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Intercultural
Communication
An Interdisciplinary
Approach:
When Neurons,
Genes, and Evolution
Joined the Discourse
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural Communication
An Interdisciplinary Approach: When Neurons, Genes,
and Evolution Joined the Discourse
Mai Nguyen-Phuong-Mai
Amsterdam University Press English-language titles are distributed in the US and Canada by
the University of Chicago Press.
All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of
this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise)
without the written permission of both the copyright owners and the authors of the book.
Every effort has been made to obtain permission to use all copyrighted illustrations
reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is
advised to contact the publisher.
To Chị Lan
Table of Contents
Preface 9
colleague said: “White” and got into a row, because the guards blamed him
for having dishonored his own race: “You look Arab. You are Arab. Point!”
The message was clear: Your biology defines your identity. When it was my
turn, I jokingly declared: “I’m Asian, but people call me ‘banana’ – yellow
outside, white inside.” Not missing a beat, the woman behind me whispered
in my ear: “I’m a reversed coconut! No worries.”
Soon after the training with Reuters, personal circumstances drove me
away from journalism and onto the road of academia. I kept the nomad
lifestyle, carrying with me the cultural baggage that revealed itself in the
training as I moved across various borders. But the lessons I learned only
took their shape during the time I taught intercultural management at the
Amsterdam School of International Business (AMSIB).
As I delved deeper into the literature and conventional practices of the
field, these lessons constantly popped up. They reminded me that even in a
study that is meant to bring people together, differences are used as a warn-
ing, rather than a benefit. People are cautious of consequential conflicts,
rather than seeing them as a promising synergy. Business students are told
that if they don’t learn about culture, they will fail in the future because
the others are so different from us. This cultural gap is “a nuisance at best
and often a disaster.” 1 “The world is a more dangerously divided place today
than it was at the end of the Cold War.”2 Every time a book or a lesson was
opened with a cultural blunder or mismatch, the words of my colleague
in the training flashed on: “Why do we have to jump right into sensational
differences? Let’s start with something we all share!”
This book is my attempt to put that remark into action. The journey to
find similarities has taken me back to the subject of evolution, down to
the biological level of genes and neurons, and opened me up to the newly
emerging discipline of cultural neuroscience. The insight from neuroscience
labs has excited many interculturalists with just two words: “brain plasticity.”
It means our brain is like a muscle, as it can grow and adjust, and it enables us
to represent multiple cultures. I can’t change my skin color, but with regard
to the inside, to use the words of my dear friend Ida, I can be as white as a
banana, or turn orange if I have to. Country of origin and biology need not to
be the foundation of my identity. And thus, I’ve learned to introduce myself
without carrying the cultural baggage that instantly invites stereotypes.
Different contexts call for different values and practices. Context is a dynamic
force that allows each one of us to be an active agent and problem solver,
rather than a cultural dope. This is the spirit I want to share in this book.
In the writing process, I created a list of all the countries, main continents
and gender pronouns. I carefully marked each time a place was mentioned
Preface 11
and each time a “he” or a “she” was used. The result was a colorful coded
sheet that shows my failure to give equal weight to all countries and cul-
tures, despite my deliberate attention. Nevertheless, I now understand
the reason why literature in our field as well as in others is so US-centric.
American narratives dominate the media and the academy. Take a look
at the curriculum you are using and start coding the cases, arguments
and theories. Even though you already have an idea, the result may still
surprise you.
In sum, while this book is meant as an introduction to intercultural
communication, it is also a novel attempt to incorporate the much-neglected
dynamic paradigm of culture in the literature, the insight from other disci-
plines, and the representation of non-mainstream cultures.
To all of those who helped me finish this book, I extend my thanks. I
am grateful to all the people I had the honor to befriend and meet on my
journeys from the early days of my journalistic career, whose stories inspired
me and became part and parcel of this book. To my colleagues and students
who reviewed the manuscript, I owe you my thanks. I would like to thank
my program manager John Sterk for giving me the much needed support
to arrange my work so that this book could be finished on time. Finally, I
thank the staff at AUP for their professionalism, and my research assistant
Blerta Kola for her dedication.
1. The Survival of the Most Cultured
Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the nature of culture and its roles in the evolution of human species.
• Identify the role of cultural diversity.
• Discuss and illustrate with examples the dynamic interaction between culture
and other factors: environment, genes, brain, and behaviors.
• Describe the process of globalization from evolutionary biology’s perspective.
• Distinguish the unique characteristics of globalization in the modern era.
Chapter outline
1.1 The nature of culture 15
1.1.1 A Power Transition from Gene to Culture 15
1.1.1.1 Genes or Culture? 15
1.1.1.2 Culture as a Survival Strategy 16
1.1.2 How Did This Power Transition Happen? 17
1.2 Cultural diversity 18
1.2.1 The Interaction of Environment – Culture 19
1.2.1.1 Environmental Determinism 19
1.2.1.2 Environmental Possibilism 21
1.2.1.3 Cultural Ecology 22
1.2.2 Cultural Diversity as a Tool for Resource Management 23
1.3 Diversity pathways 25
1.3.1 The Interaction of Environment – Culture – Genes 25
1.3.2 The Interaction of Environment – Culture – Genes – Brain 28
1.3.2.1 Culture’s Influences on the Brain 29
1.3.2.2 The Brain’s Plasticity 30
1.3.2.3 The Sexist Brain? 32
1.3.3 The Interaction of Environment – Culture – Genes – Brain –
Behavior33
1.3.3.1 The Impact of Behavior on Genes 34
1.3.3.2 The Impact of Behavior on Culture 35
1.3.3.3 The Impact of Behavior on Environment 38
1.4 Globalization 39
1.4.1 Effective Resource Management 39
1.4.2 The Cooperative Nature of Humans 40
1.4.3 Reaching Out to Strangers 43
1.4.4 The Driving Forces for Cross-Cultural Communication 43
14 Intercultur al Communication
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the study of human diversity was accelerated
by the emergence of two disciplines: evolutionary biology and anthropology.
However, the development in these two fields has been highly divergent.
Recently, some of the most impressive studies on culture have been con-
ducted by natural scientists, who point out that culture is an integral part
of biology.5 As commentator McGrew admits, it is “a wee bit of irony”6 that it
takes colleagues from the natural sciences to convince us that nothing about
culture actually makes sense, unless it is put under the interdisciplinary
spotlight with biology. So how are culture and genes related to each other?
its genes determines what it eats, how it moves, and what sound it makes.
In short, a wolf does not behave like a human even if it lives with humans.
Its genes overrule the social environment.
Now consider the reverse. In 1920, two little girls were found living with
a pack of wolves in Northern India. They showed no trace of humanness
and seemed to have the minds of wolves. According to the diary of the
man who found them,8 the feral girls “were more ferocious than the cubs,
making faces, showing teeth.” They “would run very fast, just like squirrels.”
Their eyes were “wide open at night,” with “a peculiar blue gaze, like that of
a cat or dog in the dark.” They could “smell meat from a great distance like
animals.” It was clear that the girls were more like wolves in a human body.
Their human genes somehow failed to tell them that they were human, that
they should stand on two legs, speak a certain language, and behave in a
human way. In sum, while a wolf living with humans does not behave like
a human, a human living with wolves tends to behave like a wolf. For the
wolves, their genes overrule the social environment. For humans, the reverse
is true, their genes give way to the social environment.
tropical Guyana, nomadic Arabia, or even a wolves’ den, deep in the Indian
forest – and to speak the language of that culture. Why? Because that is the
only way this human can survive.
In animals, genes evolve to guide their behaviors and their survival. In human be-
ings, genes have been largely replaced by culture. Culture evolves and guides our
behaviors and teaches us how to survive.
According to Pagel,11 our world is 4.5 billion years old, but culture appeared
only around 200,000 years ago, with the ability to learn from others. It started
with symbolic thinking in the form of art and adornment, which allowed
us to communicate ideas to others through the meanings attached to each
object or symbol. The ability to observe, copy, pick the best practices, and
transfer them to others created an entirely new sphere of evolution. Of
course, animals can observe and imitate others, but humans differ in the
way that we are conscious of what we are copying and why we are doing so.
We do not just mindlessly imitate others, but rather pick the best bits and
teach them to someone else.
Culture was initially formed this way as its elements (i.e. ideas, languages,
music, art, innovation, etc.) could act like genes, albeit much faster than
genes. For example, genes can only make changes and improve when
we reproduce the next generation in a different body. This takes a long
time. Unlike genes, cultural elements can jump directly from one mind
to another, circumventing the normal genetic routes of transmission. We
must wait many generations to see some “good” genes become dominant
in a population. However, culture allows us to acquire knowledge, belief,
ideas and practices by watching, imitating and learning from others in a
split second. While genes are rather fixed, i.e. from birth, we cannot really
change a lot the sets of genes given to us by our parents, culture is a vast
store of continuous and rich information, improved technologies, broadened
knowledge and wisdom. Throughout your lifetime, you can sample from this
sea of evolving ideas, adopting, considering, changing, rejecting, improving,
accumulating, etc.
Clearly, culture is a superior guide of behaviors than genes. Not sur-
prisingly, then, for the sake of our species, culture has gradually evolved
to become a survival strategy. It has gradually taken over the running of
18 Intercultur al Communication
our day-to-day affairs from genes, and has been providing us with many
solutions to the problems of our existence. With our capacity for social
learning, we no longer wholly rely on genetic improvement, such as better
wings, feathers, shells, claws, toxins, etc. to ensure our survival. We have
cultures with accumulated ideas and knowledge that are shared and passed
down through generations. This makes us a powerful species. We may
not have a genetic physicality suitable for living under water, but we have
created submarines. We may not have the genes to fly, but we have flown
to the moon and beyond. Humans have not only migrated from Africa to
populate the whole world and radically alter the earth’s biota, but we are
also on the way to conquering outer space. We are no longer confined to
one environment, but are able to transform the environment to suit our
needs. As Pagel observes, if we fast-forwards a million years, our close
genetic relatives the chimpanzees will still be sitting in the forest, using
the same old stone cracking the same old nut. This is because their genes
tell them to do so. They may be able to learn and imitate a certain act, but
they cannot understand why; they cannot pick the best practices, cannot
learn from mistakes, cannot improve an idea, and cannot teach it to others.
Meanwhile, thanks to culture, which is essentially the ability to learn from
others, humans have built skyscrapers and spaceships.
At this point, it is clear that, for our purpose, the definition of culture
should contain the recurring theme of survival strategies through social
learning. We have therefore chosen a definition from Triandis,12 because it
is the closest to what we are looking for, and adapted it as follows: “Culture
is a set of evolving man-made elements that have increased the probability
of survival, and thus become shared among those who could communicate
with each other.”
Culture is initially formed by the ability to imitate, to select the best practices, and
to transfer them to others. Instead of waiting for a change in genes so humans
can evolve wings to fly (which may never happen), culture allows us to pull ideas
together and build air planes.
1.2 Cultural diversity
Language is one of the defining traits of being humans, but it also means
that we are probably the only animal that can find itself in a situation
where two individuals might not be able to communicate with each
The Survival of the Most Cultured 19
The biodiversity on our planet is impressive, and humans have used the
capacity of culture to be able to live in all kinds of environment. Our species
lives deep in the jungles, floats on the water, survives extreme cold, and
conquers the desert.13 This is why “biodiversity” is often used as a hypothesis
to explain the “cultural diversity” among humans. But is this hypothesis
correct?
According to Jared Diamond, Europe became a power base because its nations grew out of the first
farming societies, with the world’s most easily domesticable animals. This gave them a head start to later
conquer the rest of the world. The West is simply geographically privileged. However, Papua New Guinea
is an exception. The crop here was not as productive as wheat crops in other early farming regions. They
rot quickly and have to be eaten in a short time. The only big domestic animal was the pig, but it is not as
productive as oxen or horses: no milk, wool, leather, hides, or the ability to pull ploughs. That is why despite
being a cradle of agriculture, Papua New Guinea did not develop as far as other farming societies. To this
day, pigs have a strong social significance and convey social status of a person.20 A fully grown swine can
cost over USD $2000, and it is not unusual to see people taking their pigs for a walk, or women breastfeeding
young piglets. The Kuma people believe that their ancestors used to be half-human half-beast living in
the mud under the ground. One day, they followed their pig outside, saw the sun for the first time, cut of
their tails, developed to full human and escaped the dark age/ ”A man with his piglet in the market at
Tari, (Papua New Guinea),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
The Survival of the Most Cultured 21
The San Bushmen are hunter-gatherers whose territories span Botswana, Namibia, Angola, Zambia,
Lesotho and Zimbabwe. Their harsh and dry home ranges have significantly influenced their social,
economic and spiritual relationships/ ”Drinking water from the bi bulb plant found deep under the
sand,” DVL2. 22
22 Intercultur al Communication
All parts of the cow are sacred, including cow dung and urine, which are often used in religious rituals and
commercial products. All deities are believed to reside in “The mother of cows” Kamadhenu/ “Traffic gives
way to a cow in Mumbai, (India),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Fortunately, our ancestors did not choose the first option, since that
would have been the end of culture – the very mechanism that advances
humans as a species. Culture is possible only by learning continuously
from others, and small groups only offer a few ideas. Small groups can also
completely disappear as a result of attacks, accidents or diseases, which
means that any ideas and innovations are wasted.
We took the second option and, consequently, language evolved as a
crucial mechanism for dealing with the possibilities of ideas being stolen.30
I now have the ability to convince you to exchange my fish-catching tool for
your technique for making clothes. If you agree, we can then start a good
business relationship. If you don’t, I will sell my innovation to someone else.
Language facilitates deal making, negotiation and agreement. And
because its purpose is also to safeguard knowledge and information in
competition with other groups, many languages were formed. When we
don’t know each other and I am not sure of your intentions, my distinctive
language helps to keep any innovations within my own group and my
own culture. It would be very difficult for you to steal my ideas if you don’t
know my language and the complex code of behavior that it governs. But
once you have shown your intentions to be good and fair, we will somehow
overcome the language barrier in order to cooperate. Trading across the
globe has operated in more or less this way, with linguistic and cultural
diversity as an inherent regulator, used by one group to safeguard and
negotiate cultural resources with another. In fact, you don’t need to look
far to see the similarity of language evolution with what we still do every
day: kids creating a secret language to write their diary or communicate
with friends, codes and cyphers used by military and diplomatic forces to
exchange confidential information, and businesses who send data that has
been encoded to protect trade secrets.
The desire to manage cultural resources not only enables diverse languag-
es to evolve, but also channels people into different sub-groups. As we band
together to exert our authority over certain resources in competition with
another group, cultural diversity becomes an element for us to recognize an
ingroup we can trust. It rests on the notion that because this person has the
same cultural traits (the way [s]he dresses and communicates or the values
[s]he holds dear), it is highly likely that we share the same survival strategies,
live in the same group and therefore this person is more trustworthy than
others. This tendency to have a bias towards one’s own group is crucial in
understanding human behaviors across cultures. It can be uncomfortable
to know that our cultural nepotism or ingroup bias (favoritism for those in
the same group) is evolutionary.31 However, we need to keep in mind that
The Survival of the Most Cultured 25
this is rooted in the notion that our culture is our survival strategy, and,
for our own sake, we evolved to love it, to protect it, even to see our culture
as superior than that of others (ethnocentrism). This will be a recurrent
theme, which you will see from other points of view in this chapter and
throughout the book.
1.3 Diversity pathways
The interaction between environment and culture is dynamic, but it is far
from sufficient in terms of explaining human diversity. The complexity of
our culture must be seen from a bigger angle, one that involves the physical
and genetic make-up of our body. In this section, we will gradually add genes
and neurons to the big picture. Each new interaction will reveal different
pathways that contribute to the incredible diversity we see in our cultures
today. To aid your understanding, a Diversity Pathways diagram will be
constructed in steps and then patched together at the end of the section.
In the first section of this chapter, we discussed the transition of power from
genes to culture. From this point of view, it may not be a strange idea to
question the role of genes: What do they do now? If culture is so important, is
it not handy for everyone to have the same genes? With regard to the role of
the environment, if it is not a deciding factor, as environmental determinism
insists, to what extent does it affect culture and genes after all?
Genes are the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.
Therefore, the power transition from genes to culture is not mutually exclu-
sive. In fact, genes are crucial mechanisms for turning useful cultural values
into genetic traits, and vice versa. The gene–culture co-evolution theory
26 Intercultur al Communication
CASE STUDY
1. Genes–Culture: Those who carry the short allele need more social support
to maintain their well-being, without which they would have a 4.5 times
greater risk of depression. Hence, they need to be surrounded by a close-knit
network of friends and families. The short allele not only causes depression,
but also makes people more sensitive. Hence, they are also more group-
oriented, capable of recognizing and reacting to others’ emotional states. In
other words, short allele people both need and fit well in societies with richly
interconnected networks. According to hypothesis 1: The depression gene
was there first. Group-mindset culture became an established and strategic
cultural value to cope with the depression gene.
2. Environment–Culture: Pathogens – infectious agents such as bacteria and
fungus that cause disease – are historically high in warm and moist climates.
In order to cope with the constant risk of infection, our ancestors who first
migrated to these regions didn’t wait for genes to evolve an immune system
to battle diseases, as is the case in animals. Instead, they slowly developed a
cultural strategy to deal with high pathogen loads: a group-oriented mindset
that conforms to collective rules regarding sanitation, food preparation,
etc. Over a period of time, those who followed the cultural rules of group
conformity had a higher chance of survival. This gives us hypothesis 2: Group-
mindset culture became an established and strategic cultural value to cope
with pathogens.
3. Culture–Genes or Genes–Culture: The end result is that both “group-mindset”
and “depression gene” still prevail in East Asia. Which came first, and which
caused which?
The Survival of the Most Cultured 27
a. People with depression genes need and fit better into the group-mindset
culture, so their gene became dominant to support this value. Thus, a cul-
ture with a group-mindset was the consequence of the depression gene.
In other words, the depression gene came first and culture became the
strategy to cope with this gene.
b. A group-mindset culture was needed to cope with pathogens and hence
it favors those with the depression gene because this gene helped people
conform to the group’s rules. In other words, culture came first and the
depression gene prevailed as a consequence.
c. Both group-mindset culture and the depression gene gained ground
together as a dual solution to high pathogen loads in the environment.
Group-mindset and short allele were compatible as they reproduced
each other to eventually develop a collectivistic culture that (i) is effec-
tive at coping with pathogens, and (ii) outweighs the negative impact of
increased numbers of depression gene by providing more social support.
The Happy Planet Index measures elements that contribute towards a happy life in 140 countries and
looked at factors such as life expectancy, well-being, inequality and ecological footprint. In 2016, Costa
Rica topped this list, followed by Mexico, Columbia, Vanuatu and Vietnam35 – all of them have a “group
mindset culture.” However, this index is different from several other studies in which the same countries
score much lower. For example, a major discontent in Mexico is the bad reputation of the police. 63 per
cent of Mexicans have little or no trust in their police force while 66 per cent view them as corrupt.36 The
complexity of this issue shows that we should interpret a phenomenon by taking into account the dynamic
interaction of many factors, as we will continue to explore in this chapter/ ”Riot police ready for action
in Mexico City, (Mexico),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
28 Intercultur al Communication
GENE
ENVIRONMENT
CULTURE
The selection of genes depends on the coevolution with culture: a specific cultural
value may prefer a certain gene, and a certain gene may slowly reinforce a certain
cultural value.
the brain play in creating different diversity pathways? These are the ques-
tions we will discuss in this section.
GENE
ENVIRONMENT
BRAIN
CULTURE
Figure 1.3. Thought is conducted by electrical impulses, sent from the axon (sender) of one neuron to the
dendrites (receiver) of another neuron/ “Anatomy of a multipolar neuron,” BRUCEBLAUS.47
Now look at figure 1.4. This is what happens when we have a repetition of
a thought or when we practice something over and over again: the more
neurotransmitters are shot through the synapse, the more receptors are
created to receive the signals; eventually, the neuron will grow additional
dendrite branches to make our thoughts easier. Around the axon (sender),
glia cells will create a supportive layer to speed up the electrical impulses.
The two neurons will also physically move closer together in order to
decrease the distance the neurotransmitters have to travel. Thoughts that
dominate your mind are those that have the shortest distance to cover and
the easiest way to travel, a “cell assembly” of neurons that fire together
rapidly without much effort.
This means repeated thoughts will be experienced more easily each time
you have them. Conversely, thoughts that are triggered less frequently will
disappear. How does this happen? Synapse connections that get used less are
marked by a protein. When we sleep, our brain cells shrink by up to 60 per
The Survival of the Most Cultured 31
cent to create space for supporting glia cells. Glia cells are not only responsible
for speeding up signals between neurons, but also for detecting the protein
mark and destroying the “forgotten” synapses. This is why we often wake up
from a sleep or a power nap feeling fresh, ready to take in new information.
Our brain physically rewires itself so we can forge new pathways, create new
habits and respond to the various demands of the cultural environment.
Neuro-
transmitters
Synapse
cleft
Dendrite of
Receptor
Neuron 2: Bigger More
Receiving dendrite receptors Neuron 2 with an extra synapse
Figure 1.4. This is how learning changes the structure of our brain. Neurotransmitters are shot through the
synapse cleft (stage 1). With many repetitions, neurons grow bigger dendrites and increase the number
of neurotransmitters and receptors (stage 2). Finally, there are additional dendrites to make thinking
easier, and electrical impulses are sped up along the axon by the support of glia cells (stage 3). The more
connections there are, the easier it is for a group of neurons to fire together, then wire together, and
move closer together. When such a change happens, our actions become automatic because there is
a long-lasting effect between two neurons/ “Long-term potentiation,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
The constant morphing and shifting of the brain tells us that our neural
machinery system is intrinsically malleable or has “plasticity” – a term
coined in 1894 by pioneering Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramon y
Cajal. Just like a muscle can change with exercises, we can develop our brain
and induce changes in both its functions and structures. For example, when
a person is blind, occipital regions can be recruited to process sound instead
of vision, enabling people with impaired vision to have enhanced hearing
ability. 48 Hence, historically, the image of blind musicians and poets is an
important touchstone in many cultures: the travelling biwa hoshi in 20th
century Japan, the kobzars of Ukraine, Homer of Greece, and many piano
tuners in France and England during the 19th century.
Beyond recovering from impairment, our neural mechanism has an
astounding capacity to rewire and adjust to high-level cultural experiences.
London cab drivers,49 who receive intensive training for between two to four
years, learn to memorize and navigate 25,000 streets in order to obtain a
license. As a consequence, the volume of their grey matter in the posterior
32 Intercultur al Communication
hippocampus is enlarged. The longer they drive, the bigger this volume
became. Similar changes in both neural structure and function of the brain
has been found in people who juggle,50 meditate,51 or dance52 as a profession
or regular practice.
In fact, we don’t need intensive training to see how malleable the brain is.
Even very simple or subtle cues, such as an iconic building or the difference
between using plural pronouns (e.g. “we” and “our”) or singular pronouns
(e.g. “I” and “me”) can activate relevant cultural mindsets and their associate
networks. People who are primed by these cultural cues, even just by looking
at them briefly, will have responsive neural reactions that correspond with
those cues, regardless of their original backgrounds.53 Our brain is so flex-
ible that we are capable of representing multiple cultures in our mind and
switching between values simultaneously, depending on the given priming
culture.54-55-56 Consequently, people can be very self-centered when primed
with “I” and “me,” and think more collectively when primed with “we” and
“our.” The ventro-medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC) – our selfhood loci in
the brain57 – can be active in both priming variances.
The plasticity of the brain shows us that our neural mechanism is able to
adapt to a new environment that is as subtle as some cultural cues. Repeated
behaviors can significantly rewire the brain and change both its physical
form and functional features. The idea that the brain recreates itself and
that there is no fundamental core of identity in the brain means that we
can train the brain and learn new tricks, adapt to new environments, adopt
new cultures, reshape and discover many different aspects of our identities
and personalities.58-59
Neurons that fire together, wire together. Our thoughts change our brain physically.
The brain’s plasticity means that we are capable of adapting to new environments
and representing multiple cultures in our mind, depending on the context.
and “right brain for women” by pointing out that removing even half of
the brain will not significantly affect how one mentally develops.67 At the
very least, men and women are no different than two men with unique
emotional styles.68
If neural differences between men and women exist, regardless of the de-
gree, they should always be seen in specific cultural contexts.69-70 A woman’s
brain may show high levels of connectivity between two hemispheres,
which allows her to be better at multi-tasking. But she was not born that
way. Her brain is structured that way simply because her culture expects
that of her, so she uses that part of her brain more often. The same is true
for other stereotypical beliefs, i.e. that men are “hard-wired” to do better
at jobs related to maths, cars and engineering. An array of brain studies
have been criticized for neurosexism and failing to recognize the plasticity
of gender differences71 and thus contributing to inaccurate and harmful
misunderstanding about the sexes.72-73
As early as the 1990s, a neuroscientist famously remarked: “If the neural
systems used for a given task can change with 15 min[utes] of practice [...]
how can we any longer separate organic structures from their experience
in the organism’s history?”74 The field of cultural neuroscience has given a
resounding response: “We cannot!” The plasticity of our brain means that
anything that is said to be “hard-wired” should be treated with great caution.
A brain is neither software, nor hardware, but a very versatile mechanism
that tunes so finely with the cultural environment, a “cultural sponge” 75 of
sorts, that it can constantly evolve, change and reorganize both its function
and structure in response to internal and external environmental factors.
change the very structure and function of the brain, but have a significant
impact on culture, genes and environment.
