back to the table, finds the maga- Given repeated engagement over time, it is likely that
zine, and sits down to finish reading the article. Julia’s interest for facilitation could evolve into a well-de-
veloped interest. A well-developed interest would be char-
Julia’s case is an illustration of triggered and maintained acterized by her continued effort to learn about facilitation,
situational interest. Her situational interest was triggered by positive feelings about facilitation, and increased valuing
encountering the presence of a new concept—facilitation. It for the concept relative to the other content with which she
was maintained through her desire to seek more information is involved (Renninger, 2000). In fact, it could be expected
from the article and her ability to identify with the sense of that she would persevere to think about and pursue a career
possibility that facilitation could represent (Alexander, 2004; in facilitation despite confusing or negative experiences
Hannover, 1998; Krapp, 2002b; Markus & Nurius, 1986). (Ainley, 2002; Prenzel, 1992; Renninger, 2000; Renninger
Julia wanted to learn more about facilitation. Although previ- & Hidi, 2002).
ously she did not consider the possibility of becoming a facil- The case of John provides a contrast to that of Julia.
itator, Julia concluded that maybe she could do this type of
job after reading a portion of the article, or that maybe she A few days later, John, another student who is also
could recommend the job to others. Presumably, Julia recog- waiting to see a doctor, picks up the same magazine.
nized that she had qualities that are critical to the type of ne- He flips through the pages, stopping at the same article,
and reads intently until he hears his name called. In What Would Disprove the Four-Phase Model
contrast to Julia, however, John does not finish the arti- of Interest Development?
cle. Once John is called in to meet with the doctor, his
In this section of this article, three potential challenges to
reading is interrupted, and his triggered situational in-
the validity of the model are identified and addressed: Can in-
terest for the article ceases. John, like Julia, picked up
dividual interest develop without situational interest? Can
the magazine and initially felt some curiosity about
well-developed individual interest deepen or broaden with-
what a facilitator might do. Because he exerted no ef-
out continued engagement or support? Can instances of
fort to learn more about facilitation or to finish reading
well-developed interest be identified in people without sub-
the article after meeting with the doctor, in his situation
stantial related knowledge?
the triggered situational interest is not maintained.
First, if individual interest can be shown to develop with-
out any prior triggering and maintenance of situational inter-
As these examples demonstrate, once situational interest has
est, this would disconfirm the sequential relation among the
been elicited, it can last for short or long periods of time. If an
four phases of interest development. As the preceding discus-
interest is maintained over time through repeated engage-
sion suggests, available research data indicate that a person
ments and a person begins to identify with the content in
needs to be exposed to or to have some minimal level of
question (Hannover, 1998; Jetton & Alexander, 2001), he or
knowledge of a content area for interest to be triggered. Even
she can be described as having an emerging individual inter-
if one has a genetic predisposition for a particular activity, he
est. Julia’s interest, for example, was triggered, and she be-
or she needs to have models, instruction, and opportunity rel-
came resourceful about finding information and seeking sup-
evant to that activity for interest to be triggered and to de-
port for learning more about facilitation.
velop. There are no data suggesting that individual interest
However, as illustrated by the cases of Julia and John,
emerges without first being experienced as a situational in-
only some situational interests develop into individual inter-
terest.6
ests, and only some individual interests become well devel-
Second, if well-developed individual interest for a par-
oped. Moreover, it is important to acknowledge that although
ticular content were to continue to deepen or broaden de-
situational interest represents the initial phases of the devel-
spite lack of repeated engagement, then the need for contin-
opment of individual interest, there are multiple possibilities
uous exposure or support to sustain and deepen interest
for the person with an existing individual interest to experi-
would be disconfirmed. Strong evidence exists that engage-
ence related situational interests (Bergin, 1999; Renninger &
ment and support sustains and deepens interest for content
Hidi, 2002; Renninger & Shumar, 2002).