GENE
ENVIRONMENT
BEHAVIOR
BRAIN
CULTURE
women who witnessed the attack on the World Trade Center had “scars”
on their DNA and passed on higher levels of stress hormone to their babies.
Social environment such as economic status can also seriously influence the
genes that control cognitive performance. Genetic influences on changes
in cognitive ability were close to zero for children from poorer homes,
compared to half of the variation for those from wealthier homes. In other
words, rich children are not genetically superior, their genes simply have
more opportunities to reach their full potential.79
The impact of behaviors on genes has important implications for the
health industry. On the whole, healthcare budgets focus heavily on treating
diseases in progress, and very little, no more than 5 per cent, is spent on pre-
cautions and active prevention.80 Insurance companies and organizations
have been advised to adopt a mental shift from medicine reimbursement
to prevention policies, from treating the symptoms to seeking the root
causes. Many diseases are preventable and reversible by adopting a pathway
that would slowly influence the expression of “bad” genes and promote the
impact of “good” ones. Researchers have argued that this approach will
result in significant savings of up to 75 per cent of health costs in the long
term.81
Our potential is not completely hard-wired in DNA. Genes are not totally fixed from
birth, and can be modified by behaviors.
CASE STUDIES
Cultural Reform
In 1922, Ataturk abolished the caliphate and conducted swift and sweeping
reform in Turkey. New policies even banned religious dressing in public institu-
36 Intercultur al Communication
tions, including the traditional fez and turban. The national legislation was
constructed using business legal codes inspired by those from Germany, judicial
codes from Italy, and civil codes from Switzerland. By replacing the Arabic alpha-
bet with the Latin one, within two years, the literacy rate increased from 10 to 70
per cent. Women were granted suffrage in 1935, well ahead of many European
countries, including those whose laws Turkey borrowed from. Ataturk famously
said that “everything we see in the world is the creative work of women.” In the
space of 15 years, Ataturk transformed a conservative and feudal Turkey into a
famously liberal, progressive and secular country from the ashes of the Ottoman
Empire.
In 2010, the 26-year-old Tunisian street vendor Bouzizi set himself alight and triggered a revolutionary
wave throughout the Islamic world. His act of defiance against injustice was the beginning of the
so-called Arab Spring, which has been dramatically changing the political and religious landscape
of three continents that make up the Middle East ever since/ ”Visitors at the tomb of Bouzizi in Sidi
Bouzid, (Tunisia),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Enforced Behavior
The public greeting “Heil Hitler” was believed to be a powerful conditioning
device.83 It probably started as an outward token of conformity. For those who
didn’t support Hitler, but had to follow him, this greeting created a profound
inconsistency between “behavior” and “belief” called cognitive dissonance. In or-
der to solve this schizophrenic discomfort, people tried to establish their psychic
equilibrium by consciously making themselves believe what they said and did,84
mutating their conscience. Regardless of the nature of the government, many
The Survival of the Most Cultured 37
other acts of public conformity, political rituals and legal regulations employ
repeated behaviors with the aim of changing culture.85
Sale Tactic
The “foot-in-the-door” compliance or the “lowball technique” is popular among
sales people. It capitalizes on our tendency to align behavior and belief. First,
customers are made to agree to a small request (e.g. agree to have a look a car
with a very cheap price), and once some behaviors have been shown (e.g. about
to sign the paper), a greater request will be revealed (e.g. extra charge for parts).
Since the customers have already committed, either verbally or through an ac-
tion, they experience an inner need to make their attitude consistent with their
words and deeds by following through and developing the belief that the car is
actually still a good buy. This tactic is especially effective when combined with
the tactic of “but you are free,” giving the customers the feeling they have been
coaxed, not coerced into the sale.86
Match the above cases with the following statements, each case can have more
than one match:
1. People fight for what they believe, but also believe what they are fighting for.
2. Non-typical, random, radical or deviated behaviors are more than just excep-
tions and can gradually grow into new norms.
3. Even when the act is against the belief, repeated behavior can change at-
titudes and eventually deep-seated values.
38 Intercultur al Communication
4. “Thought is the child of action” (Disraeli). We forge the definition of the “self”
by our deeds. Once given a role, it does not take long for us to act the role
and become the role.
Behaviors are not the end point of the interaction. They are both the consequence
and the driving force of culture and environment. At the same time, behaviors are
directed by genes, but can also modify genes.
and genes, but behavior also wields incredible power in changing culture
and genes. Culture is both a dynamic and stable survival strategy. Human
beings are not only the product of culture and its interaction with genes and
environment, but also active agents in producing culture, changing our own
genetic make-up, while relentlessly shaping and reshaping our environment.
Due to this complexity, any cultural analysis should take into account a
particular context in which an event occurs. The force of environment,
genes, brain, culture and behaviors varies in each circumstance. Hence, in
our Diagram of Diversity Pathways, context is represented by a circle that
envelops all varieties of interaction.
ACTIVITY
Look at Figure 1.5 – The Diagram of Diversity Pathways, and give each arrow of
interaction a number. For each number, do some quick research and find an
example to illustrate the dynamic relationship between these factors. You can
use search phrases such as “influence of X on Y” or “interaction between X and Y.”
1.4 Globalization
At this point, some healthy skepticism raises the question: “If our diversity
is so immense, why do we have a seemingly unavoidable globalization that
is apparently blurring cultural boundaries more than ever?”
Taking a look around, it is noticeable that societies are increasingly
converging towards similar patterns. When Marshall McLuhan coined
the concept of the “global village,”90 he was referring to Plato’s definition of
a city’s proper population, i.e. the ideal number of people who live within
the range of a public speaker. Plato believed that the magic number was
5040 citizens. Nowadays, technology has replaced the public speaker and
connects billions of people via networks of media, commerce, and migra-
tion. However, is globalization a new phenomenon? How is it possible for
diversity and globalization, conflict and cooperation to coexist?
Theorists have long battled with the question of whether human nature
is good or bad. Earlier theorists and theologians emphasized the warlike
essence of the human mind with phrases such as “law of the jungle,” “every
man for himself,” “dog eat dog,” and “survival of the fittest.” 94-95-96-97 This view
is still supported by some modern thinkers, including the 21st century-Nobel
Laureate Oliver Williamson.98
However, recent studies have consistently proved that human nature is
not at all naturally evil.99-100-101-102-103 In their book A Cooperative Species: Hu-
man Reciprocity and its Evolution, the economists Sam Bowles and Herbert
Gintis argued that humans genuinely want to cooperate and sincerely care
about the well-being of their own group.104 This psychology helps to bond
individuals in building a prosperous and united community for surviving
and competing with other groups. Evolution hence favors cooperative traits,
but there’s a twist: this cooperation goes hand in hand with aggression
towards outsiders. Groups that have a disproportionate number of selfish
The Survival of the Most Cultured 41
and warlike, or peaceful and altruistic people will die out. Interestingly, and
also uncomfortably, the authors assert that war is a necessary tool for this
cooperative trait to evolve in humans. However, wars and conflicts are not
inevitable. According to the authors, humans are cultural animals, capable
of making sure that our legacy need not to be our destiny.105
“Warfare is ultimately not a denial of the human capacity for cooperation, but merely the most destructive
expression of it.” – Lawrence H. Keeley / “The legacy of war in Sarajevo, (Bosnia and Herzegovina),”
MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
With a capacity for culture, we are able to bring down the genetic fence and
welcome strangers into our circle of trust. This psychology is so important
that it has become our subconscious, intuitive response, or “first instinct.”108
Neuro-economic evidence has shown that this instinct makes us coopera-
tive, even when we have nothing to gain and even at our own expense.109
Think about the time when you rushed to give back a forgotten wallet to a
stranger or helped a lost child find her/his parents.
Latest research in the interdisciplinary fields of neurosciences, biology
and psychology has convinced many that the mainstream neo-classical
economic theory of “homo economicus” is problematic. In 2015, the World
Economic Forum published an article that dismissed the idea that we act
rationally to maximize our own utility. This assumption of human nature
underpins our current economic model, which allows Adam Smith’s “invis-
ible hand” to function freely for a better world.110 As the author argues, we are
not only motivated by power and wanting, but also by care and systems of
affiliation,111 which help us to form relationships and build trust even with
strangers of a different group. This article is part of an emerging ideology
featuring the caring economy112-113 – a new paradigm that fully reflects what it
is to be human as we shift from the industrial to the post-industrial knowl-
edge era in an attempt to build a more equitable and sustainable world.
Norway is a good example of a caring economy. Norway and other Scandinavian countries (Finland,
Sweden, Denmark and Iceland) follow the Nordic economic model that prioritizes a progressive welfare
system. Norwegian parents are entitled to 46 weeks at full salary for childcare – one of many policies that
helps women to fully contribute to the workforce and top the Global Gender Index/ ”A child with the Tiger
Statue in Oslo, (Norway),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
The Survival of the Most Cultured 43
With the capacity of culture and, hence, the ability to go beyond kinship,
during the last 10,000 years, the tension between “cooperation within in-
group” and “aggression towards outgroups” has tended to give more weight
to cooperation and softened group boundaries. Despite numerous wars, over
a long period of time, reaching out to cooperate with strangers has steadily
proved to be a successful cultural strategy that returns better outcomes
than endless conflicts and revenge.
The consequence of this process is that human beings have evolved into
larger and larger groups and communities. The history of mankind has
witnessed a constant growth of the cooperation process that transformed
small tribes into chiefdoms, chiefdoms to nascent city-states, city-states
to nation states, and nation states to collections of nations such as ancient
Rome or the European Union (EU). The next logical step is, of course, the
“global village,” or, in another word, “globalization.”
In short, globalization is not completely new. It is the ultimate stage of a
cultural adaption process that endows with the psychological capacity to
cope with effective resource management, diversity, and other problems
in the course of existence. A timely example EU countries’ willingness to
bail out Greece.114 The money they gave away was worth less than the cost
to their own economies if Greece defaults. In the end, richer Eurozone
countries keep more of their wealth by giving quite a lot of it away. The very
psychology that enables us to form groups larger than family also enables
us to create an increasingly interconnected world.
Despite the immense diversity, humans are the only species who can extend cooper-
ation beyond kinship and form larger communities of unrelated individuals, thanks
to the capacity of culture. This insight questions the mainstream economic model of
“homo economicus” – the notion that humans are rational, selfish, and will attempt
to maximize their utility for gains.
At this point, it should be clear that the capacity for culture allows us to
juggle two contrasting incentives: (1) the tendency to diversify in order to
recognize those we can trust and to safeguard cultural resources and; (2)
44 Intercultur al Communication
The changes we are witnessing with globalization are fast, complex and
on an international scale. More than ever in the history of mankind, a
capacity for cultural adaption is vital, because intercultural contacts are
pervasive and unavoidable.
• Globalization is not new, but in the modern era, this process is driven by differ-
ent factors: (a) speed of technology and information development; (b) rapid
changes in global demography; and (c) the emergence of a global economy.
• By being exposed to different cultures and purposely changing our behaviors,
our brains can become culturally tuned, allowing us to adapt to any culture on
demand.
ACTIVITY
Summary
1. It is mostly our culture, not our genes that supplies the majority of solutions
and guidance we use to survive and prosper in the society of our birth. Hence,
culture is the survival strategy of our species. Instead of waiting for genes to
evolve, we use ideas (culture) to advance.
2. The capacity for culture began with social learning, or the ability to learn and
imitate others, to select the best practices, improve them, and teach them to
others.
3. Cultural diversity is crucial because it is a regulator for (a) safeguarding cultural
resources, recognizing who we can trust; and (b) negotiating cultural resources
with other human groups for mutual interests. Effective resource management
can lead to both the dividing and merging of cultures.
4. The diversity in human’s many cultures is driven by many factors that dynami-
cally interact with one another: environment, genes, brain and behavior. None
The Survival of the Most Cultured 47
Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the “tree of culture” and position diverse cultural elements in accord-
ance with this metaphor.
• Explain the dynamics and stability of the different elements in the tree meta-
phor with appropriate examples.
• Describe the Inverted Pyramid model and position a cultural case in the correct
layer and unit of analysis.
• Prove the signif icance of intercultural competence in doing business
internationally.
Chapter outline
2.1 The metaphorical tree of culture 50
2.1.1 Fundamental Concern 51
2.1.2 Value 52
2.1.3 Outward Expression 52
2.2 The change in culture 53
2.2.1 Static vs. Dynamic Cultural Paradigm 53
2.2.1.1 Static Paradigm 53
2.2.1.2 Dynamic Paradigm 53
2.2.1.3 The Role of Context 55
2.2.2 The Dynamics of Values 56
2.2.2.1 Cultural Paradox 56
2.2.2.2 The Non-Binary Structure of Values 59
2.2.3 The Dynamics of Change and Stability 61
2.2.3.1 Different Speeds of Change 61
2.2.3.2 The Illusion of Change 62
2.3 The inverted pyramid model 66
2.3.1 The Universal Level 66
2.3.1.1 Differences as Starting Point 67
2.3.1.2 Similarities as Starting Point 69
2.3.2 The Collective Level 71
2.3.2.1 Culture at the Collective Level 71
2.3.2.2 Four Units of Analysis at the Collective Level 72
2.3.3 The Individual Level 75
2.3.4 Observing Culture from all Three Analysis Levels 76
2.4 Culture and international business 78
2.4.1 The Persistence of Diversity 79
2.4.2 Think Global – Plan Local – Act Individual 82
50 Intercultur al Communication
In the previous chapter, we discussed how culture has largely replaced genes
to guide humans in the survival game. We also explored how the notion of
plasticity (i.e. adaptiveness) can be applied to culture, genes, environment,
the brain and behaviors. The dynamic interaction of these factors creates
an intricate web of possibilities to change, and that explains the immense
level of diversity as well as globalization that we see today.
Since culture is such a dynamic force, in order to analyze different cul-
tures effectively, we first need to agree on some generic frameworks. We
want to know the generic components of a culture, the “size” of a culture,
and the different levels of analysis. While culture evolves as a survival
strategy, we nevertheless want to know some principles that, to a certain
extent, can help us predict that process of evolution and change. Finally,
from a practical point of view, what can we do to deal with this complexity
and dynamics effectively? These will be the topics of discussion in this
chapter.
Outward
Expressions
Values
Fundamental concerns
Fundamental concerns are the building blocks of our culture – the very foun-
dation of the human social learning environment, which, as we discussed
in the previous chapter, makes us different from other animals. This is the
evolutionary root of culture as survival strategy. They are universal, generic
and fundamental elements such as politics, arts, religion, and languages, etc.
None of them can produce a product that directly affects our reproduction
and survival, but they have been evolved to enhance our performance.
For example, language developed because we need to negotiate cultural
resources, while religion, art, and politics developed because they give
us courage and hope, “coordinating our action, uniting us against com-
mon foes” and promoting “norms that glue society together.”1 Any human
group that failed to acquire these building blocks could find themselves
in competition with those who had. Imagine a tribe who goes to war with
music, songs and poems that motivate their willingness to sacrifice, with
a social system that promises them valuable rewards after a victory, or
with a belief that God(s) is/are on their side. A culture that is sophisticated
and supportive of the need to survive is more likely to help the tribe win
the battle if their enemy is not equipped with an equally effective culture.
These building blocks have become essential parts of culture because they
promote survival and reproduction, regardless of whether they are true or
false, moral or immoral, peaceful or violent. They are fundamental concerns
of human beings, shared by all societies, because they are needed to advance
the human species through the form of culture. They help us to reproduce,
to survive and to dominate any given environment.
At a deeper level, fundamental concerns also extend to what we normally
think of as values, such as loyalty, freedom or hierarchy. These cultural
notions are universally seen as unavoidable concerns in any culture. Loyalty,
freedom and hierarchy are essential since they are drivers in the forming
of cultural groups, regardless of their size: a band, a tribe, a chiefdom, a
city-state, a nation state, an empire, or a league of nations. Thus, in principle,
all the values we can think of are also fundamental concerns.
In our metaphorical tree of culture, fundamental concerns are repre-
sented by the trunk and the roots of the tree. They indicate our commonality
and sameness as human beings, without which we will be disadvantaged in
the survival game. The trunk and the roots of the tree are grounded firmly in
the earth, which symbolically reminds us of the ultimate biological reason
why culture ever came to exist in the first place: to replace genes, helping
us to survive and advance as a species.
52 Intercultur al Communication
2.1.2 Value
The third component of culture are the myriad of objects, symbols and
behaviors that are outward expressions of the fundamental concerns and
values. Outward expressions are visible, tangible, and include things such as
specific kinds of clothes, specific styles of houses and technology, specific
words and documents, specific policies, specific actions and practices, etc.
In short, our “tree of culture” consists of: (1) the roots and the trunk that
represent the evolutionary purpose of culture, which, in turn, has become a
fundamental concern of the human species; (2) the branches, which are the
values that represent various degrees of importance each society, individual or
context places on fundamental concerns; and (3) the leaves, which represent
visible outward expressions of all the specific objects, symbols and behaviors
that are the physical manifestation of our values and fundamental concerns.
culture is a living organism with a life of its own and different upheavals,
sentiments, dramas and contradictions. It is anything but a time-free “fos-
sil.”12 In fact, culture can be seen as a series of dynamic responses to internal
and external factors.
Changes can be so sudden, so fundamental and so fast that it is almost
impossible for the average differences between cultures to remain the
same throughout history. Think about the life of the many aboriginal
communities and native tribes in Australia and the Amazon who came
into contact with modernity within a very short period of time. A change
of government can have a significant impact on a society such as Tunisia,
where, in 1956, the president transformed the country into the most secular
nation in the Arab world and banned the Islamic hijab.13 Now compare this
with Iran, where the revolution in 1979 turned the country into a theocracy
with the enforced wearing of the Islamic hijab for every woman, including
foreigners.14 One needs to look no further than North and South Korea to
see how the political context has divided one country, and each part has
evolved a very different culture, despite sharing the same roots. In China,
to cope with a growing population, the government followed a strict state-
mandated one-child policy. Enforcement of this radical law has transformed
the cultural perception of gender equality, filial piety, patrilineality and the
notion of the male bread winner, since daughters are expected to take on as
many responsibilities as sons.15 Globalization and the interconnectedness
of multicultural societies also act as powerful drivers for cultural change,
as in the case of Canada, Japan and Morocco, where collectivistic values
have become very dynamic over time.16 These examples question the no-
tion of static culture (i.e. that cultures only change very slowly, and the
gaps between them remain more or less the same). As survival strategies,
cultures around the world are more dynamic processes than entities that
change together in unison. In fact, the word “culture” should be seen as a
verb, not a noun.17
ACTIVITY
“Culture” is derived from the Latin word “colere” – to “till” the soil for farming.
The concept signals growth and development rather than stability. In the Indo-
nesian language, “budi” – understood as culture – has a deeply philosophical
and religious meaning. Similarly, the Chinese word for culture “wen-hua,” is the
combination of two components: “literature” and “change.” Carry out research
and find out the meaning of “culture” in five other non-Latin languages.
The Evolving Culture 55
Outward
Expressions
context
Values
Fundamental concerns
When scholars discuss “change” in culture, most of the time the focus is
meant to be a change in values. But since we cannot see a value, we can only
evaluate a change of value through the changes in outward expressions.
This leads to many questions: “If conflicting outward expressions co-exist,
does that mean conflicting values also co-exist?” “Will a change in outward
expressions correlate with a change in values?” “Do outward expressions
drive values, or do values dictate outward expressions?” Let’s discuss each
of these questions in turn.
Contrasting values and outward expressions co-exist in Tunisia/ “Women in bikini and hijab on Tunis
beach, (Tunisia),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
The Evolving Culture 57
Travelers scratch their heads on learning that aggressive Thai boxing (Muay
Thai) is traditionally taught in harmonious Thai Buddhist temples, and
bar-goers may wonder why British hooligans are so infamous23-24 given
that the British character is regularly portrayed as very reserved.25 While
abundant in generally homogeneous cultures, paradoxes are a normality
in multicultural societies such as Israel, Malaysia and South Africa, where
opposing values and outward expressions co-exist.
If culture is viewed as dynamic, paradoxes should be understood as an
inherent part of culture. Opposites co-exist simultaneously and can reverse
their positions at a given point in history, depending on the context. The
yin-yang philosophy, which intrinsically embraces paradoxes for a healthy
existence and development, is a good way of understanding paradox.26 Yin
and yang produce each other, too much yin will provoke yang and vice
versa. Each can be the cause or the effect of the other, and the effect of
one can only be understood by considering the role played by the other.27
Let’s look again at the apparently contradictory example of Thai boxing in
the Buddhist temple. A fundamental Buddhist teaching is that we cannot
control what fate brings our way, but we can control our attitude to it. This
notion is interwoven into martial arts across Asia, where practitioners are
trained to purify their minds, to put themselves under the duress of attack
and not show or respond with anger.28 The calmness of the mind and the
physical action seem to be opposing, but they are mutually complementary,
and a balance of the two will lead to a desirable result, in this case, fighting
that embraces equanimity, mutual respect, humility, honor and aesthetics.
The more we pay attention, the more we will be amazed at how often
paradoxes exist, no matter how strong the dominant or stereotypical values
are. A political party, a policy, a movement, a school curriculum, or even
a movie can show a completely contradictory side to the collective as-
sumption. Many people must struggle to understand why a TV series that
features only pathetic losers, such as “The Big Bang Theory,” gains so much
popularity in a country like the US that is known for its competitive spirit
and “rags to riches” mentality. Similarly, in the masculine culture of Japan,
the bishōnen trend (beautiful [male] youth) praises the kind of male beauty
that has distinctly feminine features: slender, clear and fair skin, stylish
hair, high cheekbones and pouty lips.
58 Intercultur al Communication
The bishōnen social phenomenon provides an outlet for the conventionally strict gender relations in
conservative and masculine Japan/ “Example of a bishōnen,” KISHI SHIOTANI. 29
Thus, we are intrinsically both yin and yang, conservative and liberal, col-
lectivistic and individualistic, depending on a particular circumstance.
Again, the role of context is crucial in understanding not only cultural
change, but also cultural paradox. Researchers have also suggested “index-
ing” context30 (e.g. culture will change in this direction if facing this situation
of, for example, “financial crisis”), or seeing culture as a “tool box”31 or “card
game”32 in which we can respond to each particular situation in life by
playing a different value (e.g. I choose to deal with this business partner
assertively because it seems like a good strategy to work with her/him).
This notion of “culture-as-situated cognition”33 suggests that what matters
is not whether collectivistic and individualistic values exist, but when they
are activated and influence our concept of self and behaviors.
Neuroscience weighs in,34-35-36-37 confirming what behavioral studies have
proved,38-39 i.e. that context drives different activations of neurons and
prompts a person to have either collectivistic or individualistic thoughts,
The Evolving Culture 59
that societies vary on this spectrum, leaning either towards (1) femininity,
with both men and women are modest and caring, or (2) masculinity, with
men are competitive/assertive, women are modest and caring. 46 The latter
can be confusing, since a masculine society – if we follow the logic of the
former – is supposed to see both men and women being competitive and
assertive. The static paradigm struggles to label a society with two contrast-
ing values, where men are masculine and women are feminine. And in an
effort to fit the binary spectrum, it makes such a society a masculine one.
If we can comprehend the normality of paradoxes and the dynamic
nature of culture and context, we can rethink the assumed binary
structure and question its simplicity. Think about how often we label a
person as good or bad. Is this person entirely good or entirely bad? Did
(s)he just show some socially perceived good or bad behaviors because
(s)he happened to be in that specific situation? Have we considered that
this “good” or “bad” character can change over time? If a human being is
this complex, how complex is a society, especially a multicultural society
consisting of many sophisticated and interconnected communities and
cultures?
In our metaphorical tree of culture, values are represented by branches of
the tree. They are not binary, i.e. one end is “conservative” and the other is
“liberal.” Each value can be a separate branch of the tree, either the same size
or a different size. Depending on a particular context, a value will prevail.
For example, a culture can be conservative when it comes to gay marriage
but quite liberal when it comes to abortion. This is the case in Vietnam,
where “pro-choice” is rarely questioned, but homosexuality remains taboo.
Multicultural societies can be both “liberal” and “conservative” as national,
organizational and different group cultures may show opposing values.
Over time, circumstances constantly impact these values and drive them
towards responsive changes, very much as a tree changes according to its
environment.
This non-binary view of values also reflects the variation within a society,
since within-group diversity is often greater than between-group diversity. 47
In other words, the difference between any two random people from the
same culture, say, from Niger, is greater than the average difference between
this Western African country and Palau – a Pacific island nation thousands
of miles away. If all the diversity in a country is reduced to a numerical
“average,” we risk glossing over fundamental patterns and differences that
characterize many co-cultures that exist within a socially constructed
boundary. Take Togo, where 37 tribal groups speak 39 languages and
Argentina – which ranks among the least diverse countries in the world
The Evolving Culture 61
Context is the main indicator for predicting change within and between cultures.
Paradoxes and contrasting values/outward expressions co-exist, manifesting them-
selves depending on particular contexts.
concern ought to be, i.e. low, average, or high. These moral positions change,
some slowly, some a bit faster, depending on the context. For example, family
bonding is a fundamental concern in all societies. However, urban and
modern societies tend to see this value changing faster than in rural and
remote areas of the world. At the same time, all communities around the
world are moving, albeit at different speeds. Remembering this point enables
us to avoid one of the most common mistakes we make in discussion: “Oh,
but everything there is changing so fast, people are not the same anymore.”
That may be true, but don’t forget that our values are also not the same
anymore when compared with our own past. The world does not just stop
still to watch some of it parts changing. What matters most in this conversa-
tion is the context: what kinds of circumstances and situations that drive
the change? As contexts differ, so do the speed and nature of the change.
Of all three levels, the top layer of our “tree of culture,” changes the
fastest. We are constantly experiencing new things and we do different
things on different days. Let’s stick to the example of family bonding. While
our fundamental concern of family bonding is stable, the value we attach
to a strong or weak family bond can change over time. However, the way
we express our bond changes rapidly in terms of specific words, symbols
and behaviors. Some practices may change at a slower rate (e.g. having a
family dinner every day), but there is a constant stream of different things
we tell people in our family every day, and there are specific things we do
for them every day. It can hurt, it can heal, it can build, or it can crash. But,
above all, it is a fast flow of endless words, things, and actions that we use
to express how bonded we are with our family. In short, these outward
expressions constantly create our tangible world, the living cells of our life.
Context aside, fundamental concerns are pretty stable, values (i.e. the degree of
importance) are dynamic, but outward expressions change fastest of all.
assume “Yes, I’ve seen the (whole) tree!” even though, in fact, we have only
seen the leaves.
The underlying message is: What we see is just a very small part of the
whole. Fundamental life concerns and values are deep under the forest
canopy. We cannot rush above it and expect a thorough understanding.
You need to be “down to earth,” on your feet, standing next to the tree to
observe it. More importantly, this warns us that the superficial embracing
of food, music, or clothes does not mean someone has changed her/his
cultural values. Of course, repetition of behaviors can eventually change a
deep-seated value (see Chapter 1 and the bi-directional interaction between
culture and behavior), but we are never sure if the change is complete or
not just by looking at the outward expressions. We can be so wrong when
assuming that the vibrant Christmas decorations and festive atmosphere
in predominantly Buddhist countries such as Vietnam and Thailand mean
people there have adopted Christian beliefs. An urban Sri Lankan boy who
has tattoos, skates to school, and frequents Western fast-food chains has
not automatically embraced Western values. We may be surprised that
Christmas is seen as an excuse for social entertainment or opportunities for
commercial marketing, and the Sri Lankan boy may leave his skateboard
neatly outside and kneel down to kiss the feet of his teacher to express his
gratitude according to the local custom. Why? Because the outward changes
we see don’t reflect, or have not yet led to a genuine change in values.
What can we say about the values of this man by looking at his outfit?/ “A pedestrian in Tripoli, (Libya),”
MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
64 Intercultur al Communication
Now let’s consider a reverse example. Many Muslim girls may fully veil
themselves and pray five times a day, but it is possible that they are just as
progressive as women who have chosen more casual and generic outfits. In
fact, some of them may consider a simple and modest style of dress the epitome
of progressiveness, since it empowers their inner beauty, channels attention
to their ability, and reduces subconscious stereotypes based on appearance.
Yemeni men and boys usually wear a dagger (jambiyas). This custom, together with the excessive amount
of weapons in the country and the constant conflicts are outward expressions that often mislead outsiders
into thinking of Yemenis as “aggressive” people. On the contrary, Yemen’s revolution was the first and
the only transition of power in the Arab Spring in which a dictator was patiently persuaded to peacefully
withdraw from office with a mutual agreement. Yemeni protesters wrapped a pink ribbon around their
heads. Pink represents “love” and hence it was a signal of peaceful intent. Yemen also presents to the world
Tawakkul Karman – the first Arab woman-, the second Muslim woman- and the second youngest Nobel
Peace Prize winner to date.. The daggers were historically instruments of hunting, but now are symbols of
social status, prestige, power, manhood, responsibility, honor and, to a certain extent, are similar to the
wearing of swords in Europe/ “Yemeni boy with dagger,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
be coupled with the possibility that outward expressions and values can
change and be adjusted depending on the context. In fact, we should always
question what we see and ask ourselves: “What does this practice mean?” In
the GLOBE project, researchers reported that cultural practices (as is) may
contradict cultural values (should be).50 What people do can be the opposite
of what they believe. Knowing the values of a culture cannot guarantee that
we will know about the practices in that culture, because culture is more
than a set of values.51 Observing the practices of a culture cannot guarantee
that we will know about the values in that culture, because the outward
expressions can mislead us.
CASE STUDY
There have been many metaphors of culture in the history of intercultural commu-
nication. Three popular ones are the “iceberg,”52-53 the “software of the mind” and
the “onion.”54 The floating iceberg has its tip visible above the water and can be
seen as representing outward expressions. Most of its mass is submerged under
the water. These are the values that we cannot see. The metaphor implies that we
are misled by what we can see with our own eyes (i.e. the small tip of the iceberg)
and catastrophes can happen when we collide with the mass, deep underwater.
The software metaphor posits that culture can be seen as a program
hardwired in our mind. Our culture dictates our values, behaviors and outward
expressions. Once “installed,” this cultural software runs our psyche with distin-
guished traits that are persistent and difficult to change.
An onion has four layers. The three outer layers are practices that are easy to
change, similar to the outward expressions in our tree metaphor. The core of the
onion, which is very stable, represents values.
context
INDIVIDUAL
Unique
Cultural self
representation
Outward expressions
Objects/ symbols/behaviors COLLECTIVE 4 units of analysis
Change every moment Global culture
National culture
Values Organizational culture
Change according to context Group culture
Fundamental concerns Each culture has:
More stable Differing degrees of values
Different outward expressions
UNIVERSAL
All humans share certain
Outward expressions
Baseline values
Fundamental concerns
the American diplomatic corps seldom learned the language or the culture
of the country to which they were assigned.62 Hall was employed to educate
American diplomats about how and why cultural differences could con-
tribute to the failure of their missions. And thus, a new discipline was born.
Given this context, it is understandable why Hall regarded cultural differ-
ences as a starting point. Here, the “difference” is far from the positive impact
of “diversity” or the joy of “curiosity and exploration,” but the kind of differ-
ence that implicitly tells you: “Here is the list of potential problems that you
should be ready to deal with. Good luck!” Accordingly, his iceberg metaphor
for culture (see case study in the previous section) has a psychological basis
that emphasizes the “dark side” of culture and the adverse consequences of
differences. By indicating that the hidden part of the iceberg is also the most
critical component and the true essence of a culture, this metaphor prepares
for a defensive and reactionary state of mind, typical of the Cold War era.
Culture is important, but it is a danger and a mystery. It is hidden, invisible,
unknown, and it is all about differences. For those who are familiar with
American historical events, the metaphor triggers a connection with the
sinking in 1912 of the Titanic, after colliding with an iceberg in the Atlantic
Ocean, which resulted in the deaths of more than 1,500 passengers and crew.
The “difference and problem-focused view” of culture has guided much
of the theory development and empirical testing in the literature of inter-
cultural management and communication. The result is that research and
training have been dominated by problems and such terms as “cultural dis-
tance,”63 “cultural misfit,” “liability of foreignness,” or the “consequences”64
when cultures “collide.”65 A content analysis of 1,141 articles from 1989–2012
reveals a 17:1 imbalance of negative over positive theoretical research
assumptions on the role of culture in international business contexts.66
Liabilities are associated with cultural differences by the underlying as-
sumption that differences are a source of problem, cost, risk, danger, and
difficulties. In the same vein, a prominent theorist in the field clearly stated
that “culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy” and “cultural
differences are a nuisance at best and often a disaster.”67 Consequently, the
focus of intercultural training has been mainly about helping clients to
navigate around dangerous icebergs. It is no coincidence that most books
on intercultural management are illustrated entirely using mishaps and
blunders in which cultural differences are the culprit.
This approach is not always helpful. As we briefly discussed in the case
study above, metaphors and their associated theories are powerful in
guiding behaviors and collective experience.68 In a self-fulfilling prophecy,
the way we describe cultural differences as problems may lead to the way
The Evolving Culture 69
The European Union received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012 for its achievement in transforming Europe
“from a continent of war to a continent of peace.” Starting with the Coal and Steel Community, six formerly
rival countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) were bonded by mutual
interests that would make any wars among them not merely unthinkable, but materially impossible/ “Café
in Baarle-Nassau” – This border town comprises 22 enclaves that belong to Belgium and 8 enclaves
that belong to the Netherlands, the borders are marked on the ground – JÉRÔME.87
The Evolving Culture 71
The starting point for fruitful intercultural exchanges should be built upon similari-
ties at the universal level. This creates a foundation of trust, acting as a positive
springboard that helps us to see diversity and differences in a positive light.
The second layer of the Inverted Pyramid model is collective. At this level,
we start to differ from each other to various degrees. Most intercultural
studies focus on this level with a strong emphasis on the diversity among
different national cultures. We will discuss here what the “tree of culture”
looks like at this level, and whether nation/country is the only unit for
identifying culture.
together. People work for money, but they also work for what they truly
believe in.100 How one feels is often more important than how much one
earns. A congruence between the values/practices of the organization and
that of the employees (Person-Organization Fit) results in a source of pride,
motivation, work effectiveness101 and creativity.102 For example, a study of
Indian IT workers shows that they are more loyal to the company because
it values their heritage and uniqueness.103 In contrast, a weak and negative
organizational culture is a barrier to growth and performance.
Since culture is seen as a tool to boost performance, organizational
culture can be very dynamic. Strategic management policies often aim at
promoting innovation and adjustment in order to respond to constantly
changing environment.104 Mergers, acquisitions, new markets, disruptive
technologies, social and political changes, etc. are among many forces that
demand organizations to be versatile and adaptive. For example, with the
majority of the modern workforce comprised of millennials, organizations
should foster values that this demographic find important: flexibility, crea-
tivity and social responsibility. Since they are also digital natives, outward
expressions such as technology-based tools and platforms should replace
traditional working environments. This means virtual cooperation, wireless
workplaces and creative ways to foster relationships instead of face-to-face
contact.
CASE STUDY
While many outsiders consider this culture disrespectful and inappropriate, FPT
employees and managers seem to regard it as a sign of intimacy and an effective
tool for building camaraderie.
1. What are the concerns, values and outward expressions of FPT’s organiza-
tional culture?*
2. What are the stereotypical values and outward expressions of Vietnam as a
national culture with regard to those issues mentioned in (1)?
3. What conclusion can you draw from comparing (1) and (2)?
(*) See again an example of identifying concerns, values, and outward expressions in
the first summary box in section 2.
The third layer of the Inverted Pyramid is individual. At this level, we not
only differ from each other in group-pattern but every single one of us differs
completely from one another. Each person is unique and different, even
among those who share the same collective system. A man born and raised
in Saudi Arabia may not embrace the stereotypical collective values and
76 Intercultur al Communication
CASE STUDY
Simon is the English name of Ahmad – a 45-year-old single man born and raised
in Egypt. He comes from a Shia family – a Muslim sect that accounts for around
8 per cent of the Egyptian population. He is currently in Canada, on a six-month
business assignment with a partner company. He quickly fits into the Canadian
culture. He feels at home and often drinks wine with his host family. He openly
admires the way Canadian people embrace freedom of speech and the effec-
tiveness of social welfare. He wishes that Egyptians would voice their opinion
more liberally, and that Egypt would close the inequality gap with a more caring
economy. At the weekend, he regularly cooks for friends and his host family,
proudly showing that hospitality is a wonderful aspect of the Egyptian culture,
something that other cultures are short of.
To analyze this case, we need to take a holistic and systematic view. Here is an
example with “freedom of speech”:
Universal level
• Concern for “freedom of speech”
• Value is held at an abstract baseline that we all agree upon
• Outward expressions can be verbal expression of personal opinion such as “I
think…”
1. Continue to analyze this case study according to the tree metaphor and
the Inverted Pyramid model with other universal concerns such as “social
welfare,” “differences in gender’s role,” and “hospitality.” You are encouraged
to use the internet for more information.
2. At the collective level, how many cultures are there that Simon can be a
member of?
3. Imagine that Simon and someone have a disagreement on the fundamen-
tal concerns of “freedom of speech” and “hospitality,” what can you say to
bring them closer to each other and bridge their differences?
4. Imagine that you are going to start working with Simon next week on a
project, please make a list of what you should do to prepare for a good
working relationship. Use theories to explain.
5. Bearing in mind the plasticity of culture, the dynamics of values and
outward expressions, what are the advantages that Simon has while work-
ing in Canada? What are the advantages that his partner company has by
hosting him?
patterns of leaves and canopies, and think to themselves: “Yes! I have seen
the trees. They are all the same!”
The second reason for the revival of local cultures despite globalization
has to do with the conscious appreciation of our own culture when the
contrast is overwhelming. When we are safely inside our own culture,
we tend to take it for granted, like the air we breathe. But imagine that
you are in water. The moment we submerge our heads in the water is the
moment we realize what our own culture means to us, what our air means
to us. Similarly, a fish will not understand the meaning of water until
it finds itself on the ground. This is the moment where the differences
between our culture and the new culture are obvious, undeniable and
striking. The contrast put things into perspective. We start to realize who
we actually are, what norms and values we actually have. Many expatri-
ates profess that they understand their culture better during the times
they are living abroad. Therefore, in order to be culturally competent,
knowing one’s own culture is not really a good starting point, but having
a chance to compare and experience both similarities and differences
of diverse cultures.
While many of us are able to see the benefit of coming into contact
with new cultures, others may feel an imbalance of power and regard this
cultural contact as a threat to the stability and order of society. They may
choose to react conservatively in response to the unfair trading of cultural
knowledge. We have witnessed many communities with a tendency to shield
and protect their traditions by distancing themselves from modernity. Here
is an example: In 1948, a devout Muslim teacher from Egypt by the name of
Sayyid Qutb was granted a college fellowship in the US. He arrived with a
benign view of the country, but witnessed what he saw as a society devoid
of ethics, a clash between the sacred Old and the immoral New world. He
returned to Egypt, where he refined a radical political theology that sees
the solution for the modern era in what happened in the glorious past,
inspiring and laying the foundation for an ideology that has become a global
headache: jihadism.112
The third reason why local culture revives in the face of globalization
has to do with the issue of identity. This is best understood by looking at
The United Arab Emirates (UAE). As a barren desert, the UAE has never
been a major stage of civilization. In 1971, seven autonomous sheikhdoms,
consisting of several tribes from all around the peninsula, were challenged
with the task of establishing a national identity based on a thin desert
history. Islam was seen as the primary binding force to the newly formed
nation, lending moral and legal substance to the fragile national culture.
The Evolving Culture 81
The author of this book witnessed a start-up in Dubai whose founder actively
donned a hijab because she wanted to convince customers that she was an
ambitious Emirati woman. When the search for an Emirati identity ended up
pretty swiftly on Islamic ground, she took a dramatic turn and completely
changed her way of life. Her entire wardrobe was thrown out and replaced
with a new one, all previous pictures on Facebook were erased. The young
entrepreneur set out on a greater mission to show people how a true Emirati
woman can also be progressive, liberal, honest and advanced: “If I appeared
like I used to be, nobody would take me serious. They would immediately
regard me as a non-Emirati. If I want to influence, I need to be seen as an
Emirati. And being an Emirati means being a Muslim.” As we can see,
religion does not just replace the UAE’s national history, it defines it and is
a source for the people to dwell on in their search for identity.
Outnumbered by an expat population that is seven times larger than the local population, many Emiratis
are conscious of not losing themselves in the melting pot. Instead, they shun foreign values and outward
expressions, adhering to Islamic traditions as a way to reinforce the newly constructed national identity/
“Dubai market, (UAE),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
village, French quarter, Little Saigon, Lithuanian plaza, gay village, Mormon
corridor, retirement community, hippie haven, etc. International business is
not going to be homogenized in a global village. In fact, we cannot talk about
global business without making it glocal business. As Kevin Roberts, CEO of
Saatchi & Saatchi said: “Anyone who wants to go global has to understand
the local. People live in the local. I’ve never met a global consumer. I never
expect to. We define ourselves by our differences. It’s called identity.”113
The top two layers of the Inverted Pyramid model (collective and individual) interact
with globalization in a dynamic way, a contextual give-and-take negotiation rather
than a straightforward linear process towards a merging of cultures. Factors that
reinforce collective culture and individual identities include, but are not limited to:
• market activities that fit stakeholders’ values
• reaction to cultural contrast
• reinforcement of identities
Savvy business people know that it’s easier for their product to win if it
taps into a human motivation or interest that is universally shared across
cultures, regardless of the context. This notion of “think global” resonates
with our Inverted Pyramid model and the tree metaphor in the sense
that it regards universal concerns and similarities as the starting point of
communication. Of course, universal concerns may still demand different
expressions and carry differing degrees of importance across cultures
and contexts, manifesting in a dynamics of values. This is where “plan
local” needs to align with cultural identity and local engagement. To win
people’s hearts, you must engage them on their own terms and in their own
languages. “Think global” and “plan local” go hand in hand on the road to
success. Companies that move too far in the direction of global consistency
may be disadvantaged when competing with local brands and, vice versa,
companies that rely heavily on culturally specific identities and connections
will be ill-equipped to expand their market beyond borders.
However, business does not stop at the “local.” The end contact is always
a specific person: a customer, a partner, or a colleague, etc. Each individual
engages in social interaction with an incredible complexity, since (s)he is
both a product and a creator of her/his culture. This person may subcon-
sciously follow the values of any collective cultures that (s)he is a member
The Evolving Culture 83
foreign assignments, mainly due to their failure to adjust to the host culture,
shows that working in international business can be challenging.114 And it
is costly too, as for each failed assignment, the damage for multinational
enterprises is between $40,000 and $1million.
None of us want to be one of those 40 per cent who return home before the
deal is sealed. Nor do we want to be the reason for costing our organization
resources because a working term is cut short. Our goal is to be successful
in the new age of management, which is no longer the management of work,
but is now the management of people. And if people are both products
and producers of their cultures, then this interaction between people and
culture is what we will need to know.
Summary
1. The “tree of culture” metaphor has three main components: Fundamental
concerns are many cultural notions that act as building blocks of a culture,
such as “hierarchy.” Values are the degree of importance each society, individual
or context places on these concerns (e.g. low, average or high on “hierarchy”).
Outward expressions are visible manifestations of these concerns and values
(e.g. respectful behaviors towards authority). Context aside, fundamental
concerns are stable, values are dynamic, but outwards expressions change
fastest of all.
2. Context is the main indicator for predicting change within and between
cultures, for understanding paradoxes and contrasting values/outwards
expressions that simultaneously co-exist.
3. Outward expressions can be misleading because what we see can be both “what
it is” and “what it is not.” A change in outward expressions does not readily
reflect a change of values, and vice versa.
4. The Inverted Pyramid model has three layers:
• Universal: The tree metaphor here indicates concerns, baseline values,
and outward expressions that we all share and agree on.
• Collective: There are four units of analysis (global culture; national cul-
ture; organizational culture; group culture [dominant and co-culture]),
each can be represented by a metaphorical tree that has differing levels
of importance placed on concerns, projecting a diversity of values and
outward expressions.
• Individual: each person is unique, with a tree metaphor that is never a
perfect reflection or representation of any of her/his collective cultures.
5. Collective cultures and individual cultural identities (top two layers of the
Inverted Pyramid model) interact with globalization in a dynamic way, a
contextual give-and-take negotiation rather than a straightforward linear
process heading towards a merging of cultures.
The Evolving Culture 85
Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the origin of stereotypes and prejudices from biology’s point of view.
• Explain the pitfall of stereotypes and prejudices with accurate examples.
• Given a specific case, recognize stereotypes, prejudices and explain the reasons.
• Given a specific case, propose alternative solutions.
• Describe strategies to live with stereotypes and reduce prejudices.
Chapter outline
3.1 Stereotype 88
3.1.1 The Origin of the Stereotype 89
3.1.1.1 A Survival Skill 89
3.1.1.2 A Social Mechanism 90
3.1.2 The Methodological Flaw in Stereotyping 91
3.1.2.1 Applying Collective Norms to Unique Individuals 92
3.1.2.2 Creating Incorrect Group Norms from Individual Information93
3.1.3 The Pitfalls of Stereotyping 95
3.1.3.1 Stereotypes can be Stronger than Fact and Rationality 95
3.1.3.2 Stereotypes Exclude Those Who Don’t Fit 96
3.1.3.3 The Threat of Stereotypes and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 97
3.1.3.4 Positive Stereotypes 98
3.2 Prejudice 100
3.2.1 The Origin of Prejudice 100
3.2.1.1 Group Categorization 100
3.2.1.2 Group Love 100
3.2.2 The Expression of Prejudice 102
3.2.2.1 Conflict of Resources 102
3.2.2.2 The Blame Game 103
3.2.2.3 Institutionalized Discrimination 105
3.2.2.4 Positive Discrimination 110
3.3 Strategies for living with stereotypes and reducing prejudices 111
3.3.1 Training Our Brain 112
3.3.1.1 Acknowledging Stereotypes 112
3.3.1.2 Training the Brain for Goals 112
3.3.2 Challenging Available Social Cues 115
3.3.2.1 Matching the Criteria for Cultural Fact 115
3.3.2.2 Checking Language and the Environment 117
3.3.2.3 Exposing Yourself to Counter-Stereotypes 118
3.3.2.4 Collecting Data 119
3.3.2.5 Creating a Vigilant Culture against Biases 120
3.3.2.6 Being on the Same Side 121
88 Intercultur al Communication
Everybody knows a joke that stereotypes a cultural group. The most com-
mon is the one about “Heaven and Hell”:
Heaven is a place where: The police are British, the chefs are French, the
lovers are Italian, and everything is organized by the Germans.
Hell is a place where: The police are French, the chefs are British, the
lovers are Germans, and everything is organized by the Italians.
The fact that people in each cited country can laugh about this suggests that
there is at least a grain of truth in this joke. In general, many of us have an
overwhelmingly stereotypical perception that the Italians are both erotic
and chaotic, and that the Germans are slightly better than the Italians at
structuring their lives, but at the same time can be quite uptight about
expressing emotion. As for the British, their gastronomy is not quite on par
with that of the French (in fact, French cuisine is so tasty that it has been
awarded World Heritage status by UNESCO), but the British are known for
seeing authority as a professional privilege, while the French may perceive
authority more as a right and make it less open to question.
Jokes aside, why do we form stereotypes? Are they all bad? How do stereo-
types lead to prejudices and discrimination? What are the consequences?
What can we do to deal with this tendency to lump people together, to
judge? And what can we do to make sure this inner voice does not transform
into discriminatory behavior? These are the questions that we will address
in this chapter. These issues are essential in cross-cultural communication,
not only because nobody can avoid stereotypes, but also because the biologi-
cal mechanism behind them can both enrich and impede us, and, when
stereotypes escalate to prejudices and discrimination, they can destroy us
and others.
3.1 Stereotype
A stereotype is a fixed, oversimplified idea about a particular social category
or collective culture that strongly influences our expectation and behaviors.1
At the second level of the Inverted Pyramid model, all units of analysis
(global, national, organizational and group culture) are subjected to this
tendency of being seen as a homogeneous mass: what “men” and “women”
can do, what “young” and “old” people can achieve, or how a particular
“profession” can be an indicator of an individual’s personality. This is not a
new phenomenon, and it is there for a reason.
Stereot ype – A Necessary Evil 89
us are guilty of putting others in a box. When things do not fit the boxes,
we are surprised. Whenever we are surprised, it probably means we have
just stereotyped.
ACTIVITY
Are you racist, sexist, homophobic or discriminatory? Many of us would say no,
and it is probably true in terms of any explicit bias. Those with explicit, overt
and ideological bias have a conscious belief that race, age, religion, ethnicity,
gender, etc. are the determinants of human traits and ability. They also say it out
loud, advocating this idea, even killing for it, as we have seen with right-wing
or supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, the Aryan Nation, neo-Nazi
groups, etc.
The second type of bias is implicit, conditioned, subconscious or covert.
It is not visible. We don’t know we have it. We even deny we have it. We get
extremely offended when accused of it, because we oppose such an idea. This
is exactly the reason why implicit bias is more harmful and widespread, since
we hurt others unknowingly. The truth is, all of us harbor more biases than we
think. This comes from our brains’ automated response that has been condi-
tioned and shaped by various social cues.
Please take the Implicit Association Test6 (free on the internet), but be pre-
pared to be surprised at how racist or sexist you actually are.
more complicated than objects. In this section, we will look at two basic
methodological mistakes in the process of stereotyping people.
This is a stereotypical image of video game players, who are all boys. In reality, the ratio of female to male
gamers is balanced, mirroring the population at large: Australia (47:53), 21 New Zealand (46:54),22 Finland
(49:51),23 etc., with Japanese female gamers surpassing males (66:34).24 By being trapped in this stereotype,
oblivious to sexism in video gaming and the underrepresentation of women as characters in games, the
industry has failed to capitalize on a massive potential market. However, the tide is changing fast. In
1989, women constituted only 3 per cent of the gaming industry. It is predicted that by 2020, the games
development workforce will be 50 per cent female25/ ”Children playing video games,” GAMESINGEAR. 26
The media often focuses on irregular traits and turns them into typical trademarks. Regular women rarely
look like these models, but the normalization of extremely skinny figures has made many women believe
themselves to be “not good enough,” causing insecurity and reinforcing sexism. Young women put their
health in danger by attempting to slim down to the unrealistic body image portrayed by the fashion
industry. Size 0 and 00 were invented due to changing clothing sizes over time. For example, a size 0 in 2011
is the equivalent of a size 2 in 2001 and is larger than a size 6 in 1970 and a size 8 in 1958. In other words, a
regular woman in the past could be seen as a plus-size woman by today’s standard. The social effect is so
destructive that France followed the example of Israel and banned ultra-skinny models in 2015, requiring
a minimum healthy BMI of 18.5/ ”Modern fashion standards,” JULIA KISHKARUK. 27
Stereot ype – A Necessary Evil 95
I’m a black man who grew up surrounded by white people. Growing up, I
was the only black person in my neighborhood, my school, and sometimes
it felt like the entire town. I never played basketball. I can’t rap or dance
well – I don’t even like hip hop. I’m really good at video games and I
watch baseball. When I got to college, my skin made me too black to fit
in with the white kids, and my skills/hobbies weren’t black enough to fit
in with the black kids.