(e.g., Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; Renninger, 2000;
The likelihood that Julia would develop a well-devel-
Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Renninger et al., 2004). At this
oped interest for facilitation and that John would not, is sig-
point, there is no evidence that continued and deepened in-
naled by Julia’s return to the article following the interview
terest occurs without continued engagement or support.
and John’s departure (Renninger, 1989, 1990; Renninger &
Julia’s interest cannot continue to deepen or broaden if she
Leckrone, 1991). At that point in time, Julia could have
does not find further information about facilitation online,
simply left the office, as John did. However, the interest
in the library, or through talking with others. In fact, her in-
that was triggered by the new information (the article about
terest would be likely to wane or become dormant
facilitation) was maintained and she wanted to finish read-
(Renninger, 2000). An essential component of the
ing the article (Dewey, 1913; Hidi & Baird, 1986; Mitchell,
four-phase model is that support and opportunities to pur-
1993). As Julia gathered more information about facilita-
sue interest-related questions are necessary for each phase
tion, her positive affect was sustained, and her knowledge
of interest. Without these, regression to a previous phase of
continued to develop. It is possible that she reflected on fa-
interest can be expected to occur.
cilitation in terms of its utility as a source of a job
Third, if instances of well-developed interest could be iden-
(Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992, 2002), which
tified in people without substantial related knowledge, this
may have further supported her positive feelings and added
would disconfirm that individual interest includes a knowl-
to its value (Eccles et al., 1983). It is also possible that her
edge component. To date, there is no evidence that suggests
situational interest for facilitation was maintained by her
that this situation exists. Although Alexander, Jetton, and
identification with the details of what facilitators do
Kulikowich (1995) assessed interest and knowledge as dis-
(Hannover, 1998), her feelings of self-efficacy (Bandura,
tinct variables, their findings—which confirm that levels of in-
1977; Zimmerman, 2000a, 2000b), and her sense of possi-
dividual interest and domain knowledge are highly corre-
bility (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Julia’s search for addi-
tional information and her self-regulation of her own activ-
ity suggest that she had begun to develop a formative 6This is not to say, however, that individual interest, once developed,
relation with facilitation (Boekaerts & Niemivirta, 2000; cannot exist without situational interest being present. For example, individ-
Sansone & Smith, 2000). This type of relation characterizes ual interest for a topic can help students persevere through boring presenta-
individual interest. tions or texts (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000).
lated—provide support for a four-phase model of interest de- 4. It is possible for a person to have expertise without also
velopment. having a well-developed individual interest for a subject mat-
ter (e.g., an x-ray technician).
What Have Been Alternate Approaches to In the MDL, the relation of affect and cognition is consid-
Interest Development? ered to be distinct across each of three identified stages of ex-
Among the few alternate approaches to interest develop- pertise development: acclimation, competence, and profi-
ment, the most cohesive presentations are the model of domain ciency or expertise. However, The Four-Phase Model of
learning (Alexander, 1997, 2004), person–object theory of in- Interest Development describes interest as having both cog-
terest (Krapp, 1999, 2002a, 2002b; H. Schiefele et al., 1983), nitive and affective components across all stages. The devel-
and the psychology of constructive capriciousness (Silvia, opment of the four-phase model was informed by existing
2001). The four-phase model of interest development builds differences between the models regarding the roles of affect
on aspects of these approaches. It also differs from each. and cognition. Of particular note is the distinction drawn in
the MDL between knowledge and interest. Early work of Al-
exander and her colleagues had identified interest in terms of
Model of domain learning. Alexander’s (1997, 2004) affect and measured interest in terms of liking (Alexander et
model of domain learning (MDL) describes interest develop- al., 1995; Alexander et al., 1994). This work maps onto the
ment in relation to a person’s developing expertise in aca- early phases of the four-phase model of interest develop-
demic domains. Interest is discussed as paralleling strategy ment. As Alexander (2004) pointed out, she and her col-
development and processing and knowledge acquisition. leagues recently have begun to use liking as well as partici-
Also, it is discussed as serving to “spark further exploration pant activities with content to make distinctions between
or maintain learner investment when subsequent difficulties type of interest. This development in her work has parallels to
are encountered” (Alexander, 2004, p. 289). Like the the distinction between maintained and emerging individual
four-phase model, both situational and individual interests interest in the four-phase model.
are included in discussions of the role of interest in the MDL.