It sucks to feel like you’re in the minority sometimes. It sucks even more
to feel like you’re not even good enough for the minority.34
In fact, every single one of us doesn’t fit. The reason is simple, boxes don’t
mix, but identities do. You may fit the stereotype of how someone from
Brunei looks like, but at the same time, you are not just a Bruneian but a
Buddhist, an entrepreneur, a global citizen, single father, a wannabe rock-
star, etc. Within and between each of these identities, there will always
be something about you that does not fit the stereotypical assumptions.
Sooner or later, you will face a few options: being forced into a box, being
left out of the picture, or struggling to fit in a box that is not “meant” for you.
Stereot ype – A Necessary Evil 97
A good case in point is women and the numerous stereotypes they have
to struggle with. The overwhelming stereotype is that they are homemakers,
i.e. generally, women want to be, should be, or have to be a care-giver. This
social expectation hampers women and they have to struggle much harder
than their male counterparts to advance in the workplace. Popular profiles
present girls and women as young, thin, beautiful, passive, dependent and
often incompetent. At the same time, boys and men are portrayed as ac-
tive, adventurous, powerful, sexually aggressive and largely uninvolved in
human relationships.35 This stereotype has popularized the meme “game
over,” which variously depicts a bride victoriously or desperately dragging
her groom into a wedding while the man shows a sad and helpless face. It
perpetuates the false idea that a woman’s purpose in life is to get married
and make a home, and a man’s mission is to escape this. It is not true, of
course, but it has become something that few of us bother to argue against.
Societies trapped in this stereotype fail to pay due respect and give equal
opportunities to half of the workforce. There are countless women who
are active citizens, who want to pursue serious careers, who strive to be
executives, who desire to lead and make an impact, and who just want to
be single or child-free.
of their contribution. In her book Murder and the Reasonable Man, Cynthia
Lee argues that the verdict on the shooting death of a black teenager by
a Korean shop owner was influenced by the positive stereotype of the
shooter as “unfortunate victim of ‘bad’ African or Latino looters.”46 This
event contributed to the 1992 riots in Los Angeles and has left a tension
between the two communities until this day. 47
African immigrants are described as an “Invisible Model Minority” because their high degree of success has
been overshadowed by negative stereotypes. In the US, 48.9 per cent of all African immigrants hold a college
diploma, more than double the rate of native-born white Americans.48 Immigrants from Egypt, Nigeria,
Cameroon, Uganda, Tanzania and Zimbabwe are among the best educated. A similar situation among
different ethnic groups is found in the UK, Australia and Canada/ ”High school students conducting
experiments,” UNKNOWN PHOTOGRAPHER, NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE.49
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3.2 Prejudice
If stereotypes can be both positive and negative, prejudices are often deeply
held negative feelings associated with a particular group. Built into the
notion of prejudice is a sense of hostility and judgment. While stereotypes
may be free from value and evaluation (e.g. people from Latin America are
Catholics), prejudices are loaded with feelings about what is good and what
is bad, what is moral and immoral (e.g. “my religion is the only true one, and
my God is the only true God.”) Consequently, people with prejudices are
likely to end up in hostile encounters where each side believes that their
view is the right one.
to start a family, how to become successful, and why doing all those things
in a certain cultural way is important. Naturally, we have evolved to build
a strong affection for our ingroup and our culture. It becomes the center
of everything, a yardstick that all other groups/cultures are measured and
judged by. Our pride and sense of superiority leads to a tendency to look
down on and distrust outgroup members (Social Identity Theory)52 as we
start forming certain prejudices towards others. In a nutshell, the love for
our ingroup and culture automatically causes us to have negative attitudes
towards outsiders.53 Our cruelty to “them” is the result of our kindness to “us.”
Because we naturally feel safer among our ingroup, the contact with
outgroups consequently triggers the nervous system to go into an automated
fight-or-flight mode, similar to the stereotype mechanism. Again, better
safe than sorry. That is how the brain has evolved, to protect us against any
possible danger as it constantly gauges whether people are “friends” or “foes.”
Physical traits (e.g. race, gender, age) and social cues (e.g. employees of the
competing firm or members of other political parties) can be indicators
that signal threats. For example, the amygdala becomes more active when
we see someone who racially looks different from us, indicating a potential
threat.54-55 Not only is the fear-detector alert, evolution has also prepared us
to feel less empathy towards outsiders. Watching people in pain, we tend to
have more sympathy for those in our ingroup rather than outsiders,56 even
when they are just supporters of a rival team.57 This makes sense, if we think
about the moment we need to wield the sword to kill enemies. If we were
to empathize with them as much as with our ingroup, we would likely stop
and think, which would do us a disservice. In fact, demonizing others is a
frequent practice to trick our brain into a prejudiced mode, enabling us to
hate, discriminate, and destroy others without too much feeling.58 In the
end, killing people who have been made to look bad is easier than killing
someone who is the same as us.
However, while being helpful in basic and closed societies, the machinery
of detecting us vs. them and automatically treating “them” as a potential
threat has become increasingly disadvantageous as we cross ever more
borders throughout history. Furthermore, our environment is filled with
racial stereotypes and prejudices, and the amygdala can wrongly adapt to
prejudicial information about those who look different and, consequently,
put us on false alarm. The amygdala operates extremely fast, long before
our conscious thoughts have time to react.59 Obviously, if left unchecked,
the combination of all three factors (our tendency to categorize people into
ingroup and outgroup; our love for ingroup; and our constantly [and falsely]
alarming amygdala) can result in quite a nasty cocktail.
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Prejudices are rooted in the biological need to categorize other groups and to love
our own ingroup/culture – the source of our survival strategies.
trusty, very intelligent and they live up to their contracts.” After the
completion of the railroad, jobs again became scarce, and the end of
the Civil War brought an influx of war veterans into an already tight job
market. Anti-Chinese prejudice returned, with the press now describing
the Chinese as “criminal,” “conniving,” “crafty,” and “stupid.”61
In the US, the Asian threat, presented as the “Yellow Peril,” would later also
be associated with the Japanese, as a result of their military ambitions and
the Second World War; other South Asian immigrant groups were labeled
as the “Turban Tide” and the “Hindoo Invasion.” Similar prejudice towards
blacks were found in white groups that were just one rung above the blacks
socioeconomically, implying a close competition for jobs.62
Even when there is no conflict, resources can also be a factor that triggers
prejudice. Many people justify discrimination against other groups because
it helps maintain their own economic advantage: “These immigrants have
little education, so they are lucky to have the jobs we offer. We really don’t
need to pay them more.” In this case, assuming immigrants are ignorant
people is useful, because it justifies the discriminatory act of paying them
less.
forbidden fruit and, consequently, we still bear the brunt of original sin;
in Nazi Germany, it was the Jews; when an economy struggles, national-
ists tend to scapegoat minorities for economic woes and immigrants are
quickly seen as those who “steal our jobs”;63 when confronted with domestic
problems, country leaders are adept at using a “perfect enemy” to divert
public attention elsewhere.64 At the micro level, scapegoats are individuals,
such as a staff worker who gets the blame for mismanagement.
Homosexuals have frequently been made scapegoats and blamed for AIDS, natural disasters, even terrorist
attacks. Pastor Jerry Falwell is believed to have said: “Thank God for these gay demonstrators. If I didn’t
have them, I’d have to invent them. They give me all the publicity I need”/ ”Shah Abbas 1 of Persia with
a boy,” MUHAMMAD QASIM.65
Scapegoats are not always a person or a group. Many believe the 2008
financial and economic collapse was due to “greed,” and that the desire to
accumulate more than we need was the root of the crisis. Facing economic
problems in Europe, another study in 2014 reported that governments
made “public sectors” scapegoats and punished them with wage cuts and
Stereot ype – A Necessary Evil 105
Those with privileges often unknowingly benefit from institutionalized discrimination through biases. It’s
easier for them to be recognized, to be chosen, to be employed, to make an impression, to be pardoned,
to be accepted in a circle or network, etc./ ”Bob’s privileges,” BARRY DEUTSCH.
108 Intercultur al Communication
ACTIVITY
When Johana Brurai – a graphic designer from Sweden – searched for pictures
of “hands” on Google, she found that most of the images were white. When she
searched for “black hands,” they often came with added information, such as
a white hand reaching out to offer help. White images also dominates search
results for “man,” “women,” or “child.” Even the search for “beautiful dreadlocks”
– a hairstyle strongly associated with African culture – yields images of white
people with dreadlocks.
Do a Google search for other concepts such as “leadership,” “business” or
“expert.”
1. Who are the majority in the images? What is the environment? What are
they doing? What is the hidden message?
2. Why does this group dominate Google’s search results?
3. What can you do to balance the situation?
So, white people see such white criminals as exceptional individuals who
do not represent their white identity. But Muslims also strongly condemned
these attackers as not Muslims. They were simply horrible and exceptional
individuals who do not represent their identity. Thus, it is clear that also for
Muslims, these bad guys = mentally ill lone wolves.
Obviously, all of us are influenced by the tendency to stereotype a whole
group of outsiders as a one-dimensional group, based on the acts of some
individuals. At the same time, we also want to protect our own group’s
interest and to isolate the bad individuals as non-group members. This
double standard is endemic in all cultural groups, without exception. In
essence, it is evolutionarily part of our fundamental need for group love and
cultural attachment. The viral power of media accentuates this tendency
and turns a group’s self-defense mechanism into an ugly battle of prejudice
and discrimination towards others.
CASE STUDY
Racism is the idea that genetic endowment implies the inherent superiority of a
particular race and defines success or failure of a group. Nowadays, the concept
of race has moved on to imply a culture, at the same time focusing on simplistic
and visual signals of race and culture, such as skin color, attire, body features,
national origin, ancestry, religion and sexual preference. Consequently, racism is
easily ignited, even as a result of very superficial contact.
Racism directed at the Jews was used for economic gain. Today, the practice
of lending money at a rate of interest is the basis of our economy, but before
capitalism emerged, usury was seen by many as a sin or inferior work, practiced
mostly by Jews who were excluded from many professions and trades and had
no job alternatives. This is one of the reasons why Jews excelled in business and
finance as merchants and middlemen, but they also suffered from hatred of
those who borrowed money.
In fact, even this “sinful” job was given to the Jews out of economic interest in
the medieval European economy. From the 11th century, greater commerce and
urbanization became possible due to new agricultural surpluses, which made
the economic function of lending money more important. However, lending
money was condemned. The church solved this dilemma in the early 12th century
by allowing Jews to practice this “sinful” activity, since Jews were not subject
to Canon law. Medieval Kings exploited the new situation, now that they were
able to exact heavy taxes from Jewish usurers in exchange for protection.84 In
the 14th and 15th centuries, the medieval economic landscape changed as cross-
border trade flourished. Jews became economic rivals of the new merchant
110 Intercultur al Communication
class. Together with the rise of capitalism, anti-Semitism was cultivated in order
to eliminate economic competitors, turning Jews into scapegoats for popular
discontent and they were blamed for all social problems. Although there is no
Jewish race, they were portrayed as a people of “greedy,” “self-interest,” “cheating
on non-Jews,” “secretly dominating the whole economic system,” or “cooperating
with their communist counterparts to topple Christian civilization.”85 The 18th and
19th centuries saw the expansion of industrialization, with many people being
driven from the land and forced to work in factories. Anti-Semitism was used to
shift the blame from those who actually profited from their suffering. Later, in
the 20th century, the Nazi’s creation of a “master race” condemned Jews as an in-
ferior race, leading to the genocide of six million Jews whose confiscated wealth
paid for 30 per cent of the wars waged by the Nazis.86 Even today, Jews are iden-
tified with the nation of Israel, mixing political grievances with racism, creating
a “perfect enemy” to seek unity, to divert criticism away from the country, or to
blame Jewish conspiracies for homegrown problems.
1. Collect at least five stereotypes and prejudices about the Jews and explain
the root of these assumptions, based on the history provided in the text.
2. Compare the discrimination against Jews with the Yellow Peril, Turban Tide
and Hindoo Invasion (section 3.2.2.1).
3. Conduct a quick research and discuss why immigration is essential for an
economy, yet immigrants are often the scapegoat in their new country.
• Prejudices prevail when there are conflicts of resources. The victims of preju-
dices are scapegoats and can suffer from both conscious and subconscious
discrimination.
• Institutionalized discrimination is embedded in rules, process and operating
systems. It creates barriers through (sub)conscious biases, tougher selection
processes, increased caution, more blaming, and quicker rejection.
The world is changing fast, and it seems genes do not co-evolve fast enough
to support useful cultural traits. In the era of globalization and cooperation,
we still carry some part of the psychological and biological baggage of our
hunter-gatherer predecessors. However, with the capacity for culture, we
are not prisoners of these lingering traits. By the means of social learning,
we have overcome the worst aspects of our nature. We may not be born
ready to assess facts and arguments carefully, but we are capable of learning
from mistakes, choosing from the best ideas, and reducing the impact of
impulsive reactions.
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It is wrong to say that our brain is racist or sexist. The brain does not see
skin color or gender, but rather information that fits various patterns of
stereotypes and “fight-or-flight.” Most patterns of stereotyping people and
“fight-or-flight” are socially constructed by our cultures. This means, we
can change the patterns and train our brain.
The question, then, is, when stereotypes loom and control is needed, how
can we increase the ACC’s activity and make it win over the amygdala.
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) predicts, detects and reacts to committed errors/ ”The ACC and the
amygdala,” PHAM HOANG MAI.
selection criteria; avoiding any requirements that relate to age, sex, race,
(dis)abilities or religion; declaring a diversity statement and commitment to
adhering to such a vision; adopting a name-blind resumé screening process;
having several persons of diverse backgrounds on the interview panel for
cross-check and balance; standardizing interview questions with a clear
justification for why each specific question should be asked; recording the
interview and detecting any subconscious bias; justifying the recruitment
decision on paper by matching each job requirement with the candidate’s
ability in order to avoid a decision based on gut feeling, etc.
In short, while our brain is evolutionarily conditioned to stereotyping and
prejudice, it also has the power to recognize and override those biases. This
is a fight we can win. But it requires more than just good intentions. We need
to show explicit conscious efforts in order to challenge such subconscious
impulses. We can reduce these automatic mechanisms by purposely looking
twice. The more we are aware of it, the better we can overcome it. There is
evidence that when we are told “Hey, you are biased” we can self-correct,98
we will think harder about what we want to say. Our brain’s plasticity means
we can learn and regulate, since counter-stereotypic training,99 such as
taking the perspective of others,100 has proven to reduce bias.
CASE STUDY
1. Were the first two passengers overly sensitive, or did the flight attendant
subconsciously stereotype?
2. If you were the flight attendant, what would you have done to avoid the issue
and ensure the plane was balanced?
Stereot ype – A Necessary Evil 115
and not judgmental; (2) it is verifiable from more than one independent
source; (3) it applies at least to a statistical majority; (4) it compares between
different populations.104
Consider the following statement: “The Dutch are tall.” The first criterion
is justified, because the statement does not attach a moral connotation, good
or bad. The second criterion is missing. There must be at least two studies
confirming that the height of the Dutch is above the world’s average. The
third criterion is also not met (What is the percentage? Obviously not all
Dutch are tall). The fourth criterion is vague, since “being tall” without a
frame of comparison is useless (Taller than whom?) Conclusion: the state-
ment in its original form is more of a stereotype than an accurate cultural
observation.
The Middle East is stereotypically seen as conservative. However, Syria, Tunisia, Lebanon and many other
urban communities embrace a liberal, progressive and modern lifestyle/ ”A shopping mall in Beirut,
(Lebanon),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Stereot ype – A Necessary Evil 117
ACTIVITY
Alternative approaches: “Please tell me a little bit about yourself” / “Do you hap-
pen to know anyone who can help me with this question?”
3. Color/Religion… Blindness
Micro-aggression: “I never see you as a black man” / “There is only one race, the
human race” / “Not black lives matter but all lives matter”111 / “We are all children
of God” / “We absolutely have a culture of equality and transparency here, sex-
ism and racism don’t exist in our office,” etc.
The subconscious messages: …
Alternative approaches: …
In Oman, it is a norm that men carry children. Reaching out to counter-stereotypes is a strategy to train
the brain and change the available social cues around us/ “Poster in a Muscat’s hospital,” “A man with
his child in Muscat, (Oman),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
(7.33). But when they are collectively evaluated, women’s work is evaluated
with less quality (5.33) than that of men (6.50). This means the less informa-
tion we have, the more likely we are to rely on stereotypes.117 Organizations
that want to combat biases should build a database with not only the usual
demographics, but also continuous surveys and work records, which are
useful indicators for areas that need improvement. By doing this, the avail-
able social cues that are the material of biases will be replaced by available
social cues that help to confront them.
Stereotypes and prejudices are created from available social cues. We can unlearn
them, challenge these cues and change the culture around us by:
• Training the brain to resist the amygdala’s impulse and listen more to the ACC.
• Matching the criteria to distinguish between stereotype and cultural fact
• Checking language and environment for microagressions
• Exposing counter-stereotypes
• Collecting data
• Creating a vigilant culture against biases
• Creating and recreating groups to be on the same side
Summary
1. Stereotyping is a survival mechanism that helps us make quick judgments.
However, in our modern times, life-threatening dangers are not always around
the corner and we are overloaded with information. Hence, quick calls based
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Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the role of non-verbal communication and its root in biology.
• Describe the role of context in non-verbal communication at the universal,
collective and individual level.
• Prove the significance of non-verbal cues in communication.
• Identify the limitation of non-verbal communication and its current theories.
Chapter outline
4.1 The role of non-verbal communication 124
4.1.1 The Universal Role of Non-verbal Communication 124
4.1.1.1 Primary Means of Communication 125
4.1.1.2 Indicator for Judgment 126
4.1.1.3 Creating Identity 128
4.1.2 Non-verbal Communication at the Collective Level 129
4.1.3 Non-verbal Communication at the Individual Level 130
4.2 The role of context in non-verbal communication 130
4.2.1 Context at the Universal Level 131
4.2.2 Context at the Collective Level 132
4.2.2.1 The Characteristics of High and Low Context Dependence 133
4.2.2.2 The (Dis)advantages of High and Low Context Dependence 135
4.2.2.3 When High Context Meets Low Context 137
4.2.3 Context at the Individual Level 139
4.3 Context in setting: time and space 140
4.3.1 The Language of Time Setting: Chronemics 140
4.3.1.1 Chronemics at the Universal Level 140
4.3.1.2 Chronemics at the Collective and Individual Level 141
4.3.2 The Language of Space Setting: Proxemics 147
4.3.2.1 Proxemics at the Universal Level 147
4.3.2.2 Proxemics at the Collective and Individual Level 150
4.4 Context from the body 155
4.4.1 Silence 155
4.4.2 Eye Contact 156
4.4.3 Touch 158
4.4.4 Body Movement (Kinesics) 160
4.5 The limitations of non-verbal communication 162
4.5.1 Ambiguity 163
4.5.2 Not Necessarily a Value Indicator 163
4.5.3 Static View of Change, Paradox and Individual Development 164
124 Intercultur al Communication
It is a sunny morning and you’ve been up since 4 am, getting ready for
an interview for your dream job. You’ve spent a fortune on a good pant
suit, your shoes couldn’t be shinier, and you’ve tried your best to put on
a natural make-up look. You arrived at the company half an hour earlier
than the appointment and, at precisely 9:10, you’re led to the office of the
Human Resources Executive. As you enter the room, three people stand up
to welcome you. You reach out to shake hands with each of them, and sit
down on a chair that appears to be reserved for you. The interview begins
with a friendly question: “How are you today?”
It may take about 45 minutes or less for the interview to end, but the fact
is: Employers make up their minds about you in just four seconds, starting
from the moment you walk through the door.1 Recruiters only need an extra
six minutes to definitely know whether they are going to hire you or not.
Their decisions are based on your eye contact, the way you enter the room,
shake hands, the way you dress, smile, touch your hair, control your voice,
or position your body, etc. It means decisions are made almost as soon as
the greetings are over.
In this chapter, we will explore the role of those non-verbal cues and the
way they send messages that speak volumes about you, without you uttering a
word. We will explore to what extent non-verbal cues can be understood uni-
versally, and to what extent they mean different things in different contexts.
the metaphorical tree of culture reminds us that we all share certain similar
outward expressions. For this reason, we should start the discussion at the
point we converge, rather than diverge.
The impact of non-verbal cues in job interviews, with statistics gathered from various sources including
Albert Mehrabian,15 and Career Builder16 / “What you wish you’d known before your job interview,”
CLASSANDCAREERS.17
128 Intercultur al Communication
of smile (38 per cent) and fidgeting too much (33 per cent) would make
them less likely to hire someone.18 Among similar candidates, those with
non-verbal behaviors that match the expectation of recruiters surely stand
out (The Salience Hypothesis).19 HR executives may make their decision at
the beginning of the job interview and spend the rest of the talk reinforcing
their first impression (The Reinforcement Theory).20 In a vicious circle, the
recruiter’s behaviors will cause the applicant to interact in a manner that
confirms the recruiter’s impression.21 This means a candidate will show
competence if s(he) is treated as a competent applicant with approval cues
(smiling, nodding, eye contact, hand gestures, etc.), and vice versa. Although
these studies were conducted among Western participants, and hence,
should be taken with caution at the universal level, it does give an indication
of how influential non-verbal messages are.
In 2014, Conchita Wurst won the Eurovision Song Contest for Austria. As an artist, Wurst is a “she,” but as an
individual, Wurst is a “he” with his birth name Thomas Neuwirth. The persona of a bearded woman – Con-
chita – is central to his identity, as Neuwirth visually communicates this information through his grooming
and dressing style/ ”Wurst holding Eurovision trophy after winning the contest,” ALBIN OLSSON. 22
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 129
Fashion, for example, provides one of the most ready means for indi-
viduals and collective cultures to make expressive visual statements about
their identity, especially in metropolitan cities where diversity is a norm
and people have only fleeting moments to impress others.23 It reflects the
wearer’s personality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, profession, economic
status, educational level, power, etc. Each of us either confirms or sub-
verts the conventional norms in our society by making a choice of what
to wear. When a Muslim woman challenged France’s full-face veil ban
at the European Court of Human Rights, she was seeking to connect the
veil with her religious identity.24 In a reverse situation, when a number of
men in Iran wore headscarves and posted on social media, their message
was one of solidarity with the women who are forced to cover their hair.25
When Singapore’s first lady Ho Ching carried an $11 purse made by an
autistic designer, she wanted to support the country’s first autism-focus
school.26 When the Punks put on their anti-fashion style of dress, their
creativity communicated the anger and frustration at the changing political
and economic structures of their time.27 When Bhutan imposed its strict
dress code (men with gho, women with kira) on every governmental office,
school and monastery, the intention was to reinforce a national identity
that is at risk as Bhutan is squashed between two strong cultures: India
and China. Thus, regardless of cultural level and background, universally,
every individual and group uses non-verbal communication as a means to
construct identity.
While the roles of non-verbal communication are universal, not all non-
verbal messages are universally understood and recognized. Collective
cultures influence the way we use non-verbal outward expressions to com-
municate, to judge and to establish identity. At this level of the Inverted
Pyramid model, we learn from our social surroundings how to convey,
decode and react to a certain non-verbal cue. For example, a smile is a
universal sign of non-threat, but in Russia, the equivalent words for “grin”
have negative connotations (оскал,осклабиться, скалиться),28 and the lack
of social smiles in Russia has been arguably shaped by the Soviet culture.29
Being beautiful is a universal desire, but it is socially constructed in terms
of “the body” in the West (hence, the dominance of fashion magazines) and
in terms of “the pretty face” in East Asia (hence, the dominance of beauty
magazines).30 The list goes on.
130 Intercultur al Communication
At the individual level, each person is unique, and we can only guess that
if a person comes from a certain collective culture, (s)he may have similar
collective outward expressions as the majority of the people living there.
Thus, if your new colleague comes from the Gulf, you can only make a
general prediction that (s)he might dress in loose outfits according to the
Islamic modesty rule of not revealing physical curves. However, this can
never be guaranteed, since it is not uncommon that Gulf woman and men
purposely dress with modern and progressive fashion style to communicate
their identity.
While we are on the topic of dress codes, it is noteworthy that many
Muslims use different layers of attires, literally, to communicate their
identities. Western and fashionable clothes are often hidden under the
flowing black or white cloaks that can be taken on and off depending on
the social situation. In the conservative culture of Yemen, young women
cover themselves in black abaya, but show off their most extravagant and
sensual costumes, which reveal much of their body, in gender-separation
weddings as a way to communicate their beauty and attract marriage
prospects.
• Non-verbal cues belong to the canopy of the tree of culture and the context
circle around the Inverted Pyramid model. Universally, they have crucial roles in:
1. being the primary means of communication
2. being indicators for judgment, even before verbal exchange starts
3. being a means to create identities
• While a number of non-verbal cues are understood universally, most of them
should be interpreted from cultural and individual perspectives.
xt
te
Context as a particular Non-verbal cues as
con
circumstance, a big picture part of the outward
that involves every expression
constituent element,
conscious and subconscious,
tangible and intangible
Figure 4.1. The position of non-verbal communication in the metaphorical tree of culture and the role of
context.
The face veil is an outward expression that carries different meanings in different contexts for different
wearers. For example, it is regarded as a tool to protect women from people with bad intentions, as a
religious garment that has been imposed on women, but also as a way for some other women to be
liberated from being a sex object, or as a religious symbol such as the cross. Covering one’s face has a strong
political connotation as well, as with the Global Justice Movement, the Million Mask March, the Occupy,
the KKK, or the Anonymous. In this picture, the Zapatista – a revolutionary leftist group in Mexico, which
fights for indigenous rights – cover their face in order “to be seen”/ ”The Zapatista in Chiapas, (Mexico),”
MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
While our concern for context and our dependence on context is the same
for all human beings at the universal level, the importance we place on it
and our dependence on it vary at the collective and individual level of the
Inverted Pyramid model. Edward Hall coined this degree of divergence
“low context” and “high context.” To be consistent with our framework, we
should understand these terms correctly as Low Context Dependence and
High Context Dependence. The former refers to those who are less dependent
on context (including non-verbal cues) while communicating, hence, “low.”
The latter refers to those who are more dependent on context (including
non-verbal cues) in their communication exchanges, hence, “high.” Some
collective cultures, individuals and situations prefer high context, others
prefer low context.
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 133
Public signs can expose differing levels of context dependence. The Dutch translation reads: “Keep pass-
port ready,” which has a slightly different tone than the English one/ “A sign at Schiphol airport, (The
Netherlands),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
134 Intercultur al Communication
Many cognitive studies have shown that when assessing an incident, for
example, looking at a picture of a tiger in a jungle, low context dependence
makes people focus on the central image, but the eyes of high context
people tend to dart around, taking in the background,33 and when asked to
recall the scene, they remembered more secondary details.34 Low context
children learn nouns easier than verbs, and high context children pick
up verbs – which naturally relate objects to each other – more easily.35 In
tests of categorization,36 those who rely less on context are more likely
to group items based on how well they fit into categories by types. For
example, given three words, “train,” “bus,” and “track,” low context depend-
ent people tend to group “train” and “bus” together because they are both
vehicles. Those who rely more on context tend to group items based on
relationships, so “train” and “track” go together, because trains run on
tracks. Another study 37 reported that when explaining other people’s
behavior, low context dependence influences how we emphasize the
personal attributes (e.g. “He failed because he was not smart”), but high
context dependence made us focus more on situational factors (e.g. “He
failed because his family didn’t support him”). Interestingly, while low
context dependent people need to talk out loud in order to work things
out, forcing high context dependent people to talk actually impairs their
performance.38 For low context dependence, it is “we talk, therefore we
think.” For high context dependence, it should be “we observe, therefore
we think.”
This differing level of context dependence can have significant impact
on all aspects of our life. Think about the next time you design an adver-
tisement, would you have a picture of the product that highlights all its
qualities, or a picture of a person using the product to enjoy a better life
with her/his loved ones, in a nice, relatable and homely setting? Think
about the next time you introduce a project, would you focus on the content
of the work, or would you draw a big picture of the historical context that
has led to this project, the wonderfully cooperative team of people behind
it, and the close relationship with other stakeholders? Or think about
the next time you run a meeting, would you judge those who verbally
contribute more favorably than those who quietly sit and contemplate, or
would you try to create other channels for opinions to flow without the
need to speak out?
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 135
Table 4.1. Typical outward expressions in Low and High Context Dependence
Start with main points, end with details Full of details, main points are implied
Concerned with patterns of events, details Concerned with the “shape” of events,
of the picture holistic picture
each other long before the cooperation started, and a relationship must
have been established to the point that people are connected naturally
without even having to utter a word. For outsiders as well as newcomers,
the only way to get things done is to be part of this co-culture. This means
learning to look for the holistic picture, to recognize the hidden details of
communication, to interpret the non-verbal message correctly, and to react
accordingly. This takes time, but for those who are open-minded, things
can happen faster.
Space and subtlety reign supreme in Japanese architecture culture. Paper doors, emptiness, and gaps act
as features of the house, enabling hidden borders and defining a sophisticated relationship between the
house’s occupants and the visitors, between soto (outsider) and uchi (insider), between the external world
and the home sanctuary. Stepping inside a traditional Japanese home is a test of your honesty, dignity,
manner and social ranking/ “A traditional Japanese tearoom with a small and low entrance at the left
corner, which one needs to bend down to pass – a subtle request to ask people to leave their ego
outside,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
quickly gain success in emerging markets with low level retail saturation,
where customers enthusiastically embrace new Western products. However,
they have to cope with the extra challenges of localization 40 when high
context dependent customers become picky once there are more choices
available. In comparison, high context Asian multinational companies may
have an advantage when going global, thanks to their holistic tendency.
Whereas Western multinationals have developed in a linear and methodi-
cal manner, Asian trailblazers have made up for lost time by embracing
flexibility, multi-tasking, diversity, being attentive and learning quickly
on the job. 41 In 2015, Asia Pacific-headquartered companies accounted for
40 per cent of the firms in the Fortune Global 500, outnumbering those
headquartered in Europe (30 per cent) or North America (28 per cent).
thus covering a much larger part of the world. Those who are not aware
of their high context mode of communication would wrongly blame their
counterparts from these regions for being inscrutable, mysterious, vague,
and sometimes dishonest with their words and feelings. Squeezed in the
middle of these two levels are islanders such as the UK and Southern Euro-
pean countries. Without proper knowledge of your individual counterparts,
your first best guess when attending a negotiation process with people from
these cultures is that: the Dutch will quickly approach a point of talking
about price, the English will painstakingly and politely create a whole story
before getting down to the main issue of why they set such a price, and
the Macanese, who are not as expressive as their counterparts, will make
polite, generic comments or meaningful facial expressions of approval or
disapproval that may go completely unnoticed by other parties.
ACTIVITY
Predict the meaning behind these statements and techniques in high and low
context dependent culture:
1. “I have a small suggestion”
2. Changing the subject
3. Saying yes
4. “I have to inform my manager and wait for her opinion”
5. Telling a story that seems to be off the subject
6. Asking a question about or returning to a point that was previously agreed
upon
7. When you ask for opinion, the person responds with “What do YOU think?”
8. Smiling
9. “Probably”; “I think so”; “I’m almost sure”; “There is a good possibility”
10. Mentioning someone who used to be in charge of the negotiation, but who
has since left the company
CASE STUDY
Customer service
In countries with a saturated retail market, such as South Africa, UAE, Philippines
or Malaysia,44 there is an intense price competition. The only sustainable advan-
tage that companies can work on is to focus on customer services.45 Customers
in high context dependent cultures tend not to express their dissatisfaction and
avoid dealing with problems.46 This is in stark contrast with low context depend-
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 139
ent cultures, where customers are more likely to express their anger and ask for
compensation.47
Web design
International marketing requires interface design to include culture-specific
color connotations, preferences in layout, animation, sound, etc.48 In which mar-
ket (low, average or high context dependence) is each of the following websites
more appealing? Provide your explanation.
While all cultures rely on context, most cultures can be quite dynamic,
with changes and paradoxes inherent in the process, depending on circum-
stances. Meanwhile, every individual is unique and capable of adapting
and evolving. It is not unusual to see a blunt Cambodian, an ambiguous
German, or a direct Burmese, etc. It is also not unusual to see a high context
dependent person gradually becoming low context. The brain’s plasticity
and the demand of each particular situation can have significant impact on
how people adjust and change their behavior. For example, if the everyday
working environment or a particular circumstance requires someone to
take a holistic approach, to have an extensive use of symbolic and body
language, to read between the lines, to rely more on experience-based and
intuitive knowledge rather than details, rules, and formal logic, etc., then
140 Intercultur al Communication
the best way to deal with this new situation is to attempt a shift in thinking
style from low to high context dependence. It is not easy, but as the old
wisdom goes, practice makes perfect.
In the next two sections, we will focus on two main categories of context:
messages that deal with the setting (time and space) and messages that
are produced by the body (touch, body movement, facial expression, etc.).
It must be noted that although Hall coined the term “context,” his theory
intensively focuses on the former and not the latter.
The term “chronemics” (derived from the Greek word chrónos [time]) was
coined by Thomas J. Bruneau to describe the study of human tempo in
communication.50 Similar to other cultural aspects, chronemics converges
at the universal level and diverges at the collective and individual level.
for life (e.g. “Time is money”) ,51 or as a natural course of life (e.g. “There is a
time for everything”). Hall clarified this level of difference with the concept
chronemics, referring to a spectrum ranging between Monochronic (M-
time) and Polychronic (P-time). The former indicates lineal and segmented
time where it is seen as a “scarce resource which must be rationed and
controlled through the use of schedules and appointment, and through
aiming to do only one thing at any one time.”52 The latter indicates time as
a “support system,” meant to be “flexible in order that we do right by the
various people to whom we have obligations.”53 No cultures or people are
exclusively monochronic or polychronic. All of us need both to survive.
Context dependence and chronemics do not always correlate with each
other. Low context Ireland tends to be M-time/strict with time, while low
context Israel tends to be P-time/flexible with time. Similarly, high context
Finland is M-time/strict with time, but high context Colombia is P-time/
relaxed with time. The bottom line is, high context dependence relies more
on non-verbal cues regarding time, while the reverse is true for low context
dependence.
How we use time sends a certain non-verbal message about ourselves,
thus helping others to predict the relationship, whether we are ingroup or
outgroup, trustworthy or suspicious, conscientious or unreliable, etc. For
example, when you turn someone down for an appointment the next day be-
cause your agenda is full, without asking why the meeting is necessary, you
are indirectly communicating your values, personality and expectations.
Changes are fine, but should be planned ahead. Spontaneous events are not
always welcome. Certain activities have designated time slots. Bearing this
in mind, the best way to get someone’s attention (your M-time manager for
example) is to schedule a meeting, rather than spontaneously knocking on
her/his office door or stopping her/him on the way to the coffee machine.
In doing business, “time is money,” so people should minimize their small
talk and get down to business as soon as possible.
For those who lean more towards P-time, the most obvious characteristic
is a cyclical approach. Embracing P-time means people tend to do many
things at the same time, constantly weighing what should be done in the
moment, constantly adjusting to the circumstances, being spontaneous to
the current situation and the big picture. For them, time is not a framework
that controls people’s lives, but an instrument to serve people’s relation-
ships. As the Nigerian proverb goes: “A watch did not invent the man.” The
emphasis on getting a certain thing done is not as important as maintaining
a certain relationship.
In contexts where P-time prevails, people tend to organize their activi-
ties in blocks of time, i.e. in “an hour,” “half a day,” or a “week.” As long as
they can achieve what they need in that block of time, the exact moment
when they do it is less important. It does not mean they are less efficient,
but rather that they work at their own pace. As a result, punctuality is
not as strongly emphasized as it is at the M-time level. Many business
people encounter P-time when they are confronted by a long wait outside
governmental offices. It seems hard, but they need to learn to see this less
as an insult and somehow convince themselves that their counterparts
are still interested, despite the fact that they are kept waiting.56 In Fiji, for
example, people speak of “Fiji time” to indicate a relaxed lifestyle, what
cannot be done today can be done tomorrow. In Vietnam and Indonesia, it is
“rubber time,” where social appointments can be stretched far beyond what
seems to have been agreed upon. We also have “Latino time,” “Hawaiian
time,” “BPT” (Black People’s Time), or Samoan “coconut time,” meaning that
it is not necessary to pick coconuts because they will fall when the time
is right.57 We also have the famous Spanish phrase “Hasta mañana” (until
tomorrow), which, in most cases, does not indicate at all that something
will get done tomorrow. Many novices in doing business with the Arabs can
have a hard time getting used to their constant expression “In sha’Allah” (if
God wills it) whenever a plan, a promise, or an appointment is set. Imagine
this conversation: “Will you get this document sent next Monday?” – “If
God wills, I will!”
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 143
Table 4.2. Typical outward expressions in monochronic and polychronic time settings
Time is a commodity and can be gained or lost Time is not a commodity, there is always
more time
Structure and order are central Relationships and people are central
take your last sip of tea. For systems that embrace M-time, the best way
to speed up an approval process is preparing well in advance and follow-
ing the procedure. For a P-time system, spending time building trust and
cultivating relationships will come in handy when you pick up the phone
and expect a P-time friend to drop whatever (s)he is doing to help you put
the proposal on the desk of the decision maker. The book that you are
reading was finished on time thanks to many people, both from M-time
and P-time cultures, who flexibly changed their priorities and extended
a helping hand with many different tasks at the last minute. After many
years living in Southeast Asia, an entrepreneur concluded: “Doing business
in Asia is like doing both a marathon and sprinting: Most of the time you
need to work patiently towards a goal (marathon) and adopt a great tempo
only when the opportunity is ripe.”59
CASE STUDY
often seem to be late, the reason being that they never know how long it
will take to deal with a patient’s problem. If (s)he needs some more time,
it is then ethical for doctors to do something about it, which is obviously a
P-time practice of putting people at the center of time arrangements. One
can wonder: “How can they do this at the expense of other patients?” But
the fact is, when we step inside the doctor’s waiting room, we also switch
our perception and turn on our P-time system, one that emphasizes the
well-being of other people, because each of us, in turn, is potentially the
patient who needs more time. Does that remind you of the multicultural
mind we discussed in Chapters 1 and 2? Our neurons are capable of ac-
commodating different cultural systems, and the brain’s plasticity enables
us to adapt. Specific situations and occasions can prompt us to act in an
M-time or P-time way. This explains why we can live with paradoxes and
accept that superstars can arrive late, but the warm-up bands should not;
a CEO and very important managers may arrive late, but not the staffs;
technical people, event and project managers can gain a competitive edge
from M-time, but not necessarily other professions, etc.
As we conclude this section on how time communicates, it is important
to remember that the M-time perception is new, rooted in the Industrial
Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. The construction of railroads, for
example, forced people to adopt an on-time attitude. Before that, each
individual town tended to keep their own time zones. Many pre-industrial
cultures appear to have no time orientation at all, such as the Pirahã tribe
of the Amazon rainforest, the Hopi tribe of Arizona as well as some other
Native American tribes whose languages have no past tense or lack verb
tenses altogether. Their sense of time is limited to words such as “sooner”
or “later.” That is to say, the situational nature of time perception cannot
be undermined. In this case, modernization can signif icantly change
our approach to time. The circle of context around our Inverted Pyramid
model reminds us that context is a major indicator of change, as it can
transform a cultural habit, create endless paradoxes, while allowing each
individual to adjust and develop her/his attitude as the circumstances
demand. The crucial question is not whether you are M-time or P-time,
but whether acting M-time or P-time will bring fruitful outcomes; whether
you want to be an expert in working internationally; and whether you
are dedicated to developing a multicultural mind to respond effectively
in each situation.
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 147
Hall coined the term “proxemics,” laying the foundations for a field that
studies human use of space. In this section, we will explore the meanings
of distances when people communicate with each other, the way their
seating is arranged, and the environment in which their communication
takes place.
The preference for personal space is not neatly correlated with the high
and low context. Generally, high context dependent people pay more at-
tention to the hidden message of personal boundaries, and low context
dependent people would be less attentive.
decorate your office with family pictures and abstract paintings, etc. send
a certain message about your personality and your view of the relationship.
Thus, distances, seating and surroundings all contribute to communication
with their non-verbal cues.
Distances. According to Hall, distance can be categorized into four
groups: intimate (up to 45cm or 18 inches), personal (up to 1.2m or 4 feet),
social (up to approximately 3m or 12 feet), and public (larger than 3m).68 At
the universal level, all of us divide others into these groups and constantly
judge whether our home range is being invaded. Our amygdala is activated
when people are physically too close.69 When treading on unknown terri-
tory, we should be aware of these invisible borders and think twice before
approaching someone to talk, when we deliver a speech, when we share a
table with a stranger, when we lean on or touch other people’s property,
when we come into the room or sit down without permission (you really
don’t want to sit in the host’s favorite chair), etc.
Figure 4.2. We constantly categorize people into different zones, both physically and digitally. For example,
many of us have to accept that modern life means those who belong to public or social space will be in the
intimate space (e.g. in the public transportation). Digital advancements also come with frustrations that
your email or social media is filled with advertisements,70 or a brand page will appear on your Facebook
news feed71/ “Interpersonal distances,” WEBHAMSTER.72
Seating. Our ancestors didn’t take seating positions lightly. The best way to
avoid attacks is sitting with one’s back against the wall, facing the entrance.
Since we are mostly right-handed, the person on the right is the least likely
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 149
to harm you with her/his left hand, hence the phrase “right-hand man”
meaning the person you trust and who helps you out the most. Danger is
more likely to come from the “gunslinger” position directly opposite.
We are no longer cave dwellers, but these psychological traits linger. In a
meeting, the most powerful person will sit at the head of the table, against
the wall, facing the door. People will give more credit to those sitting on their
right, with influence declining as they reach the defensive point directly
opposite. Unless you seek to emphasize a contrast, to be competitive, or
to reprimand others, consider this seating position carefully since it can
subconsciously create negative energy. By contrast, sitting side by side73 or
at the corner of the table allows friendly engagement, good eye contact and
better chances for cooperation. It subtly sends a message of “I’m working
with you.”
At a big gathering, where the audience chooses to sit has a profound
impact on communication, something known as the Funnel Effect. Those
who sit in the front can develop better rapport74 and they tend to be high
performers75 or high status individuals. Those who sit in the middle are more
likely to ask questions, because they are “safe,” surrounded by others. Those
who sit in the side areas and at the back are less attentive and engaged. A
2013 study of 1,907 students in Kenya shows that those who sat in the front
row could learn up to 27 per cent more than those seated elsewhere.76
Surrounding. In Chapter 3, we learned that the surrounding environ-
ment can be powerful in sending subtle signals, influencing people and
speaking volumes about an individual. Interior design subconsciously
influences our work productivity and emotions,77-78 to the extent that we
prefer to cooperate with teams whose offices are decorated in the same taste
as ours.79 Take the office layout, for example, corner offices, windowless
rooms, frosted glass partitions, transparent glass walls, or cubical desks,
etc. can all be indications of a company’s collective culture. If you work in
an open office, the overall message is collaboration and transparency, but
it also means privacy and focus are a real challenge.80
Colors are an important part of our communication. Signals from natural
color have historically helped the brain recognize edible and poisonous
food and improved the survival of early humans.81 In ancient Egypt, doctors
bathed patients in colors of light to heal ailments. The colors around us
don’t just change our moods, but profoundly impact our productivity.82 For
example, low-wavelength colors such as light green and blue aid concentra-
tion,83 their calming effect84 coming from stimulating natural tranquilizers
in our brain. Formal restaurants use blue to relax customers and get them
to stay longer. High-wavelength colors such as red and orange increase the
150 Intercultur al Communication
heart rate, the blood flow, and the appetite by revving the metabolism, so
are good for decorating food packages and fast-food restaurants, to attract
attention, boost emotion, and prepare for action. Yellow is a mid-range
color that can trigger innovation and creativity, giving a brand or a place
a warm feeling of happiness and fun. White is a mainstream color as it is
less distracting, but the induced feelings of depression are likely to cause
people to perform worse than any other colors.85 The studies of colors and
their impact have been conducted mainly in the West, but the implication
is universal, i.e. colors are a non-verbal means of communication.
The aesthetic of our surroundings also sends different messages. Art in
the workplace for example, helps to reduce stress, increases productivity
by 14.3 per cent, enhances morale, sparks dialogue and broadens people’s
appreciation of diversity.86 Green offices (biophilia) also generate physiologi-
cal responses such as increased brain activity and lower stress hormones.
The cognitive performance scores for workers in green buildings doubled
compared to those who worked in conventional environments.87 Art works
and the design of a place can connect with visitors on an emotional level
by subtly communicating values, creating a certain feeling, and guiding
the state of mind.
Finally, the combination of all elements in the environment is essential for
giving people a big picture. One manager in Asia insisted that his company
would only do business with Western counterparts if their top managers
were willing to first fly into his city, to drive to the manufacturing plants
– a distance of only 20 kilometers, but a journey that takes almost three
hours – and see how things work. If they see the whole process, they would
think twice before accusing the Asian side of incompetence or treachery
if delays and disruptions occur, or if something needs to be renegotiated.88
Non-verbal cues from the space setting, such as distances, seating and surroundings
are not only a crucial means of communication, but also influence those involved.
High context dependence relies more on these cues, while the reverse is true for low
context dependence.
the personal or social zone. This story vividly illustrates various concepts
of proxemics in personal space:
Men in the Middle East tend to be physically close with each other as a way to show brotherhood and
male-bonding/ “Two resistance fighters in the Arab Spring, (Yemen),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
152 Intercultur al Communication
Both the advancing Arab and the retreating American in this story are
typical of their collective dominant cultures. However, they differ in terms
of adopting the appropriate zone for their current relationship. In the Middle
East as well as many parts of Latin America, distances which almost have
sexual connotation90 or evoke hostile feelings91 are seen as the ones in which
people can talk comfortably. Hall concluded: “If you are a Latin American,
talking to a North American at the distance he insists on maintaining is
like trying to talk across a room.”92 In a conversation, we can observe that
those whose space is being intruded may withdraw physically by stepping
back, standing behind a desk or a chair, subconsciously using different
objects on the table to create barrier, tucking in their chins toward their
chest in an instinctive move of protection, or even rubbing their neck so
that their elbow protrudes sharply toward the “invader.”93 These non-verbal
body movements are mostly subconscious, but they show how important
it is for us to correctly read the unspoken message: “You are violating my
space. I am uncomfortable and I may not want to do anything with you.”
Seating. In 2010, the Turkish ambassador to Tel Aviv arrived for a meeting
with an Israeli government official, and was invited to sit on a sofa that was
several inches lower than the one for the host. According to the ambas-
sador, it was a deliberate act, because Israel was angry over a Turkish TV
show that portrayed Israeli secret agents as child snatchers. This tit-for-tat
escalated into a full-blown diplomatic incident and Israel had to issue a
formal apology.94 This real-life example vividly demonstrates that seating
positions can be a powerful means of communication, especially among
high context dependent cultures.
In many Asian, African and Middle Eastern cultures, subordinates keep a
distance from authorities out of respect. Seating positions, sizes and designs
of seating are seen as strategies to enhance or indicate status and power.
Leaders sit more frequently at the head or the middle95 of the table than
other cultures. In some cultures, their chairs are bigger, higher, with more
sophisticated or unique designs. In many Western offices, the power and
status are communicated more subtly with managers sitting in a wheeled
chair so they can adjust the height and move around while visitors are
invited to sit in a less comfortable stationary chair. Meanwhile, many other
cultures choose frequently for a neutral approach, for example, using a
round table or having a stand-up informal gathering where people can
move freely among different standing tables.
Surrounding. The atmosphere surely communicates, but it may com-
municate differently in different cultures and for different individuals. In
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 153
green garments.103 For this reason, using green as part of a label should be
carefully considered. Gender is another crucial category for color association.
As a social construct, gender preferences for color are learned. Babies don’t
care about colors,104 but after the age of two, girls started to opt for pink and
boys for blue, no wonder if we see the way toys and clothes stores are designed.
Gender stereotypes grow subconsciously as adults would treat the exact same
babies differently depending on whether they were dressed in pink or blue. In
an experiment, blue-wearing babies were encouraged to play more physical
games, while pink-wearing babies were gently soothed and given a doll.105
As a part of culture, colors dynamically change their meanings throughout
the history. For example, white represented holiness in ancient Egypt, citizen-
ship in ancient Rome, purity and virtue by the early Christian church, and
mourning and death during the early modern era in Europe. In Japan, Vietnam
and many other parts of Asia where tradition mixes with Western influences,
white is worn by both brides at weddings and mourners at funerals. White is
associated with “masculine” in the yin-yang system, but it is associated with
“feminine” in the West, and thus ignited a discussion about whether white
gadgets are too “girly” for men.106 White has deep political meaning too. The
White Movement in Russia was against communism, the Ku Klux Klan wore
white robes and violently murdered black people, the White Revolution in Iran
was a series of reforms from the Shah, and British women wore white to fight
for their right to vote. That is why many famous politicians, including Hillary
Clinton, choose to dress in white to subtly communicate their message.107
Similar to chronemics, the characteristics of proxemics across cultures
are not static and can dynamically change under the impact of circum-
stances, resulting in numerous paradoxes, as we see in the case of white as a
communicating tool. At the individual level, each one of us has an incredible
capacity to observe, to decode the right message, to respond appropriately
and to change ourselves as the situation demands.
Non-verbal cues from space setting (distances, seating, and surrounding) have dif-
ferent meanings across cultures, but can be very dynamic depending on circum-
stances.
CASE STUDY
Conduct research and find out why Disneyland is not the same in different loca-
tions across the globe:
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 155
1. In Tokyo, the castle at the center of the park features Cinderella and not
Sleeping Beauty.
2. In Hong Kong, the main gate faces the north-south direction. There are two
gigantic boulders and a large fountain featuring Disney characters at the en-
trance. Lakes, ponds, and streams are carefully positioned throughout the park.
3. In Paris, the arcade features a small replica of the Statue of Liberty. It is also
the only Disneyland in the world where meals can be served with an alcoholic
drink. However, this Disneyland has been criticized as a “cultural Chernobyl.”
4.4.1 Silence
Diana, Princess of Wales earned her nickname “Shy Di” partly because she was often photographed
using this gesture, which also triggered people’s compassion and support/ “Princess Diana,” AUGUEL.116
158 Intercultur al Communication
4.4.3 Touch
Of all the senses, touch is the first to develop in unborn babies. It becomes
the most primitive and essential form of non-verbal communication.