In addition, the MDL considers situational interest to precede Person–object theory. The person–object theory of
the development of individual interest and to have more sig- interest (POI) grew out of discussions among German educa-
nificance in early phases of domain learning (Alexander, tional psychologists in the mid-1970s. Initially, POI focused
1997). However, unlike the four-phase model, once individ- on individual interest that emerged in the interaction of the
ual interest is developed, situational interest does not cooccur environment and the person, and its implications for peda-
with individual interest. gogy (Krapp & Fink, 1992; Prenzel, 1988, 1992; H.
As a model of expertise development, the MDL focuses Schiefele et al., 1983). More recently, POI has been dis-
on the development of domain-specific expertise. Alexander cussed in terms of cognitive evaluation, specifically the
(2004) suggested that most students can move from acclima- self-determination theory of Deci and Ryan (cf. Krapp,
tion to competence in a domain; however, she also suggested 2002a, 2002b, 2005; Krapp & Lewalter, 2001).
that K–12 teachers cannot expect to support students in de- Three aspects of POI are also central to the four-phase
veloping expertise, due to their age and phase of instruction. model of interest development. These include the views that
The MDL specifies stages of individual expertise develop- interest is (a) a specific person–object relationship, (b) con-
ment (and of concurrent interest development). Alexander tent specific rather than general, and (c) associated with posi-
suggested that the final stage of expertise is only reached af- tive emotions. A recent POI claim that interest is composed
ter high school and that the stages of the MDL are sequential of value-related and feeling-related valences that define and
and irreversible. If a person is an expert, then he or she has an characterize interest (Krapp, 2002a, 2002b; Schiefele &
individual interest for the subject matter domain. Krapp, 1996; U. Schiefele, 1992, 1996, 1999) differs from
This set of propositions differs from The Four-Phase findings that inform the four-phase model. In the four-phase
Model of Interest Development, which makes several dis- model affect is identified as an integral part of interest en-
tinctions: gagement; together with knowledge, it is considered to in-
form valuing. Moreover, both affective and cognitive factors
1. Interest exists in the interaction between the person are considered to inform each phase of interest development
and his or her environment (e.g., the subject matter to be (Ainley et al., 2002; Renninger, 1989, 1990, 2000).
learned). Although earlier and later work on the POI included knowl-
2. Even young children can be identified as having indi- edge factors (comparatively differentiated cognitive schemata
vidual interest. of the object of interest), in subsequent related papers, the use
3. Phases of interest development are subject to reversals of knowledge factors in defining and characterizing interest
if there is no opportunity for repeated engagement or support has been questioned. For example, Krapp (2000) suggested
for this interaction is not present. that using differentiated knowledge structures (high vs. low
levels of stored knowledge) to define interest raised serious Silvia’s conceptualization of interest parallels that of situ-
theoretical and methodological problems. U. Schiefele (1996) ational interest. His definition of interests parallels the con-
and Krapp (1999, 2000) further suggested that the cognitive ceptualization of well-developed individual interest. Further-
aspect of interest might only be an appropriate identifier of the more, his discussion of interests developing from interest is
interest of young children whose knowledge acquisition is similar to earlier discussions of situational interest develop-
mainly determined by interest. In the four-phase model, differing into individual interest (Hidi & Anderson, 1992; Hidi &
entiated knowledge structures are a criterion of interest devel- Baird, 1986; Schraw & Lehman, 2001). Likewise, his discus-
opment in all individuals regardless of age. The four-phase sion of the role of repeated experience as a basis of interest
model suggests, for example, that university students who development is consistent with educational interest research
share an interest for psychology, as studied by U. Schiefele and (e.g., Alexander, 1997; Dewey, 1913; Krapp, 2000; Krapp &
Krapp (1996), could differ in their knowledge about psychol- Fink, 1992; Krapp et al., 1992; Prenzel, 1992; Renninger,
ogy at the onset of a course, suggesting that a sample of stu- 1989, 1990; H. Schiefele et al., 1983).