Newborns need to be in constant skin to skin contact with their care-
takers, so much so that premature babies who are stroked grow up to
47 per cent faster than those who do not receive the same amount of
touching.119 A touch is the quickest way to build personal rapport and
human bonds, since we have evolved to feel more attached to those we
have exchanged physical contact with. A study shows that waitresses
who casually touched their customers on their shoulders at the end of
a meal received 14 per cent more tips than those who did not. In many
commercial settings, casually touching customers can increase their time
in a store, the amounts they purchase, and favorable evaluation of their
shopping experience.120
At the collective level, touching is strongly cultural bound. Affective
people employ touching as part of their communication style, hence they
touch, hug, embrace, kiss, and pat on the back more frequently and inten-
sively than neutral people. The handshake, originally an indication that a
person wasn’t holding any weapons, has become a popular way of greeting.
A study by the Income Center for Trade Shows reports that people are twice
as likely to remember you if you shake hands with them.121 However, even
this seemingly simple handshake has its cultural nuances. Some Western
cultures prefer a strong grip, while in some other Asian and Latin American
cultures, a light, soft, lingering handshake is more common. Further, using
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 159
the left hand can be seen as an insult for the Arabs and Indian, since it is
used for personal hygiene. To show respect, many people from Vietnam
will use both hands and lower their head.
Both Bill Gates and US President Donald Trump have made headlines
with their handshake manner. The former shook hands with Korean
president Park Geun-hye with his left hand firmly planted in his pocket
– a sign interpreted by the Korean as “disrespect.”122 The latter engaged
in a 17-second-long and aggressive handshake with the Japanese Prime
Minister – an experience so awkward that Shinzo Abe rolled his eyes
afterward in obvious relief.123 Note that Abe comes from a neutral and high
context dependent culture, where a proper way of greeting is to bow, and
the vocabulary does not even have a word for kissing. They borrow from
the English and make it kisu.
Hierarchy plays a critical role in touching. In collective cultures that emphasize hierarchy, one should refrain
from touching people of higher status (managers, parents, teachers, dignitaries, monks, etc.). Those who
touched Queen Elizabeth for example, including two Australian Prime Ministers and American first lady
Obama, received critic from media/ “Parents touch and kiss the feet of their children’s teacher to honor
their guidance, (Sri Lanka),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
160 Intercultur al Communication
You must have noticed that many of us talk with our hands in foreign
countries, with frequently successful attempts to convey a simple message.
It is, however, pointless to categorize body movement, since there can be
as many as 700,000 distinct physical signs, of which 1,000 are different
bodily postures, 5,000 are hand gestures and 250,000 are facial expression.124
A majority of these movements are learned by imitation. Our amygdala
automatically scans others to categorize people into ingroup and outgroup.
Similar body languages signal ingroup, and vice versa. As early as infancy,
the mirror neurons125 in our brain trigger an instant mirroring reaction that
helps us to automatically copy the behaviors that we see and imitate.126
This is an evolutionary solution that allows us to signal that we are part
of an ingroup and benefit from its support and collective knowledge.127
That is why, universally, mirroring each other’s body language is a sign of
ingroup trust, a way of bonding and a method to establish empathy.128 In
job interviews, candidates who mirrored the friendly body language of the
interviewers fared better because they built a better rapport.129
Mirroring body languages can create incredible collective power. We see that in a public queue, in the way
a person starts a sentence and the other finishes, in a group performance, etc. The haka ritual dance of
the Maoris is originally a triumph of life over death, and is famous for its extreme form of body language.
When performing together in sync, it is both fearsome if they are facing opposing teams, and intensely
emotional if they use the dance to express group bonding in peace. In a working context, your team can
decide to subtly make a gesture in sync with the leader, which will subconsciously give the whole team
a powerful appearance of group cohesiveness/ “Haka dance of brotherhood, (New Zealand),” MAI
NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Non-Verbal Communication – How You Make Them Feel 161
Throwing shoes at people is considered a strong statement of discontent. As a form of protest, politicians
across the globe are frequently pelted with shoes and socks, including the Presidents of Pakistan,131 Sudan,132
Egypt133 and Iran,134 Prime Ministers of Mongolia,135 China,136 Australia,137 and the US138/ “Taiwanese people
donate old shoes to support shoe-throwing against Ma Ying-jeou’s administration and the ruling
KMT party,” 美國之音黃耀毅拍攝.139
her husband for beating her, but the Prime Court found that it was not
systematic and conscious brutality, and her husband was in a “passionate
mood.”140 People who embrace neutral communicative patterns tend to dam
up their emotions and often try to look calm or appear stiff. Those who
embrace affective style may perceive their counterparts as uninterested
or lacking commitment, those who embrace neutral style may see their
counterparts as irrational or having a lack of control.
While we are on the subject of body movement, it is interesting to know
that body positions can influence our behavior. A study shows that interact-
ing with devices of different sizes (smartphone, tablet, laptop, and desk
computer) has an impact on subsequent power-related attitudes. Those
who hunched over a smartphone to perform tasks were reported to be less
assertive than those who used a full-sized computer. The study suggests
that we ditch the tiny smartphone before entering a meeting.141 Another
study shows that adopting a power-pose (hands on hips or clasped behind
the head, chin tiled upwards, feet planted wide apart) can change our body
chemistry, increase our testosterone, making us feel more confident, and
leading to higher performance in job interviews.142 The connection also
explains why the intimidating haka dance symbolizes the power of New
Zealand’s legendary All Blacks rugby team and their alleged invincibility.
• Non-verbal cues produced by the body such as silence, touch, eye contact and
body movement not only send a certain message, but also influence those
involved.
• With neutral communication style, people tend to control these non-verbal cues,
and with affective communication style, people tend to employ them more to
express their feelings.
• High context dependence relies more on these cues, while the reverse is true of
low context dependence.
• Non-verbal cues produced by the body have different meanings across cultures,
but can be very dynamic depending on circumstances.
4.5.1 Ambiguity
Summary
1. Non-verbal cues are part of the canopy in the metaphorical tree and the
circle around the Inverted Pyramid model of culture. They are the primary
means of communication, the indicators for judgment and the tools to create
identities.
2. Universally, we all rely on context to interpret the world. However, low context
dependence focuses more on explicit verbal and non-verbal cues, and high
context dependence focuses on both explicit and implicit cues.
3. High context dependence contributes to situational efficiency, flexibility and
holistic policies. Low context dependence contributes to universal efficiency
and change processes with transparent and logistic nature.
4. Two channels of non-verbal cues produced by the context in setting are: time
(chronemics) and space (proxemics).
5. Chronemics deals with how we use time to communicate. Polychronic timing
(P-time) is flexible and cyclic. Monochronic timing (M-time) is strict and linear.
High context dependence relies more on these cues, while the reverse is true
of low context dependence.
6. M-time contributes to the ability to prioritize and to implement. P-time
contributes to high levels of adaptiveness and relationship building.
7. Proxemics deals with how we use distances, seating arrangements, and the
environment to communicate. High context dependence relies more on these
cues, while the reverse is true of low context dependence.
8. Examples of channels of non-verbal cues produced by the context of the body
are: silence, touch, eye contact and body movement. Those with neutral style
tend to control these non-verbal cues, and those with affective style tend to
employ them more to express their feelings. High context dependence relies
more on these cues, while the reverse is true of low context dependence.
9. Non-verbal communication can be ambiguous, not necessarily an indicator
for values, and its current theories may undermine the dynamics of culture.
10. The level of dependence on context (non-verbal cues) can dynamically
change with paradoxes at both collective and individual level, depending
166 Intercultur al Communication
Time Task
Punctuation Schedule Structure
setting Priority
Space
Distance Seating Surrounding
setting
Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain the evolutionary origin and the characteristics of Group Attachment,
Hierarchy Acceptance, Gender Association, Uncertainty Avoidance and Time
Orientation.
• Given a case or a phenomenon, identify related concerns and values.
• Given a case or a phenomenon, identify the possibilities of paradoxes, the
impact of change and the non-binary nature of associated values.
Chapter outline
5.1 Group attachment 169
5.1.1 The Terms: Group Attachment, Individualism and Collectivism 169
5.1.2 Group Attachment in the Inverted Pyramid Model 170
5.1.2.1 Group Attachment at the Universal Level 170
5.1.2.2 Group Attachment at the Collective and Individual Level 171
5.1.3 Outward Expressions of Group Attachment 174
5.1.3.1 Harmony and Face 174
5.1.3.2 Interdependence and Trust 175
5.2 Hierarchy acceptance 179
5.2.1 The Term: Hierarchy Acceptance 179
5.2.2 Hierarchy Acceptance in the Inverted Pyramid Model 180
5.2.2.1 Hierarchy at the Universal Level 180
5.2.2.2 Hierarchy Acceptance at the Collective and Individual Level 181
5.2.3 Outward Expressions of Hierarchy Acceptance 186
5.2.3.1 Respect – Care 186
5.2.3.2 Loyalty – Protection 187
5.2.3.3 Obedience – Guidance 188
5.3 Gender association 189
5.3.1 The Terms: Gender Association, Masculinity and Femininity 189
5.3.2 Gender Association in the Inverted Pyramid Model 191
5.3.2.1 Gender Association at the Universal Level 191
5.3.2.2 Gender Association at the Collective and Individual Level 192
5.3.3 Outward Expressions of Gender Association 195
5.3.3.1 Gender’s Role 195
5.3.3.2 Modesty and/or Assertiveness 195
5.3.3.3 Well-being and/or Competitiveness 196
168 Intercultur al Communication
5.1 Group attachment
Humans are social animals and the group is vital for our existence. This ex-
plains why interpersonal relationships have been a fundamental discipline
in human studies. Two of the most popular concepts in communication
studies are individualism and collectivism. They appeared in the frameworks
of many intercultural theorists and classic studies: Kluckhohn and Strodt-
beck,2 Triandis,3 Schwartz,4 Hofstede,5 Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner6
and GLOBE.7
In the 19th century, the French revolution washed away the last vestiges
of feudal social structures, which had served as intermediaries between
170 Intercultur al Communication
individuals and the central government.8 People became less attached to the
community. In this context, the French social theorist Alexis de Tocqueville
was believed to have coined the term individualism9 to express concern
about how an individual forms “a little circle of his own” and “leave society
at large to itself.”10 However, as the term became widely used in England
and Germany, the historical contexts of these cultures stripped away its
negative overtones and it came to be associated with the positive aspirations
of romanticism, utilitarianism, democracy, capitalism and laissez-faire
economics.11 Today, in the context of intercultural communication and even
in its homeland France, individualism indicates a degree of independence
and self-reliance towards one’s own ingroup.
While it is unclear who coined the term collectivism, a similar term “com-
munitarianism” came from the British socialist John G. Barmby in the 19th
century. However, its use in the academy was limited due to its associations
with socialism. The term collectivism has become a popular alternative in
intercultural communication.
From the evolutionary point of view, the term individualistic can be
misleading, since nobody can survive on her/his own. In other words, we
are all collectivistic, albeit to varying degrees. Since the group is vital for our
existence as human beings, a new generic term has been coined to indicate
this fundamental concern: Group Attachment. It is defined as the extent to
which one gives her/his ingroup priority over oneself.
Group attachment is about the relationship between one individual and her/his in-groups. It is the extent to
which one gives her/his ingroup priority over oneself/ “An act of selflessness,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
has become very individualistic in this issue). When you see a group of
people working in teams, joining a protest, or forming a party, etc., it does
not mean they are collectivistic; rather, these are universal, average ways of
group functioning. The act of forming a group says little about this value if
there is no sign of relationship between this group and an individual within
it. Without an interaction between an individual and her/his ingroup, we
cannot decide whether that individual has weak or strong group attach-
ment. Thus, the description of a person as “independent, freedom-loving,
and rebellious” does not automatically indicate that (s)he is an individualist,
because we do not know how (s)he is attached to her/his ingroup.
Static ranking. The static paradigm of culture is dominated by a binary
view of value. Here are a few samples from the studies by Hofstede, Trompe-
naars and Hampden-Turner. Scores are taken from the top, the middle and
the end of the spectrum:
Hofstede
16
91. US 47. Surinam 13. Colombia
Paradox and change. While the assumption that culture is stable can re-
duce ambiguity and provide the first best guess, the static view undermines
paradoxes, changes and other collective cultures, such as organizational
culture and group culture. We discussed the neural explanation for this
binary tendency in Chapter 2, and have come to an understanding that
a culture does not have a f ixed position on the spectrum of low-high
group attachment. For example, a 2015 study found that values are
dynamic: both individualism and collectivism co-exist in Canada, and
individualism characterizes Morocco even more than Canada.18 Another
study comparing this value in Vietnam, China, and the US shows that
North Vietnam scores high for both individualism and collectivism.19 In
countries with a rich history of immigration, multiculturalism or a fast
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 173
pace of development, paradoxes and changes are the norm and not an
exception.
Two or more separate values. In our metaphorical tree of culture, while
group attachment is a fundamental concern (the trunk and the roots), weak
and strong group attachment can be presented as two separate branches of the
tree or two values. The suggestion to see them as two or more separate values
is supported by a number of studies. The GLOBE study20 identified two types of
collectivism: institutional collectivism (which maximizes the interests of the
collective) and ingroup collectivism (loyalty, pride and cohesiveness within
a group). Triandis and colleagues21 distinguished four separate dimensions:
vertical individualism (individuals want to be distinct and desire special sta-
tus); horizontal individualism (individuals want to be distinct without desiring
special status); vertical collectivism (individuals want interdependence and
competition with outgroups), and horizontal collectivism (individuals want
interdependence but do not submit easily to authority).
Multiple cultures at the collective level. Indexes from the static paradigm
should also be viewed with care because they mainly focus on national
cultures. Italy, for example, is positioned next to Denmark and Belgium
and scores high on Hofstede’s scale for individualism (76), while Spain,
which has a similar level of individualism is 25 points behind (51). This is
probably because the statistics were gathered mainly from people in the
North of Italy.
Japan offers another example of the discrepancy between culture,
organizational culture and group culture. Scoring in the middle of the
spectrum, however, Japanese employees are known for extreme loyalty
and dedication to their companies. The term “corporate samurai” refers to
ultra-loyal employees, who would rather die than betray the company. At
the same time, the importance of family – a trademark of collectivism – is
fading in Japan, to the extent that many people refuse to get married or
decide to marry their friends for convenience, abstain from sex and the
idea of having children,22 or go a step further by “dumping” their parents
on the street.23
Similar dynamics among collective groups can also be seen in the
Middle East. Here, tribal loyalty is much more influential than religious
affinity or even national pride. In a study, 62 per cent of Middle Eastern
people expected their governments to do what is good for either Muslims or
Arabs generally, while only 31 per cent thought that national policies should
benefit their own country.24 In sum, different identities and affinities with
different collective cultures, such as clans, tribes, religious sects, ethnicities,
companies, and nationalities, etc., make it problematic to rely solely on a
174 Intercultur al Communication
static country index. Rather, in order to know the level of group attachment,
the appropriate question should be: “which group?”
Individual level. At this level of the Inverted Pyramid model, the dynam-
ics of group attachment is even more profound. We are reminded of the
discussion in Chapter 2, in which both neural25 and behavioral studies26
confirmed that a specific context prompts a person to have either col-
lectivistic or individualistic thought, to the extent that simple cues (“I” or
“we”) trigger us to switch our frame of value. With the brain’s plasticity, we
can develop a multicultural mind, which will enable us to make the best of
culture as a survival strategy in an international context.
The driving factors of diversity in group attachment. The differing
level of attachment that various cultures, individuals and contexts place
on ingroups can be explained by the theory of culture–genes coevolu-
tion. In Chapter 1, we worked on a case study that links the prevalence of
pathogens (bacteria and fungus) in the environment and the shorter variant
of serotonin carriers (s5-HTTLPR) with the need to develop a culture of
group-mindset. Those who followed the cultural rules of group conformity
had a higher chance of survival. Simultaneously, those with short alleles
(i.e. higher chance of depression) need and fit better into the group-mindset
culture, so their gene became dominant to support this value.
The external impact of disruptive or collective behaviors and the dy-
namics of contexts cannot be emphasized strongly enough. For example,
economic development can dynamically increase or decrease group attach-
ment.27 When there is a perceived external threat, a common goal or a strong
movement, group attachment can be reinforced. The rise of populism and
nationalism in the US and Europe since 2010 illustrates clearly how far-right
leaders can unite a large number of voters under the banner of protecting
national identity and stability.
strong group attachment correlates with high context dependence, but don’t
forget that it is not the rule. Finland is generally high context dependent,
but many Finns embrace weak group attachment (see Chapter 4).
In a group setting, where strong group attachment reigns, people may
find it uncomfortable to speak up individually for fear of disrupting har-
mony. A tactic to deal with this is giving the group some time to discuss
and then asking individuals to represent the group’s ideas at a later stage.28
In a business context, heated discussions and big decisions may not happen
regularly in the meeting. One-on-one and private talks can be conducted
with everyone involved before the meeting to ensure alignment and to
smooth out mismatches in a more harmonious manner. However, it is
wrong to assume that this value will definitely put an end to open-minded
discussion and hinder innovation. Different context evokes different values.
Hence, changing the approach can make a strong collectivistic person
embrace individualistic ideas. Studies have shown that those who are ste-
reotypically assigned with strong group attachment can effectively engage
in debates and constructive controversies when collaborative goals and safe
environment are ensured.29-30 As a matter of fact, “in the world of ideas,”
collectivistic “South Korea is king.”31 It has topped the list of the globe’s most
innovative countries for many years, together with other Asian countries
such as Japan and Singapore, where this value also prevails.
The concept of harmony is strongly connected with face – the public dignity
of a person or a group. Maintaining a positive face is desirable for everyone.32
It is a social currency and a strategic tool in communication,33 for it can be
lost, gained, built up, given to others in a sense of honor, or taken from others
in an attempt to evoke embarrassment.34 However, the way we maintain face
is culture-bound.35 For example, when embracing weak group attachment, a
person may use a more defensive mode, such as blaming external factors to
protect her/his own face (e.g. “I missed the deadline because my team didn’t
cooperate”). By contrast, when embracing strong group attachment, the same
person may consider more mutual face-saving (e.g. “I profusely apologize
for missing the deadline, despite the fact that the team has tried its best”).
the following reasons: (s)he is your colleague or relative; you do not know
the person but (s)he is a colleague or relative of your colleague or relative;
(s)he helped you in the past; her/his colleague or relative helped you in the
past; they may help you in the future; they may help your colleague/relative
in the future, etc. Everyone is potentially in debt to everyone else. Many
people even actively want to do others a favor because that means support
can be asked for in the future. This circle of interdependence snowballs
into an immense network of connections within which people perform a
favor or service in accordance with how distant or close their relationship
is.36 The following business cases illustrate this point:
Upon learning that China Post Savings Bureau planned to modernize its
computer network, C.T. Teng, the general manager of Honeywell-Bull’s
Greater China Region, asked his Beijing sales director to approach the
China Post executive responsible for this project. Because the sales direc-
tor and the China Post executive were old university friends, they had
guanxi (relationship). That connection enabled Teng to invite the China
Post executive to a partner’s forum at Honeywell-Bull headquarters in
Boston. He also invited the CEO of Taiwan’s Institute of Information
Industry to the event. Over the course of the meeting, Teng proposed a
banking system using Honeywell-Bull hardware and Taiwan Institute
software to China Post’s CEO, and the deal was done.37
In Spain, the high-speed train AVE connecting Seville and Madrid has
been envied by all cities. However, critics complain that politics has
loomed too large. The first AVE line did not connect Madrid to busy Bar-
celona but to sleepy Seville, the hometown of the then prime minister. 42
Generally, children everywhere are expected to fulfil certain obligations, such as taking care of their parents
or studying well, but this is more so in contexts where strong group attachment prevails. Striving for a good
grade at school can have very different purposes, either for the collective goal of high earnings in the future
to support the family, or to pursue one’s own dream. Similarly, a child may labor for different reasons. They
may sell their old toys and lemonade or play music to passers-by to earn money for themselves, but they
can also take a serious and active role in labor to contribute to the household’s well-being/ “A 3-year-old
child carrying wood in Malawi,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
178 Intercultur al Communication
While both types of trust are essential, some people may need a differ-
ent order of trust building. For example, in a context where weak group
attachment prevails, people may emphasize cognitive-based trust, as in
“It doesn’t matter who you are, as long as you can do the job” or “Trust me!
Everything is written down in the contract.” In comparison, when strong
group attachment prevails, people may take a long time to build affect-based
trust: “Can we trust that these people will go through ups and downs with
us?” “Will they sympathize with us if the unexpected happen and we need
to revisit some clauses?” “Will they be a long-term partner?” “Is this the right
direction for the organization?” etc. Big decisions take time, days, weeks,
months or years. While some consider this a waste of time, others see it
as a testing period and a good investment in a relationship, so that future
business won’t even need a contract to bear fruitful outcomes. Indeed, by
that stage, the relationship is the contract.
• Group attachment is critical for our survival, because the group is our source of
support.
• Group mindset was useful in environments with germs and pathogens. Hence, it
has coevolved with genes to biologically prepare humans for adjustment. This is
the evolutionary root of strong group attachment.
• Weak and strong group attachment varies across national, organizational, and
group cultures, individuals and particular contexts.
• The degree of importance varies with regard to harmony, face, trust and interde-
pendence.
CASE STUDY
In the following mini-cases, how can we use the values discussed in this chapter
and other factors such as behaviors, environment and particular context to ex-
plain these outward expressions? How do change, paradox and the non-binary
of values play a role? You may want to read about other values first.
1. In Japan, you introduce yourself by stating first the name of the organization,
and then your name: “From company X, my name is Y.” Similarly, Maoris (New
Zealand), introduce themselves by identifying their iwi (tribe), hapu (sub-
tribe), etc., and the last thing mentioned is their name.
2. In Vietnam, China, Japan and Korea, the family name comes first, followed by
your first name (given name). For example, in the name Chu Minh, the family
name is “Chu,” the first name is “Minh.”
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 179
5.2 Hierarchy acceptance
All human societies are organized based on social status. That is why
hierarchy is a universal dimension of human relationships49 and a major
concept in intercultural communication. It was named “relation to au-
thority” by Inkeles and Levinson,50 “lineal” vs. “collateral” by Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck,51 “power distance” by Hofstede,52 and “achievement” vs.
“ascription” by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner.53
From an evolutionary point of view, hierarchy goes hand in hand with the
birth of leaders, all for the sake of our reproductive success.54 Hierarchy
can be achieved by either dominance or prestige. The former is common
among non-human primates, with individuals gaining access to resources
through threat, intimidation and display of force. Among human beings,
leaders are awarded with “prestige”55 in exchange for expertise, skills,
education, personal risks and the time that they give to the community.
For this reason, the fundamental difference of hierarchy between animals
and humans is that leaders are often highly respected, liked and admired,
while alpha males and females are feared.56 In order to achieve hierarchy,
animals use dominance and power, humans tend to use prestige and
status.
180 Intercultur al Communication
Ascribed status is based on seniority, background, or sex/ ”A sign at Kuala Lumpur Airport, (Malaysia),”
MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Paradox and change. While these statistics serve us well in imagining a big
picture with a strong focus on comparison, the dynamic paradigm of culture
reminds us that they are only suggestions and not the rules. Zooming in
on details, you may notice that some of the scores do not seem to align
with the common observation. For example, Pakistan (55), Japan (55) and
Quebec Canada (54) score very similarly on Hofstede’s index. But anyone
who is familiar with the strong emphasis on social honor in Pakistan and
the intricate system of social ranking in Japan will immediately question
the positions of these two countries when they are put on par with the
French culture in Canada.
Like all other values, high or low hierarchy acceptance is subject to the
dynamic change of historical and social context. The influence of class-
system offers a good example. During the 60s and 70s of the communist
regimes in Cambodia,64 China65 and Vietnam,66 many of those who tradi-
tionally received high prestige or enjoy more resources, such as doctors,
teachers, priests and entrepreneurs, were considered “class enemies.” Sub-
sequently, millions were subjected to forced labor, torture, public shaming,
imprisonment and systematic killing. In this period, students physically
attacked teachers, children publically disowned parents, young people spit
on seniors and intellectuals were forced to address uneducated people as
“sir,” “madam,” “Mr. or Mrs. Peasant.” While these are extreme examples,
they remind us of how influential context is in viewing collective values.
Drastic economic and political changes, modernization, radical or dramatic
events, etc. all contribute to both paradoxes and shifts of value.
Two separate values. While hierarchy acceptance is a fundamental
concern, low or high hierarchy acceptance can be presented as two sepa-
rate value constructs.67 One of them will prevail depending on particular
184 Intercultur al Communication
As a consequence of the Second World War and the Cold War, Korea was divided into two countries in 1945.
The Korean culture in the North and South has evolved differently as the two countries pursue diametrically
opposed political, economic and social systems. The leaders in the North are revered, to the extent that
people have lost their lives and loved ones to save portraits of the leaders during natural disasters.73/
“North Koreans bowing in front of statues of the Eternal President of the Republic Kim Il-sung and
his son – Kim Jong Il on Mansu Hill, Pyongyang,” J.A. ROO.74
186 Intercultur al Communication
According to the Vietnamese tradition, the parents of the groom-to-be should organize a formal proposal
ceremony in which they present gifts and ask the woman’s parents for permission to marry. In this picture,
the people who lead the delegation are not the groom’s parents. In the absence of his parents due to
personal circumstances, three executives from his company take on the task and play the parental role in
the ceremony/ ”Proposal ceremony,” TU HUNG.
them with a salary but by being an inspiration.81 Once loyalty has been
earned, it will be given fiercely.