dents whose interest was only identified based on liking might However, Silvia’s notion of both interest and interests is
have very different knowledge bases. In support of this posi- that they reside in the individual rather than in the interaction
tion, differing levels of stored knowledge and stored value of the individual and his or her environment. This contrasts
have been found to impact individual interest on comprehen- with the premises of the four-phase model in which interest is
sion (Renninger et al., 2002). conceptualized as a psychological state or as a predisposition
The three basic psychological needs identified by Deci that emerges from, and is sustained through, interaction (Hidi
and Ryan (2000; see also Ryan & Deci, 2000) have been as- et al., 2004; Krapp et al., 1992). The interactive perspective
sociated with the conceptualization of interest in POI (cf. of the four-phase model of interest development allows spec-
Krapp, 2002a, 2002b). These include feelings of compe- ification and fine-tuning of conditions that support interest
tence, autonomy, and social-relatedness, and they are de- development and identification of those that do not. Silva’s
scribed as essential to interest development. Krapp (2002a, model is also distinct from the four-phase model because it
2002b, 2003) suggested that the predisposition to reengage a does not specify phases of interest development and it fo-
particular content of interest will only be realized if a person cuses on positive affect as a source of interest without ad-
satisfies these needs. In the four-phase model, feelings of dressing the role of negative affect. In addition, it does not ad-
competence, autonomy, and social-relatedness also are con- dress the possibility of either arrested development or
sidered to support students’ developing and deepening inter- regression from later to earlier phases of interest.
est (see Renninger & Shumar, 2002). However, rather than In the next sections of this article, the role of affect and
considering interest to be an outcome of the cognitive real- cognition in the four-phase model of interest development is
ization of these three basic psychological needs, the relation further considered. Following this, the implications of the
between a developing or deepening interest and competence, four-phase model for how educators might support the devel-
autonomy, and social relatedness is considered to be recipro- opment of student interest are discussed.
cal (Hidi, 2000). Thus, for example, engaging content of in-
terest may contribute to an increased sense of competence
and autonomy. Moreover, although competence, autonomy, RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS:
and social relatedness contribute to positive affect, from a de- ISSUES OF AFFECT AND COGNITION
velopmental perspective, they are not the only determinants
of interest development. In summary, each phase of the four-phase model of interest de-
velopment is characterized by affect and each phase also in-
Psychology of constructive capriciousness. In his cludes some form of knowledge or cognitive processing al-
Psychology of Constructive Capriciousness, the social psy- though these components are more pronounced in the later
chologist Silvia (2001) distinguished between interest and phases of interest. Once the first phase of triggered situational
interests. Following Tomkins (1962) and Izard (1977), he interest has been elicited, it can last for short or long periods of
characterized interest as a basic emotion like happiness, fear, time and may provide a basis for a person to begin forming a
or anger that resides in an individual. Interests are defined as connection to content. In the second phase of interest, main-
self-sustaining motives that lead people to engage in certain tained situational interest, a person is typically supported by
idiosyncratic and person-specific activities with certain ob- the environment (others, tasks, etc.) to continue to develop a
jects and ideas for their own sake. In addition, interests serve basis for connecting to content and to find ways to relate this
long-term goals of adaptation such as cultivating knowledge information to other available information. In this phase, as in-
and promoting diversified skills and experience. Silvia fur- terest is sustained, a person is also beginning to develop value
ther proposed that the emotion of interest contributes to the for content. In the third phase of emerging individual interest, a
development of enduring interests, and magnification, re- person begins to seek repeated engagement with content, con-
peated experience with qualitatively similar input, and is the tinues to reengage content with or without explicit external
process that initiates interest development. supports, and consolidates related knowledge. He or she be-
gins to pose curiosity questions, a process that leads to tion and developing knowledge (Renninger, 1990, 2000). This
self-regulated activity, accumulation of more information, primarily is an unreflective process (Renninger, 1989, 1990,
and increased valuing. In the fourth phase of well-developed 2000) that differs from and complements cognitive evaluation
individual interest, the person continues to seek repeated op- approaches to motivation and volition, including discussions
portunities for reengagement. Curiosity questions, self-regu- of goal theory (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Harackiewicz, et. al.,
lation, valuing, and the ability to attenuate frustration and sus- 2002; Linnebrink & Pintrich, 2000; Molden & Dweck, 2002;
tain creative thinking inform this reengagement. Pintrich, 2000), task value (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield &
The examples of Julia and John illustrate, at least theoreti- Eccles, 1992, 2002; Wigfield et al., 1997), self-efficacy
cally, why affect can be used to identify early stages in interest (Bandura, 1986; Schunk, 1981; Zimmerman, 1989, 2000b),
development. It is likely that as Julia and John initially focused and intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan &
their attention on the article, they had different affective reac- Deci, 2000). The triggering of attention and a maintained situ-
tions while cognitively processing the text. In this phase of in- ational interest are largely externally supported and as a result
terest, the minimal cognitive processing involved in reading are not necessarily decisions to engage; moreover, the motive
enables and guides the affective reaction that follows. Julia’s to begin asking and seeking out answers to curiosity questions,
initial reading generated positive affect that led her to find the for example, also may not be a process in which a person de-
article and finish reading it. It is likely that her positive feelings cides to engage. Rather, a person may decide to find a book that
persisted as she considered the personal relevance of the arti- fits with an ongoing interest (task value), read it (goal setting),
cle and the implications of this type of job, leading to a main- learn all that he or she can about a topic (task efficacy), feel that
tained situational interest for facilitation. Moreover, her posi- mastering even a difficult book on the topic is possible (self-ef-
tive feelings toward the profession of facilitation continued ficacy), and revel in the experience of autonomy that accompa-
and provided a foundation for the development of a predispo- nies this decision.