• Hierarchy acceptance is critical for our survival because it reduces the cost of
connection.
• Hierarchical mindset was useful in environments with germs and pathogens.
Hence, it has coevolved with genes to biologically prepare humans for adjust-
ment. This is the evolutionary root of high hierarchy acceptance.
• We accept that superiors gain more access to status, power and resources. But
the level of acceptance varies, depending on national, organizational and group
cultures, individuals and particular context.
• The relationship between superiors and subordinates are two-way: respect and
care, loyalty and protection, obedience and guidance.
CASE STUDY
In the following mini-cases, how can we use the values discussed in this chapter
and other factors such as behaviors, environment and particular context to ex-
plain these outward expressions? How do change, paradox and the non-binary
of values play a role? You may want to read about other values first.
1. In 2017, a Taiwanese woman wanted to marry her girlfriend of 11 years but her
father refused to attend the wedding. When she shared her feeling of rejection
at work and a concern that she would lose clients, her CEO reached out and
offered to walk her down the aisle. Same-sex marriage is still illegal in Taiwan.82
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 189
ACTIVITY
5.3 Gender association
Sex is fundamentally different from gender. While sex (male/female) refers to
biological makeup such as chromosomes, reproductive organs, and hormones,
gender (masculinity/femininity) refers to two sets of behaviors: (1) traits that
are associated with femininity, such as modesty and caring; (2) traits that are
associated with masculinity, such as competitive and assertive. Originating
from gender’s role, these traits have become a fundamental concern for all so-
cieties, as they not only express what is expected of men and women, but also
the relationship between members of a cultural group and their worldviews.
In Tunisia, a man who wears jasmine on his left ear indicates that he is single. Offering white jasmine is
sending a message of affection/ ”A man in Tunis, (Tunisia),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Another issue relating to these terms is the (sub)conscious bias that the
association with sex may evoke. While women can be masculine and men
can be feminine, women may feel pressured to act feminine and men to be
masculine. The traits are unisex, but the names signal otherwise. If a trait
can interchangeably and simultaneously exist in both men and women, it
is neither masculine, nor feminine, but a sexless, androgynous trait. This
branding problem has not yet been solved, since no terms have been created
to address the traits properly.
The masculinity-femininity dyad became popular in the mainstream
of intercultural studies through the seminal work of Hofstede. His value is
incorporated in this chapter, albeit with interpretation from the dynamic
paradigm of culture and insight from other disciplines. The term Gender
Association has been coined to cover both tendencies towards masculinity
and femininity. In this book, gender association is defined as the extent
to which people are associated with either masculine or feminine traits.
Femininity emphasizes care, modesty and sustainability. Masculinity
emphasizes competition, assertiveness and performance.
level. No human being or societies can survive with only one set of values.
It is also important to note that femininity means “care” for everyone and
not just one’s own ingroup. Here is an example: Taxes can be shockingly
high in Scandinavia, up to half of the total salary for an ordinary middle-
class employee. It is a feminine practice that aims to ensure well-being
for the whole country. In comparison, saving for your own children or
showing empathy for your own colleagues shows group attachment and
not femininity.
Hofstede 97
110. Slovakia 52. Canada 19. Slovenia
Paradox and change. Since gender is a social construct, traits that are
socially associated with men and women vary across cultures and become
dynamic due to changes in gender roles98 and social development. Besides,
paradoxes are inherent parts of every culture. A person or a group can
fight for a feminine cause (e.g. equality) in a masculine way (e.g. revolu-
tion) and vice versa. In his 2011 study,99 Tony Fang offered two examples of
masculinity from Scandinavia’s feminine cultures. On Hofstede’s index,
Sweden ranks as the world’s most feminine culture with a highly developed
social welfare system and a progressive attitude toward the environment.
However, in the context of global competition, the success of Swedish
multinationals shows a true Viking spirit inherited from their ferocious
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 193
Women adjust to circumstances, redefining perception of gender roles. In the Dahomey Kingdom (present-
day Benin), women were added into the army to make it look larger in battle. They behaved so courageously
that they became a permanent corps with high social status/ “She-Dong-Hong-Beh, a leader of the
Amazons,” drawn by FREDERICK FORBES in 1851.108
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 195
The biosocial theory combines these two schools of thought and proposed
an interactionist approach that involves both genes and culture, both nature
and nurture.109 An individual is influenced by both social expectation (i.e.
what men and women are supposed to be) and biological factors. Despite
differences, all three theories emphasize behavioral adjustment to social
environment.
CASE STUDIES
In the following mini-cases, how can we use the values discussed in this chapter
to explain the outward expressions? Do the cases reflect the typical values in the
cultures where they occurred? You may want to read about other values first.
1. In 1896, Costa Rica became one of the world’s first countries to make educa-
tion both free and obligatory. When the army was abolished in 1949, it was
said that the army would be replaced by an army of teachers.113
2. The word karoshi means overwork-death in Japanese. There is an increasing
number of people suffering from fatal strokes and heart attacks due to long
working hours.114 In 2016, a 24-year-old woman reportedly logged 105 over-
time hours in one month and later on committed suicide.115 Japanese workers
typically refuse to leave their desks while the boss is still in the office.
3. While most countries’ success is measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
the King of Bhutan believed that an economic approach dehumanized the
development process.116 The country created its famous Gross National Hap-
piness (GNH) index, which is based on sustainable socioeconomic develop-
ment and preservation of culture and environment. For example, Bhutan
restricts mass tourism by imposing a high tariff of $250 per day for travelers
to promote a policy of “high value, low impact.” GNH initiatives have devel-
oped around the world, including Thailand, Dubai, Canada and the US.
4. Some of those countries defined as masculine according to Hofstede’s index,
such as Slovakia (110), Hungary (88), Poland (64) and Germany (64), offer long
periods of protected parental leave. 117 Conduct research on this feminine policy
across the countries worldwide and see if you can recognize more paradoxes.
5.4 Uncertainty avoidance
Trying to predict and avoid the unknown is universal and a basic human
instinct. Fear is the result of both strongly innate feelings and social
learning. In general, we have several inborn fears, for example the fear
of falling and the fear caused by loud noises. These fears are genetically
coded in our body and are healthy emotions that keep us from harm.
Most other types of fear are learned from the culture of our life, what is
good and what is bad, what is safe and what is dangerous. Our fear may
have an object (fear of the dark) or no specific object (what will happen
to us in the future, when we take a new job, or after we die?) The latter is
called uncertainty.
198 Intercultur al Communication
risk losing in the competition with those who were more motivated by the
force of faith.
Law. Religion is also among the earliest forms of law. With codes of
morality and conduct, it has given us some certainty and direction in this
arbitrary, capricious and unpredictable world. Traditional religions and
beliefs still influence many modern law systems.122
Technology. Pagel went on to connect the prehistoric notion of religion
with science. For our ancestors, religion was a form of science, signaling
an attempt to understand the world and to answer questions such as
“why is the harvest bad this year?” or “why do earthquakes happen?”
Religion provided a framework for understanding the universe, nature
and the logic of life. In the modern era, science and technology seem to
have become divorced from religion, but their original purpose is quite
similar, to predict the future, to give the unknown a structure and to
reduce uncertainty.
The strictness of rules and regulations depends on the context. Regardless of how low uncertainty
avoiding a culture is, there are always situations where strict rules apply. For example, in Manila
(Philippines), due to heavy traffic, the last digit on the car’s license plate number determines the days
it can or cannot hit the road. On the static ranking, the UK score 35 on the low end, but the country
is known for laws from the 1300s that are still in force. In 2007, it was still illegal to die while in the
Houses of Parliament123 / ”Two security signs of strong and weak uncertainty avoidance,” MAI
NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
200 Intercultur al Communication
Paradox and change. While the index makes sense for many countries, it
can be quite confusing trying to understand the indication for others. One
of the reasons is that the score didn’t distinguish between institutional and
social rules. The former focuses on regulations, written laws, structured
guidelines and formal organized procedures (“How rigid is the legal sys-
tem?”); the latter is informally agreed-upon codes of conducts and social
values (“How much respect one is expected to give to one’s teacher?”). To
be strong on social rules means values and codes of conducts are expected
to be followed strictly (e.g. one is expected to show great respect to one’s
teacher, and not doing so will be frowned upon). To be weak on social rules
means values and codes of conducts are more relaxed (e.g. one can show
both high and low hierarchy acceptance towards one’s teacher and expect
no consequences).
Some cultures, such as those in Scandinavia, tend to be strong on in-
stitutional rules, but weak on social rules. Others, such as Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia and Myanmar, exercise strong social rules, but are not so strict
in terms of institutional rules. This categorization of “rules” vs. “values”
can help us to guess why these countries score so similarly: between Ger-
many (65) and Thailand (64); between Bangladesh (60) and Quebec (60);
or between Canada (48) and Indonesia (48). It also highlights the biggest
paradox of the index: the champion of dealing with ambiguity – Singapore
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 201
(8) – is in fact a country that exercises one of the world’s strictest systems
of laws and punishment. It bans chewing gum and littering can invoke
a fine of up to $1000.125 As a society made up of three Asian ethnicities,
which strongly embrace certain values and codes of conduct (Chinese,
Indian and Malay), Singapore is both strong on institutional rules (laws)
and social rules.
Two or more separate values. Due to the differences, and the sometimes
contrasting nature between institutional and social rules, it is argued that
a culture or an individual can be both strong and weak when it comes to
avoiding uncertainty. In other words, (strong/weak) institutional rules
and (strong/weak) social rules can form four different values. Another
compelling reason to see strong and weak uncertainty avoidance as two
separate tendencies is the negative correlation between cultural practices
and value in almost all of the 62 countries where the GLOBE project
gathered data.126 In other words, what you do can be the opposite of what
you believe.
The driving factors of diversity in uncertainty avoidance. Studies have
been connecting variation in the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) with
financial risk taking,127 novelty seeking 128 and pathological gambling.129 The
alleles with 7 repeat-variation (7R) of DRD4 show greater ventral striatal
activity and are more sensitive to rewards. It originated about 40,000 to
50,000 years ago when humans started to expand their territory across
the world.130 Biologists suggest that migrations have influenced the evolu-
tion of genes and culture. That is why the 7R allele is extremely prevalent
among native South Americans or other nomadic groups, but extremely
rare among East Asians.131 Historian Frederick Turner in his Frontier Thesis132
also argued that the process of migration, conquering new land, venturing
into the unknown and striving for survival has transformed Europeans
into a new people: the Americans. In a similar case, the inhabitants of
Hokkaido (Japan) tend to have a strong sense of personal achievement
and independence, which is different from people living in Honshu just
54km away.133
The Diversity Pathway diagram suggests that there are other factors
throughout history that can influence the dynamics of uncertainty avoid-
ance. Environmental and social threats can force a group to form a cau-
tious view of the world and outsiders, hence, doubling on social rules and
institutional rules as an attempt to safeguard identities and cultures. They
can also aggressively invest in technology to fight enemies, or to replace
the lack of human force so that there is no need to involve cooperation
with outgroups.
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5.4.3.1 Religion
Since religion is a strategy to deal with uncertainty, being religious can be
seen as a signal of uncertainty avoidance. Religious people generally have
a strong sense of justice, and that we get what we deserve, either in this life
or in the hereafter. For example, the rule of karma warns you that what goes
around comes around. This stems from the need to see the world as just
and orderly.134 If you play by the rules, you will be treated fairly. The dark
side of this worldview is a tendency to blame the victim. For example, a rich
entrepreneur was framed because (s)he was not careful enough in choosing
a partner, not because the system was corrupt.
The intensity of following religious practices has more or less faded in
our modern era, but its impact lingers in the way people perceive what
is moral and what is not. 76 per cent of the world’s atheists reside in
Asia and the Pacific,135 but in reality, most people here follow some folk
beliefs in combination with a philosophy of life such as Confucianism or
Buddhism. These frameworks of ethics and conducts can dictate rigid
social rules. For example, a mother whose name is not officially on the
management board but who, in effect, has the final voice in most of the
business deals. Her influence is indirect, but powerful, not only because
she laid the foundation for the business when it was still a small family
trading company, but also because, as a mother, she receives ascribed
status and a high level of hierarchy acceptance from her children, now
executives of the company.
Implicit rules based on values like this govern life universally, but
more so in cultures, individuals and contexts where strong uncertainty
avoidance prevails. In Driving Excellence,136 Steve Sanghi and Mike Jones
distinguished between value-based and rule-based cultures, which il-
lustrates quite well the difference between social and institutional rules
in our topic.
5.4.3.2 Law
While a set of values (e.g. high hierarchy acceptance, strong group at-
tachment, etc.) guide individuals’ behavior, a set of institutional rules
can serve the same purpose. An organization with rules, procedures and
specif ications ensures that employees know how they are expected to
conduct their business effectively. However, an exceedingly rule-based
culture can slow down decisions, create bureaucracy and reduce capac-
ity to adapt to changes. The optimal combination between institutional
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 203
5.4.3.3 Technology
Hofstede argued that cultures with weak uncertainty avoidance are more
likely to accept new products, new technology and are more likely to stimu-
late basic innovations137 as they maintain a greater tolerance towards dif-
ferent ideas. However, according to GLOBE,138 technology solutions appeal
to rule-oriented people as well, since machines and automatic processes
tend to make fewer errors than humans, and that is why they are attractive.
In fact, the world’s ten most innovative countries are scattered along the
spectrum, from high to average and low scores.139
Since uncertainty is one of the determinants of market transactions
between firms, especially in the international context where there is more
ambiguity than domestic business,140 we need to solve this puzzle. A study
on national technological development141 suggests that developing countries
need sophisticated technologies, regardless of their uncertainty avoid-
ance level. Over time, they will converge with developed countries at the
point where they may have two completely contrasting values, i.e. strong
uncertainty avoidance in practice (probably institutional rules) and weak
uncertainty avoidance in value (social rules/values). This corresponds with
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, in the sense that rich people already have their
lower-order needs met, and are more likely to aim for self-actualization
with freedom and excitement.142
CASE STUDIES
In the following mini-cases, how can we use the values discussed in this chapter
and other factors such as behaviors, environment and particular context to ex-
plain these outward expressions? How do change, paradox and the non-binary
of values play a role? You may want to read about other values first.
204 Intercultur al Communication
In Bhutan, the phallus is a symbol of good luck and is painted outside of homes and buildings to ward off
bad spirits. The phallus is an integral part of Bon – the early ethnic religion that existed in Bhutan before
Buddhism. Seemingly confronting and contrasting, in fact, these religious patterns coexist peacefully
and symbolize the tolerant nature of the spiritual life in Bhutan. The mixing of religion is a sign of low
uncertainty avoidance with regard to the absolute Truth. Monotheisms, such as Christianity, Judaism and
Islam, are more concerned about the ultimate answer.146 There is one Book, one God, and one set of rules.
They have been debating for hundreds of year whose perception of these elements is correct/ “Paintings
outside a shop in Thimphu, (Bhutan),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 205
5.5 Time orientation
Time perspective is a universal construct that refers to thoughts and at-
titudes towards the past, the present and the future.148 We measure days
and nights, calculate the cycles of seasons and stars, predict the coming
and going of natural phenomenon, organize our life activities in a way
that ensures our survival in the most effective way. We even think about
time far beyond what we can possibly prove to be fact, for instance a time
machine, life after death, or what the universe looked like at the beginning
of time. In essence, time is a crucial dimension in shaping our lives and
existence.
Static ranking. Theorists often translate the influence of time into a binary
construct of “short term” vs. “long term.” The former focuses on the past and
the present, the latter focuses on the future.
Hofstede155
118. China 56. Thailand 23. Canada
Many Pacific islands are disappearing due to rising seas and erosion, forcing entire villages to relocate. The
impact of global warming is most destructive in the Maldives, Tuvalu, Kiribati, Fiji, Marshall Island, and
the Solomon Islands. In 2012, the Maldivian government stated that they intended to purchase islands in
Australia, Sri Lanka or India to relocate their people when the inevitable happens/ “A woman walking in
the sea in Maldives,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
5.5.3.1 Past-orientation
In contexts where past-orientation prevails, people are more concerned
with experience and values than degree and competence. Paying respect
to their history, highlighting common views or events in the past, reciting
classic literature, praising the origin of the family/company/nation, visiting
historical sites, proposing change as a way of recreating great glory of the
past, etc. are some of the strategies that can quickly establish positive and
warm relationships.
For past-orientation, the past is never gone, and people may constantly
look to the past – real or imaginary – for inspiration, motivation, sustenance,
210 Intercultur al Communication
Veneration of the dead, including one’s ancestors, is to show love and respect for the deceased. It is an act
of looking after ancestors in their afterlives as well as seeking their guidance. The past, the present and
the future are intertwined in this practice. The tradition is prevalent in Madagascar and Asia. In Europe,
there are dedicated days and festival to honor the dead (e.g. All Saints’ Day, All Souls’ Day, Kalan Gwav,
Samhain, etc.). In many Asian cultures, major decisions in life and business are made after a consultation
ritual with the ancestors/ ”Worshipping the Holy Death in Mexico,” THELMADATTER.165
A Ta xonomy Of Diversit y 211
Leaders are known for using bygone glory to inspire followers. In 2006, the
Dutch Prime Minister Jan P. Balkenende called for a return to the trading
spirit of the VOC (Dutch East India Company). The tactic backfired, as many
people of Surinamese descent identified the success of the VOC with slavery.
Support for the party among citizens with a non-Western background fell
by 25 per cent.166 Even in a fairly young country like the US, “Make America
great again” has been repeatedly used as a powerful campaign slogan by
presidential candidates: Ronald Reagan in 1980, Bill Clinton in 1992 and
Donald Trump in 2016.
5.5.3.2 Present-orientation
The American cartoonist Bil Keane famously said: “Yesterday is history,
tomorrow is a mystery, today is a gift of God, which is why we call it the
present.” Following this spirit, we’d better focus on today. This mentality
consequently leads to short-term benefits and quick rewards, immediate
results, more spending than saving, with either enjoyment of life or a fatalistic
view of life. Management is a matter of going with the flow, letting things
happen naturally in a laissez-faire system.
5.5.3.3 Future-orientation
In contexts where future-orientation prevails, people plan their activities
around goals they want to achieve in the future. These long-term goals
shape their actions, as they are willing to sacrifice, to work hard, to save
every penny and to persistently keep their eye on the prize. The reward and
the effect are in the future. Management is a matter of planning, taking
action and controlling.
• Time orientation is critical for our survival because it allows us to deal with the
increased complexity of social structure.
• The degree of importance we put on the past, the present and the future varies,
depending on national, organizational and group cultures, individuals and
particular context.
• The past-orientation emphasizes values, tradition, history and memories. The
present orientation emphasizes short-term benefit, quick reward, immediate
result, action and enjoyment. The future-orientation emphasizes goals, saving,
planning, controlling and persistence.
212 Intercultur al Communication
Angus Deaton – Nobel Prize winner in economics – has a very provocative idea about foreign aid. He
argues that by trying to help poor people in developing countries, the rich world may actually be corrupting
those nations’ governments.167 One of the problems is the short-term mentality of “helping” and not
“empowering,” not letting the poor take charge. Foreign experts and volunteers come and go, and so does
the knowledge/ “A volunteer in South Africa,” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
CASE STUDIES
In the following mini-cases, how can we use the values discussed in this chapter
and other factors such as behaviors, environment and particular context to ex-
plain these outward expressions? How do change, paradox and the non-binary
of values play a role? You may want to read about other values first.
In this chapter, we have touched on the five most widely cited concerns
and their associated values. While many of the examples discussed seem
to fit the assumption of the static paradigm, other cases and phenomenon
make us reconsider. We should be aware of the tendency to look for cases
and examples that confirm our worldview, to disregard paradoxes as non-
typical incidents, and to be selective of what we want to see. It is hard to
overemphasize that the description here should be seen as sophisticated
stereotypes that will only give us the first best guess. Change is dynamic,
paradoxes are a natural part of culture, and we are not only the products,
but also the producers of our cultures.
We are reminded here that the dynamic view of culture is a “tool box”170
or a “card game”171 in which we can respond to each particular situation
in life by “playing” a different value. With the brain’s plasticity, we can
develop a multicultural mind that will enable us to make the best of culture
as a survival strategy in an international context. Third-culture kids, or
second-generation immigrants offer a good example of how they flexibly
and effectively adjust to home vs. school culture, or home vs. work culture,
showing the incredible causal link between brain’s plasticity and behaviors
(see again the Diagram of Diversity, Chapter 1, figure 1.4). You are not an
absolutely masculine or feminine person, but in contexts where masculinity
or femininity prevails, you are able to act accordingly. To be an expert in
intercultural communication is to aim for a multicultural mind. If the world
is a kaleidoscope, we’d better be a chameleon.
Summary
1. Group attachment is the extent to which one gives her/his ingroup priority
over oneself. Hierarchy acceptance is the extent to which subordinates accept
a hierarchical (unequal) distribution of prestige, status, influential power
and resources between them and their superiors. Gender association is the
extent to which people are associated with either masculine or feminine traits.
Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which members of collectives seek
orderliness, consistency, structure, formalized procedures and laws to cover
214 Intercultur al Communication
situations in their daily lives. Time orientation is defined as the extent to which
one emphasizes the past, the present or the future.
2. At the universal level of the Inverted Pyramid model:
• Group attachment, hierarchy acceptance, gender association, uncer-
tainty avoidance and time orientation are fundamental concerns in all
societies, because they are the building blocks of our culture (the trunk
and the roots of the metaphorical tree). This is the evolutionary root of
culture as a survival strategy.
• All societies and individuals agree on a baseline value (i.e. a minimum
level) of how one should prioritize one’s own ingroup, how subordinates
should accept a hierarchical distribution of resources, how masculine
and feminine one should at least be, how much orderliness and structure
a society should have, and how all three time dimensions should be
taken into account (the branches of the tree).
• There are certain universal outward expressions of these concerns and
baseline values that we can all agree upon (the leaves of the tree).
3. At the collective level of the Inverted Pyramid model:
• While these concerns persist (the trunk and roots of the tree),
• … each culture differs from the universal baseline values by placing
differing degrees of importance on these concerns, projecting “low,”
“average” or “high” values for the concerns (the branches of the tree),
• … which are manifested in different outward expressions (the leaves of
the tree).
4. This degree of importance depends on national, organizational and group
cultures, individuals and particular context.
5. Descriptions of national cultural values should be seen as sophisticated
stereotypes. They are neither rules, nor the indicators, but the first best guess.
6. Change is constant, paradoxes are often the norm and not the exception. Seem-
ingly contrasting values such as strong and weak group attachment coexist in
the same culture and individual. Context is the only sure way to understand
this dynamic.
7. To be competent in intercultural communication is to develop a multicultural
mind.
6. Intercultural Competence – Creating
Yourself
Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Explain why the most cultured individuals are more likely to be the most
successful individuals.
• Describe different stages of acculturation according to the Developmental
Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS).
• Describe the requirements of Cultural Intelligence (CQ).
• Given a specific case, recognize stages or components of DMIS and CQ.
• Describe Cultural Shock and its consequences.
• Describe the potential of developing CQ based on the notion of a malleable,
evolving, cultivated self.
Chapter outline
6.1 Seeking similarity 217
6.1.1 A Signal of Trust 217
6.1.2 Ethnocentrism 218
6.1.3 Dealing with Differences 220
6.2 Acculturation 221
6.2.1 The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) 221
6.2.1.1 Denial 221
6.2.1.2 Defense 223
6.2.1.3 Minimization 224
6.2.1.4 Acceptance 226
6.2.1.5 Adaptation 227
6.2.1.6 Integration 228
6.2.2 Where Are You at DMIS? 229
6.2.3 Cultural Shock 231
6.2.3.1 What Does Cultural Shock Look Like? 231
6.2.3.2 The Consequences of Cultural Shock 232
6.2.3.3 Stages of Cultural Shock 233
6.2.3.4 Reversed, Re-entry Cultural Shock 234
6.3 Intercultural competence 235
6.3.1 Cultural Intelligence 236
6.3.1.1 CQ Head – Metacognitive/ Cognitive 237
6.3.1.2 CQ Heart – Motivational 238
6.3.1.3 CQ Hand – Behavioral 238
6.3.2 The Self, or the Lack Thereof 240
6.3.2.1 The Self-fulfilling Prophecy of the Self 241
6.3.2.2 The Malleable Evolving Self 241
6.3.2.3 The Cultivated Self 242
216 Intercultur al Communication
6.1 Seeking similarity
In Chapters 1 and 2, we discussed how cultural diversity plays a critical role
in helping us recognize ingroups and outgroups. The former are people we
can trust and share resources with; the latter are those we may want to
think carefully about, gauging the possibility of cooperation without being
exploited. For this reason, the first natural action human beings conduct
when communicating with others is seeking similarity.
In multicultural societies, there is a tension between the tendency to integrate and the threat of loss of
identity. An effective policy that ensures trust and equality will make diversity an advantage. The lack
thereof will create sectarianism as people seek refuge with those who think alike/ “Muslims and Hindus
on a day out in Mumbai, (India),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
218 Intercultur al Communication
Think about the moment you meet a stranger. It is a very natural inclina-
tion that you and this person will talk about something you are both
interested in, or something that you are both more likely to agree on. It
is not for nothing that people tend to break the ice with comments about
the weather. From that moment, the more shared points of contact one
can establish, the more likely a relationship is to start forming,5 leading
to the “Similar to me” bias in hiring.6 We are drawn to people who are
like-minded. Social clubs and other forms of community groups based on
religion, immigration or professional background, etc. play important roles
in helping people getting to know each other and supporting newcomers,
allowing them to quickly build up their own network and settle down
more easily.