sition to have interest—that is, individual interest—for facili- The four-phase model suggests that the phase of a per-
tation. In contrast, John’s affective reaction may have had a son’s interest might predict the particulars of cognitive evalu-
mildly positive or even a negative tone. He may have tried to ation (see Lipstein & Renninger, 2006) and that the process
find out what this odd-sounding new profession was all about, of interested engagement would not necessarily be one of
but he did not develop enough positive associations as he read. which the person was wholly metacognitively aware. People
Thus, he did not choose to finish the article. may make a decision to become interested in particular con-
Interest research has been handicapped by the wide gaps tent, but more typically interest mediates the way in which
among researchers’ approaches to the study of interest and they engage content and impacts whether and how they
interpretation of findings (Renninger, 1998a). A central issue choose to reengage that content over time (see Ainley et al.,
has been the measurement of interest. Some researchers have 2002).
measured interest in terms of liking (e.g., Alexander et al., In early phases of interest development, affect may be
1995; Deci, 1998; Koeller et al., 2001; Schraw & Dennison, used as an indicator of interest because it is an affective re-
1994; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992; Wigfield et al., 1997). Others sponse that initially triggers a person’s attention and because
have operationalized their studies of interest in terms of value knowledge may only be minimal. If a situational interest is to
and feeling valences (Krapp, 1999, 2000, 2002a, 2002b; be maintained, however, a person’s feelings and stored valu-
Krapp & Lewalter, 2001; U. Schiefele, 1999; U. Schiefele & ing need to lead to reengagement over time. In later phases of
Csikszentmihalyi, 1994). Yet, some others have identified in- interest development, as a person begins to generate curiosity
terest in terms of positive feelings, stored knowledge and questions, he or she seeks repeated engagement and has not
value, and repeated engagement (Renninger et al., 2002; only positive feelings but also increased stored knowledge
Renninger & Wozniak, 1985). and stored value for particular content. The further distinc-
Differences in approaches to measuring interest have been tion between an emerging and a well-developed interest,
based on differing conceptualizations. Knowledge has been then, includes self-regulated activity like seeking answers to
described as distinct from affect (Alexander et al., 1995; curiosity questions. The person with a well-developed inter-
Tobias, 1994). Also, knowledge has been described as more est pursues further understanding independently and works
important when studying interest among younger partici- to understand and learn from feedback (Lipstein &
pants than it is for older participants (Krapp, 2000). In addi- Renninger, 2006). This person is also likely to maintain posi-
tion, positive feelings, stored knowledge, and stored value tive feelings for content and persevere in the face of difficulty
have been described as having complementary and coordi- or frustration (see Prenzel, 1992; Renninger, 2000;
nated roles in interest development (Renninger, 1990, 2000). Renninger & Leckrone, 1991).
Although a number of researchers have distinguished be-
tween interest and knowledge, in our conceptualization affect
Affect Is Positive (and Negative)
and value are not independent of knowledge. The very act of
perceiving information about content and representing this in- Although a triggered situational interest could be associated
formation to oneself in a way that it is valued involves cogni- with either negative or positive affect (Hidi & Harackiewicz,
2000; Iran-Nejad, 1987), psychological and neuroscientific tent is a well-developed individual interest. A person can
data underscore the importance of positive affect for interest have substantial knowledge and little interest for content
to develop (Ainley et al., 2002; Izard & Ackerman, 2000; (Renninger et al., 2002). Moreover, a person with an individ-
Panksepp, 1998, 2000; Panksepp & Moskal, 2004). Thus, ual interest for a particular content may have less knowledge
even if negative feelings are initially present, supporting stu- for that content than another person who does not have an in-
dents to develop interest and experience positive affect can terest for it (Renninger, 2000). Knowledge is not a sole com-
attenuate their negative feelings. ponent of interest, nor is affect. Interest development in-
Panksepp (1998) reported that the lateral hypothalamus volves the interaction of knowledge and affect (Hidi et al.,
(LH) corridor in the brain can be stimulated to evoke sniffing 2004; Krapp, 2002a, 2002b; Renninger, 1989, 1990, 2000),
in rats, what he termed “seeking” behaviors that are present and shifts between phases of interest must include both posi-
when the animal is searching, or investigating. Panksepp sug- tive feelings and opportunities for knowledge development
gested that the types of feelings that characterize the arousal (Renninger & Shumar, 2002).
of this system in humans would be described as intense inter-
est, engaged curiosity, and eager participation. LH stimula-
tion in humans has been found to produce feelings of invigo- EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
ration, as if something very interesting and exciting is going
on (cf. Heath, 1963; Panksepp, 1998). Such data suggest that Learner engagement is an aspect of educational practice that
minimal cognitive processing is likely to trigger situational has been described as both critical and complicated because
interest, especially in early phases of interest development. there is a need for better detail about how “students behave,
They further suggest that interest is not only an outcome of feel, and think” (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004, p.
cognitive evaluation. 59). Findings from studies of interest suggest that it impacts
Neuroscientific data further suggest that each phase of attention, goal setting, and learning strategies in ways that
interest involves the same neural circuits and the same neu- make it a particularly relevant variable for those focused on
rotransmitter (dopamine; Davidson, 2000; Panksepp, 1998; improving educational practice. Harackiewicz et al. (2002)
Panksepp & Moskal, 2004). Thus, the positive affect that is reported, for example, that interest predicts college students’
associated with the psychological state of situational inter- choice of academic major and that interest combines with ex-
est is likely to be similar to that of individual interest. In ternal factors to predict academic outcomes. These findings
fact, no neurophysiological indications of neural processes have been elegantly replicated across 7 years. Fink’s (1998)
exclusive to the cognitive processing of interesting materi- retrospective studies of prominent academics and Nobel
als have been identified (Panksepp, 1998), further suggest- Laureates who despite being dyslexic had outstanding aca-
ing that both affect and cognition are involved in processing demic and professional achievements are similarly provoca-
during each phase of interest development. Thus, even tive. Her study revealed that each of these people had a
though it is experimentally possible to distinguish between well-developed individual interest that enabled them to per-
emotional and cognitive interest (e.g., Harp & Mayer, sist as readers despite perceptual disabilities. Of note also are
1997), it appears that both affect and cognition are coordi- Renninger et al.’s (2002) findings that 11- to 13-year-old stu-
nated in the development of interest (Ainley et al., 2002; dents who had low ability based on achievement testing and a
Renninger, 2000). well-developed individual interest for reading or mathemat-
ics were more likely to engage the meaning or substance of
the passages and the problems that they worked than were
Affect and Cognition Are Coordinated
students with high ability who had less developed individual
Earlier phases of interest appear to be fueled by affect, interest for these subjects.
which can be directly linked to the processes of perception In general, findings from studies of interest suggest that
and representation that lead to activity and cognition educators can (a) help students sustain attention for tasks
(Ainley, Corrigan, & Richardson, 2005). Later phases of in- even when tasks are challenging—this could mean either
terest, on the other hand, are more clearly the products of providing support so that students can experience a triggered
both stored valuing for reengagement and cognitive pro- situational interest or feedback that allows them to sustain at-
cesses that support knowledge building—a person’s devel- tention so that they can generate their own curiosity ques-
oping understanding of particular activities or ideas and the tions; (b) provide opportunities for students to ask curiosity
generation of curiosity questions (see Renninger, 2000). questions; and (c) select or create resources that promote
The process of pursuing answers to curiosity questions, for problem solving and strategy generation.
example, is accompanied by positive feelings that surface More specifically, in the early phases of interest develop-
in anticipation of and work with particular content as well ment, research suggests that positive feelings about activity
as feelings generated in present engagement. and solid content knowledge are important if students are to
Importantly, the amount of knowledge a person has about attend to content, set goals, and learn. Sloboda and Davidson
a particular content does not necessarily signal that this con- (1995), for example, used bipolar rating scales to conduct in-
terviews with 257 musicians. Their findings indicate that for sic. Often they listened to music from birth and through this
musicians to persevere the most important characteristics of learned to identify pieces and composers. These musicians’
the students’ first teacher are the ability to communicate well first teachers were described as warm and enthusiastic people
(friendly, chatty, encouraging) and the ability to pass on their who acknowledged signs of interest and involvement.
love of music (through modeling, playing well; see similar In what Sosniak (1990) labeled a second period, these mu-
discussions in Bloom, 1985; Sosniak, 1990). Recently, Long sicians’ relationships to their teachers underwent a shift from
and Murphy (2005) combined qualitative and quantitative one of love to respect, as this period was marked by attention
methods to demonstrate a similar impact of classroom teach- to detail and skill building. The third period, however, was
ers’ own interest for subject matter and for their students on possibly the most difficult and most uncertain period, be-
the students’ interest for content. Their findings underscore cause the teachers supporting the musicians had difficulty
the importance of teacher support of students’ interest. when musicians’ interest wavered. In this third period, the
Because external support that is contextualized in content students worked on developing their ideas about themselves
is particularly critical in early phases of interest development, as musicians, their field of expertise, and how it fit into their
it is during the early phases of experience that educators are lives. He noted that this process took place in varying ways,
most able to help students to feel positive about their emerging and at differing rates. Sloboda (1990) reported a similar tra-
abilities to work with content (Eccles et al., 1993; Markus & jectory of the development of student interest for music, not-
Nurius, 1986). Positive feelings for content may be facilitated ing also that students were incapable of experiencing interest
by offering choice in tasks (Flowerday & Schraw, 2003), pro- when they felt uncomfortable or threatened.
moting a sense of autonomy (Deci, 1992), innovative task or- Some students may require the verbal scaffolding of teach-
ganization, support for developing the knowledge that is ers or support from the way in which a task is organized, such
needed for successful task completion, and building a sense of as using their well-developed individual interests as the topics
competence (Hidi, 2001; Hidi et al., 1998; Hoffmann & of word problems or texts (Renninger et al., 2002). Other stu-
Häussler, 1998; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Sansone & Morgan, dents may respond well to cooperative project-based work that
1992; Sansone et al., 1992; Schraw, Flowerday, & Lehman, enables them to be scaffolded by the others and the task on
2001). Not surprisingly, project-based learning that includes which they work (Blumenfeld, Krajcik, Marx, & Soloway,
students’ work with peers or other social situations 1994; Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Hidi et al., 1998; Marx et al.,
(Blumenfeld et al., 1991; Cognition and Technology Group at 1994). In the shift from external to internal support, however,
Vanderbilt, 1997; Deci, 1992, Hidi et al., 1998; Renninger & the knowledge, or basis of information (and skills) through
Hidi, 2002; Springer, 1991), computer environments that are which the student can begin generating curiosity questions, is
attractive (Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Lepper & Cordova, 1992; of importance (Renninger, 2000). Such questions enable stu-
Lepper & Henderlong, 2000), and word problems or passages dents to connect their present understanding of content to al-
that have contexts specifically addressing students’individual ternative perspectives that challenge them to reconsider what
interests (Renninger et al., 2002) all involve teachers organiz- they do know and to seek additional information (Renninger et
ing external support for engagement. In early phases of inter- al., 2004). While students are in early phases of interest devel-
est development, orchestration of conditions that support a opment, providing them with questions to answer may be es-
positive affective response may be critical to further interest sential. However, as individual interest begins to emerge in the
development (i.e., materials need to be available, rides to les- late phases, it is important that students also be encouraged to
sons possible, opportunities to think and play with related generate their own questions. Students need models of people
ideas, etc.; Bloom, 1985; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993; seriously engaging with the questions of a discipline (Collins,
Renninger, 2000; Renninger & Hidi, 2002; Renninger et al., Brown, & Newman, 1989; Schoenfeld, 1992). For students’
2004; Sloboda, 1990). interests to continue to develop, however, they also need to
Similar to Eccles et al.’s (1993) model of stage–environ- generate their own curiosity questions to connect their present
ment fit in which the importance of teachers’ continued sup- understandings to alternative perspectives (Renninger, 2000).
port of students’ feelings of self-efficacy is demonstrated, Sansone and her colleagues (e.g., Sansone & Berg, 1993;
students need to be supported to develop and sustain interest. Sansone & Smith, 2000; Sansone et al., 1992) have found that
It is likely that conditions that support the development of students in the last years of high school and college can de-
students’ interests not only need to generate positive feelings velop a maintained situational interest for content for which
but also involve a shift from more external support to more they previously had few feelings or little knowledge. These
internal support as interest develops. Such conditions are students move rather rapidly from having a situational interest
suggested by Sosniak’s (1990) study of the development of to having what might be identified as an emerging individual
musical talent. Sosniak found that students who later evi- interest. They do this by identifying a reason to be interested
denced talent spent their earliest years exploring music with- and finding ways to enhance the likelihood of continuing to
out the need to be particularly systematic or skilled. pursue the content. They regulate their own interest and enjoy-
Typically, these musicians’ initial interest stemmed from life ment (Sansone et al., 1992; Sansone, Wiebe, & Morgan,
with a family member who valued and had an interest in mu- 1999). In this situation, a student’s decision to work on devel-
oping his or her knowledge is a choice and involves focused at- the field was essential to our ability to continue to work on it.
tention and effort (see Sansone & Harackiewicz, 1996). We acknowledge that Jaak Panksepp provided us with advice
Certainly, students with an emerging individual interest for and theoretical suggestions that were invaluable. We also
particular content ask curiosity questions about that content. gratefully acknowledge comments and questions from Mary
These questions can lead to acquisition of additional knowl- Ainley, Pietro Boscolo, Judith M. Harackiewicz, Philip H.
edge, consolidation and elaboration of what is understood, and Winne, and two anonymous reviewers; and research support
persistence in the face of challenge (Alexander & Murphy, provided by Hofan Chau and Jeremy Schifeling. We have
1998; Prenzel, 1992; Renninger, 1990, 2000; Renninger & valued the editorial support and feedback received from
Hidi, 2002; Renninger et al., 2004; U. Schiefele & Krapp, Dagmar Berndorff and Vanessa Gorman. Finally, we are ap-
1996). The process of engaging content is likely to continue as preciative of support from a Humbolt Foundation grant to
long as there is support. Other people may facilitate such sup- Suzanne Hidi, Andreas Krapp, and K. Ann Renninger that
port, and support may be provided by the affordances of the provided initial support for discussing the utility of conceptu-
tasks or domain in which a person works (Nolan, 2006; alizing interest development in terms of phases. We also ac-
Pressick-Kilborn & Walker, 2002; Renninger, 2000). knowledge research support from the Social Science and Hu-
Julia’s case further suggests that as interest develops and manities Research Council of Canada to Suzanne Hidi and
direct links between Julia and facilitation are identified, her from the Swarthmore College Faculty Research Fund to K.
feelings of self-efficacy increase. Similar connections be- Ann Renninger, in addition to Joel Dean support for student
tween interest and student feelings of self-efficacy, ability to research assistance to K. Ann Renninger.
set goals, exertion of effort, and ability to self-regulate activ-
ity are reported in Renninger and Hidi’s (2002) case study of
a boy’s engagement with reading and writing, science, and
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Educational Psychologist

ISSN: 0046-1520 (Print) 1532-6985 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hedp20

The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development

Suzanne Hidi & K. Ann Renninger

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4

Published online: 08 Jun 2010.

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The Four-Phase Model of Interest Development

Correspondence should be addressed to K. Ann Renninger, Department

Phase 1: Triggered Situational Interest Phase 3: Emerging Individual Interest

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