Globalization, with its mind-blowing speed of change and intercon-
nectedness, presents us with an increasingly complex reality. If you live
in an environment where change is fast, uncertainty is high, and life is
overwhelmed by a constant stream of new events, it is only natural that
you seek havens of certainty and security among those who share similar
backgrounds in politics, ethnicity, hobbies, faith or economic interests.
6.1.2 Ethnocentrism
Since ingroup trust is crucial to our survival, we have evolved to love our
culture and those who look and think in a similar way to us.7-8 Our brain is
conditioned to favor those from our ingroup, to the extent that we feel the
pain of our ingroup9 and we even want to share that pain at the expense
of our own safety.10 We can love our ingroup so much that we may end up
hating others. This bias is caused by a hormone called oxytocin. An injec-
tion of this hormone would increase trust and cooperation among ingroup
members,11 increase the overall liking for social stimuli12 and, consequently,
result in outgroup derogation.13
In 1906, sociologist William Graham introduced the concept of ethno-
centrism to describe the way we see our own culture as central to reality,
by interpreting the world from our own viewpoint.14 For example, those
who use chopsticks may judge those who eat with their hands as abnormal;
or those whose living context favors femininity may judge masculinity as
inappropriate.
Ethnocentrism is universal and rooted in evolution as a mechanism of
survival. It helps us to understand why most cultures in the world have
their own folklore that wraps up the origins of their people in a myth of
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 219
ACTIVITY
The “golden rule” is a principle for interacting with others. It appears in many
religions:
• Hinduism: “This is the sum of duty: do naught unto others which would
cause you pain if done to you.” – Brihaspati, Mahabharata, 5:1517.
• Jainism: “In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all
creatures as we regard our own self.” – Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara.
• Buddhism: “Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.” –
Udanavara, 5:18.
• Confucianism: “Do not do unto others what you would not have them do
unto you.” – Analect, 15:23.
• Judaism: “What is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow.” – Shabbath folio:
31a, Babylonian Talmud.
220 Intercultur al Communication
• Christianity: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” – Mat-
thew, 7:12.
• Islam: “O you who believe! Spend of the good things that you have
earned… and do not even think of spending [in alms] worthless things that
you yourselves would be reluctant to accept.” – Quran, surah 2, verses 267.
• Bahaism: “And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy
neighbor that which thou choosest for thyself.” – Bahaullah.
• Scientology: “Try to treat others as you would want them to treat you.” – The
Way to Happiness, Precept 20.
1. In what way is the “golden rule” good for intercultural competence?
2. In what way is it ethnocentric?
3. Have you ever heard of the “platinum rule”?
Naturally, it is critical to keep the best ideas secret, sharing them only with
those we can trust, lest they be stolen. However, we can’t possibly confine
ourselves to those who are alike and limit the world to our own viewpoint
forever, because that would be the end of culture – the very mechanism that
advances humans as a species. Hiding the best innovations, seeking comfort
in look-alike and think-alike folks would have brought this cumulative
cultural adaptation to a halt and caused our species great damage, because
of the constant suspicion and rancor.16 Ethnocentrism as a safeguard instru-
ment to protect the ingroup can be part of evolution, but has never been
the ultimate solution to advancing the human species. At the end of the
day, the power of culture as a survival mechanism is the power of learning
continuously from others, accumulating knowledge throughout time from
all available sources, including from those who are different from us.
Balancing between the comfort of familiarity and the need to deal with
diversity is not an easy task. But humans are the only species who can ex-
tend cooperation beyond kinship and form larger communities of unrelated
individuals. Moving from bands to tribes, from chiefdoms to city states,
from nations to united nations, history has shown how fences were taken
down and boundaries crossed. The tension between “cooperation within
ingroup” and “aggression towards outgroups” has tended to give more weight
to cooperation and softened group boundaries, resulting in the globalization
we see today (see Chapter 1). We are able to step out of our comfort zone
to work with strangers, developing social rules that enable us to share
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 221
goods and ideas, making the cooperation more profitable than unbridled
self-interest. In the next section, we will delve deeper into this process
and see how we can continue to benefit from it in the era of globalization.
• Similarity is a signal of ingroup – those we can trust and share resources with. It
is natural to seek companions among those with similar traits and backgrounds.
• The bias towards our ingroup results in ethnocentrism. We are ethnocentric
when we see our own culture as central to reality and interpret the world from
our own viewpoint.
• However, humans are able to move beyond ethnocentrism and ingroup bias in
order to manage resources effectively in the course of survival.
6.2 Acculturation
The process of interacting with different (co-)cultures is called accultura-
tion. The terminology has been used widely to focus on how minority groups
adapt to a dominant culture, but by definition, any of us will be involved
in this process of change whenever we find ourselves at the meeting points
of different cultures.
There are many models that can help us to understand acculturation, in-
cluding DMIS. After years of observing and conducting cultural workshops,
Milton Bennett developed a framework for illustrating the stages that his
trainees have gone through when dealing with intercultural situations. The
first three stages belong to ethnocentrism, which indicates one’s culture is
the central reality, and the last three belong to ethnorelativism – a concept
coined by Bennett to describe the opposite of ethnocentrism, i.e. when one’s
culture is just one of many viable ways of viewing the world.
6.2.1.1 Denial
Denial signals a withdrawal from interacting with outgroup people. When
seeking similarities fails, people may withdraw at this stage and confine
themselves to their own enclave. We can observe this phenomenon among
expatriates, who carry on their assignment abroad within a cocoon of their
222 Intercultur al Communication
own comfort, or immigrants who fail or refuse to interact with the culture of
their new home. Armed with a certain ideological and political allegiance,
even a nation (e.g. North Korea) can be in the denial stage and refuse to
engage with the outside world.
People at the denial stage can also be those who simply are not interested
in or are ignorant of other cultures. Muslims count for 23 per cent of the
world’s population, but many of us had never heard of the religion until the
horrendous event of September 11. The denial worldview can be the conse-
quence of pillarization – a type of segregation in which the society is divided
into pillars, each with their own social institutions, such as newspapers,
schools, banks and hospitals. The Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, Northern
Ireland and Scotland are famous examples for this social structure. For
those in denial, or, in this case, more precisely the “ignorant,” the lack of
personal contact means they have no framework of reference, and hence
they are unable to see cultural patterns.
During the apartheid era, black people were evicted from “white-only” areas and forced to live in segregated
townships. However, less well known is that a small but increasing number of white people have become
so poor that they now live in “white squatter camps.” In the documentary The White Slums,17 Reggie Yates
asked a group of black partygoers whether they realized that, for eight years, poor white people had been
living in make-shift tents across the water in Coronation Park. The answer (at 39:35) was a denial: “No! I don’t
believe it. You are lying.”/ ”A family in a white squatter camp in Pretoria, (South Africa),” DEON STEYN.
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 223
The biggest problem with being ethnocentric at this stage of denial is that
we may judge others based on our own cultural standards (ethnocentric)
without knowing it (denial/ignorant), despite our good intentions. Consider
this comment: “Oh, those poor new colleagues from abroad. They should
stand up against their boss. It’s democracy at work.” Does the commentator
know enough the culture of these new colleagues? Probably not. Does the
commentator mean well? Probably yes.
6.2.1.2 Defense
At this stage of cultural interaction, people have come into contact fre-
quently enough that similarities and differences can be identified in more
complex ways, and diversity is obvious for comparison and judgment. The
general tendency is for polarization – us against them – in which one’s
culture is perceived to be different, and these differences are seen as su-
perior. Ethnocentrism at the defense stage manifests in forms of negative
stereotypes, prejudices and discrimination towards other cultures. The
purpose is to make fun of them, to play them down, to blame them for all
sorts of problems, to prove their inferiority and, in some extreme cases, to
attack them outright in acts of violence or genocide. The need to defend our
culture is at its peak here, since losing our culture means losing our source
of guidance and advancement.
People at the defense stage belong either to a dominant culture or a co-
culture and are experiencing that their values are under attack. Examples
are immigrants who feel the pressure to assimilate; natives who perceive
foreigners as threats to their identity; religious followers who are told
their faith practices have flaws; previously gender-exclusive groups such
as all-male military units now confronted with the inclusion of female,
homosexual, or non-gender conforming recruits; expatriates who struggle
with criticism from their host; or new colleagues faced with the challenge
of abandoning their way of interpreting ethics, vision, effectiveness at work,
etc.
When embracing a defensive worldview, people may genuinely think
they are superior when they joke at or judge different cultural norms
and habits. Have you ever said that a certain way of dressing is funny, a
certain method of working is ridiculous, or a certain custom is barbarian?
In its benign form, those with a defensive worldview even want to “help”
people they consider inferior to modernize, humanize or they want to
civilize them. Colonialism is the ultimate example of ethnocentrism at
this stage, but one can also see a subtle patronization and post-colonial
mentality in various training, mentoring and educational programs, where
224 Intercultur al Communication
major theories and practices emanate from white authors, with Western
viewpoints and a Christian influence. A simple check of your textbooks
will give you an idea about how this bias can subconsciously manifest
itself.
A variation of the defense stage is reversal, often expressed in a loathing
of one’s own culture and the total adoption of another culture (going
native/passing). Such a person may initially come across as someone
with an excellent sense of cultural balance and competence, since (s)
he can criticize her/his culture of origin while having a positive experi-
ence of the new culture. However, such a person is still at the defense
stage when (s)he holds an unsophisticated binary worldview of seeing
different cultures as good vs. bad or superior vs. inferior. Also because
of this reversed judgment, people at this stage risk being criticized as a
“sell-out,” – someone who compromises her/his authenticity in exchange
for personal gain.
CASE STUDY
In June 2015, Rachel Dolezal, president of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Washington was accused of hav-
ing lied about her racial identity. Born to white parents, she started to identify
more as a black woman around 2007. While being an influential activist, she also
claimed to face discrimination because of her skin color.
Her self-identification as black caused controversy. Some of her colleagues
explained that Dolezal perceived herself as black internally, and that she was
only trying to match how she felt on the inside with her outside. The attachment
with black culture and fascination with racial justice led her to regard herself as
transracial. In her case, Dolezal was said to be psychologically/culturally black,
while biologically white. Sociologist Ann Morning and psychologist Halford
Fairchild also backed her up, saying that identity is a social construct, and hence,
it can change. According to journalist Krissah Thompson, her behavior is “white
guilt played to its end.”
What is your opinion? Can we compare the case of Dolezal with people who
are transgender – those who identify as female but are born in male bodies, and
vice versa?
6.2.1.3 Minimization
At this last stage of ethnocentrism, people regard their worldview neither
as the only one (i.e. denial/ignorant), nor as superior or under attack (i.e.
defense), but rather as universal. When we fail to acknowledge, comprehend
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 225
or deal with differences, we may choose to focus on the ‘easy bit’, i.e. simi-
larity and make it an overall yardstick for all cultures. That is why people
at this stage tend to look at the bottom layer of the Inverted Pyramid
model with universal elements of culture such as “at the end of the day,
we all need good education” (concerns), “we all honor family, integrity
and equality” (values), “and despite different skin colors, we are all God’s
children” (outward expression). Highlighting sameness and similarity is
also a good starting point, but getting stuck at this stage can be a disad-
vantage. This simplified way of looking at cultures succeeds in pointing
out that “we are not different in kind,” but fails to acknowledge that “we
are different at certain levels.” That is to say, we probably all see the need
for a good educational system, but what we perceive as “good” may differ
from others’ views; and while we may all appreciate family, integrity or
equality, depending on particular context, we may attach differing degrees
of importance to each of them.
In society at large, this worldview can be dangerous if it is used to mask
institutional privilege and discrimination. Imagine a race where runner No.
1 starts with the full strength of physical and mental power. For example,
he was born into a white and affluent family with good connections, he
enjoyed good education at a private school, he grew up in safe neighbor-
hoods, and through the connections of his parents, he now works as an
intern for a famous company. In comparison, runner No. 2 starts at the
same time, but is confronted by a number of obstacles on the track. She
was raised by a single parent, who has to work two jobs to support the
family. She grew up in a troublesome neighborhood and attended poorly
funded public schools. She was constantly bullied for her religious practice,
subjected to racial profiling, micro-aggressions and subconscious bias. It
has taken tremendous effort for her to find an internship in an ordinary
company. Who do you think would make it first to the finishing line when
applying for a job?
A minimization worldview would disregard all the historical data
regarding runner No. 2 and close the deadline at the same time for all
candidates: “We treat everyone the same.” But “the same” is not “equal.”
Applying universal standards to all groups of cultures, males and females,
majority and minority, may indicate a failure to acknowledge societal issues
and blame the victims instead (e.g. they are lazy). Hence, it is important that
we look at demographic information that shows group differences in terms
of intelligence, skills, employment success, or crime, etc. with a critical eye
and ask ourselves the following question: “Is this the consequence of social
influence and injustice, or the state of nature?”
226 Intercultur al Communication
6.2.1.4 Acceptance
This stage marks the departure of ethnocentrism and signals the ability to
recognize that, although we are the same in kind, we may be at different
levels, and that differences are equally valid. One’s own culture is just one
of many equally complex worldviews.
However, this acceptance does not necessarily mean agreement or lik-
ing.18 For instance, you are relocated to work in Finland and you soon find
out that, in a country of five million people, there are three million saunas,
on average one sauna per household.19 Many companies have a sauna in the
workplace and often invite business partners to enjoy long hours sitting in
the hot steam. While you dislike the awkward situation of being half-naked
among colleagues and partners you hardly know, you understand their
tradition. You know the sauna provides a mechanism of social leverage that
fits the Finns egalitarian mentality, that when you dress down in the sauna,
you also reduce the level of hierarchy acceptance as everyone becomes
more equal. Being high context dependent, neutral, reserved, low-key, quiet
and rather formal, saunas also give the Finns a natural setting in which to
relax, to open up and strengthen their relationships. This is quite different
from what you perceive as an effective way to build camaraderie, but you
accept and understand that it is an equally valid way for many Finns and
other non-Finns, who can see benefits of it.
Different worldviews can be seen as equally valid. What do you see in this image, a young or an old
woman?/ ”My wife and my mother-in-law,” WILLIAM ELY HILL, 1915 (adapted from a German postcard
in the 19th century).
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 227
The sauna is an important context in which to socialize in many cultures/ “Therme Erding, (Germany),”
STUDIE85. 20
6.2.1.5 Adaptation
People at this stage of acculturation have the ability to shift their frame of
reference in terms of thinking and action. It does not mean assimilation,
i.e. giving up their own norms and values, but rather the extension of their
existing repertoire of identities and worldviews.21 You can consider yourself
at this stage if, for example, you can adjust your participating leadership
style to a more paternalistic style of high hierarchy acceptance when
the context requires such a change. You are capable of maintaining very
intense eye contact, but also of lowering your gaze when talking to those
who are not accustomed to such body language. You know how to read
between the lines and decipher the real message in a subtle conversation
(high context dependent), but you don’t mind expressing your opinion in a
straightforward manner (low context dependence) and fully participating
in a heated discussion.
Adaptation aims at extending the capacity to not just knowing (cognitive),
but feeling (affective) and acting (behavioral) appropriately according to
the respective culture and the particular context. These three elements
should go hand in hand with one another, since an act of adaptation needs
to be done because it “feels right,” not because you “have to.” In other words,
you naturally want to do it without the pressure to fake it. It takes time to
reach this level, and there is an important caveat, which is that adaptation
228 Intercultur al Communication
6.2.1.6 Integration
The final stage of acculturation is not necessarily better than adaptation.
Rather, it is often related to those who are not attached to any primal cultural
identity, and who constantly move in and out several cultural worldviews.
A small but growing number of people can recognize themselves at this
stage, especially long term expatriates and “global nomads.” In a way, their
identities become “marginal,” since they are loosely attached to all and
central to none.23 In Bennett’s word:
Being at this stage of integration can be risky too, since one can fall for
encapsulated marginality, being stuck between cultures in a dysfunctional
way.25 They may be unable to select appropriate cultural contexts, become
self-absorbed, alienated from their broad experience, or become entangled
in an identity crisis.
Acculturation does not happen smoothly and, in many cases, it may not
happen in the stages that the DMIS model describes. Consequently, the
unidirectional logic of DMIS has been questioned, since it seems to assume
that we cannot regress to an earlier stage.26 Firstly, globalization and a vast
array of access to different cultures through media and technology mean that
we can be at the “adaptation” stage with one culture and then find ourselves
at the stage of “defense” with another. Secondly, culture is dynamic and not
a fixed entity, especially when we talk about multicultural societies, which
some parts of the world have rapidly become. This means the culture(s) we
are dealing with is in a constant state of flux and our process of acculturation
may not be linear. Any of us can be in denial, ignorant, or ethnocentric at
some point, without even knowing it, since it is impossible for us to be aware
of every culture that we happen to come across, all the dynamic changes
within and across its borders, and it is quite unlikely that we are able to
completely shed our own cultural baggage. Lastly, everything is context
dependent. Research on priming suggests that we may “adapt” in one situa-
tion, and get caught up with “denial” in another.27 It has been an additional
strength of DMIS that a measure, the Intercultural Development Inventory
(IDI)28 was developed, aiming to assess which stage of acculturation one is at.
ACTIVITY
For each of the following (co-)cultures, evaluate your current stage of DMIS.
• Start with three words that automatically come to your mind when this
culture is mentioned. These words often reflect your stereotypes.
• Think critically about your viewpoint with regard to that culture. Be honest
with yourself, and ask yourself the following question: “Which stage of DMIS
am I at when it comes to the overall perception of this culture?” “Which
stage of DMIS am I at when it comes to the people, their values, their habits,
their appearance, their religion, or their politics, etc.?”
1. A neighboring country
2. A co- or dominant culture of your choice, (e.g. the Muslim or Christian
community, the immigrants, the exchange students at your college,
etc.)
3. The LGBTQ community
4. A profession of your choice (e.g. the bankers)
5. Right-wing politicians and their supporters
6. A company or organization with a well-known organizational culture
230 Intercultur al Communication
CASE STUDY
Pope Benedict XV once said: “We are building a dictatorship of relativism that
does not recognize anything as definitive.”29 His remark has been linked to
criticism of cultural relativism – a notion that there are no absolute criteria for
judging other cultures as “low” or “noble.”30 After the Second World War, cultural
relativism is often understood as “moral relativism,” that all cultures and value
systems are equal with no absolute or universal moral standards. This is errone-
ous. Cultural relativism means one’s moral standard makes sense in terms of her/
his own culture. But it does not mean the moral standard of one culture can be
applied to another.
The idea of cultural relativism clashes head-on with the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights (UDHR). Its statements are meant to be of world-wide applica-
bility, setting up baseline values and baseline outward expressions for all individu-
als and cultures at the universal level of the Inverted Pyramid model. However, a
number of countries criticized UDHR, claiming that it was written from a Western
point of view and hence, does not reflect the universal baseline values and
practices for all.
This is an important and on-going debate for many of the issues we are see-
ing today: Where the baseline should be? What should be considered universal
and hence be enforced? What can be regarded as cultural values and outward
expressions, and hence be respected?31
Consider this example: Female genital mutilation is a wide spread practice in
North Africa, and to a lesser extent in Indonesia and the Middle East. It is prac-
ticed by Muslims, Christians and Jews alike, despite the lack of religious theoreti-
cal support.32 At the age of five or older, part of the genitalia such as the clitoral
hood, clitoral glans, or the labia is removed. In the most extreme form known as
infibulation, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid, and
the vagina is opened for intercourse and opened further for childbirth.33
The practice is rooted in a patriarchal attempt to control women’s sexuality
and traditional ideas about purity. However, it is considered by those who prac-
tice it as a source of honor, and failing to do so may risk social exclusion. Genital
mutilation can result in severe health problems and tremendous pressure.
1. The practice violates UDHR, but should we accept UDHR or should we regard
this practice as part a cultural right? Where does a cultural right stop and the
universal ethic start?
2. With regard to DMIS, if we consider a cultural value or outward expression
as a violation of the universal baseline, our “defense” stage does not reflect
ethnocentrism but a righteous fight for universal values. Go back to the previ-
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 231
ous activity and think about any issues that you don’t agree with any of the
cultures listed. Analyze your discontent to see if it comes from your lack of
understanding (hence, ethnocentrism), or if it comes from your view that the
issue violates the universal baseline in values and outward expressions.
The population of Lebanon is very diverse, and religious contrast is both striking and hidden, causing excite-
ment but also confusion for expatriates and immigrants. The main groups are Shia Muslim (27%), Sunni
Muslim (26%), Christian Maronite (21%), Greek Orthodox (8%), Druze (7%), Melkites (4%), and Protestants
(1%). There are more Lebanese living outside of Lebanon (8-14 million) than within (4 million). Some 450,000
Palestine refugees are registered in Lebanon. The war in Syria also forced more than a million refugees
across the border into Lebanon. The main sectarian groups have agreed on a pact along religious lines:
The President has to be a Maronite Christian, the Speaker of the Parliament has to be a Shia Muslim, and
the Prime Minister has to be a Sunni Muslim/ ”Beirut center, (Lebanon),” MAI NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
• Cultural shock is part of acculturation, referring to the mismatch of old and new
cultural patterns. Cultural shock contributes to early return and it is costly.
• Stages of cultural shock are: honeymoon, disenchantment, adjustment and
reversed cultural shock.
6.3 Intercultural competence
The world is increasingly characterized by interrelated, interdependent
communities. In 2015, international migrants – people living in a country
other than where they were born – reached 244 million, split equally be-
tween men and women and with a median age of 39. 49 The largest diasporas
come from India, Mexico and Russia. International tourist arrivals reached
1.2 billion in 2015.50 In fact, we don’t even need to go abroad to encounter
different cultural patterns since they are ubiquitous: a purchase at the
local store, a neighbor next door, an email exchange, a foreign commercial
product, a new team mate, etc. We may not travel the world, but the world
has come to us. Even if we lock ourselves away constant streams of cultural
interactions through the TV screen still bring the globe’s immense diversity
right into our living room. With technology, the world has gone from con-
nected to hyper-connected.51 In cyberspace, the like-minded find each
other and form communities online where specific cultures have evolved
without actual physical connection. While social mobility and technology
play crucial roles in bringing the world together, political dynamics and
global challenges such as conflicts and climate change have showed us
that we have no choice but to work together. If the survival of an individual
depends on how (s)he can learn a culture at birth (enculturation), or adapts
to a new culture on demand (acculturation), then “the survival of mankind
[…] depends to a large extent on the ability of people who think differently
to act together.”52
Evolutionarily speaking, we are endowed with the ability to acquire
a culture. Nevertheless, since it is not the survival of the fittest, but the
survival of the most cultured, how can we make this ability to learn a
236 Intercultur al Communication
new culture even more effective? In this section, we will discuss cultural
intelligence and the evolving self. The former is a construct that helps you
identify components of cultural competence, the latter is a viewpoint that
will help you to see yourself as a dynamic and active agent in the process
of developing a multicultural mind.
This component is the most salient, the most visible feature when you
translate your understanding and your motivation into action. It is where
the rubber meets the road, and the goal is to figure out which behaviors
need to remain or to change in order to accomplish your objectives.
Behavioral CQ manifests itself in all aspects of communication and
beyond, such as the decisions to make, the policies to take and the strategies
to follow. As such, it is not only the capability to switch from energetically
animated body language (affective) to a more neutral style of talking, or
from corporate jargons to more academic vocabulary. It is also about the
switch from low to high hierarchy acceptance in leadership, or from a
masculine competitive mentality to a more feminine way of negotiating
the contract.
At this point, it is only fair if one begins to wonder: “Does this adaptation
mean I lose my authentic self?” which is an excellent question. How can you
be yourself and still behave in all these alternative ways? We will discuss
this further in the next section.
ACTIVITY
Set up a plan to improve your CQ. Examples of your plans can be:
• CQ Head: Before the end of the course, publish one article in a newspa-
per or magazine (no blog) on the subconscious bias and sexism at my
workplace.
• CQ Head: Before the end of the course, publish on Kindle Direct a com-
plete booklet, a minimum of 50 pages, on “How to survive a Nepalese
boss, a Philippine team, in an Australian company – A cultural guide for
expats in multicultural Asia.”
• CQ Hand/ Heart: Learn about the Sikh culture and religion. Wear their
traditional dastar (turban) to do the grocery. The measurement will be a
video, and two A4 pages reflecting on my experience and connecting it
with theories.
240 Intercultur al Communication
Politicians are often mindful of adjusting their outward expressions to show respect to local cultures/
”Secretary of State Hillary Clinton recounts a story outside the Sultan Hassan Mosque in Cairo,
(Egypt),” PETE SOUZA. 59
We are often driven, especially when we embrace the value of weak group at-
tachment or individualism, by a need, an expectation that the most important
purpose in our life is to find our true self. We look inward to seek the inner
truth, “to thine own self be true” (Shakespeare). The goal of self-actualization
is to find the true self and live it authentically, so you can be you, be free, be
happy.60 This profound authenticity guides us to study the major that is meant
to be, follow a career that is meant to be, and pair with a partner who is meant
to be. This true self already exists. We just need to be brave and dedicated to
the adventure of finding it, as it is the key to living happily ever after.
This notion of self and good life is rooted in religion, the very idea of
predestination that God has laid out a plan for each individual to fulfil.
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 241
plural pronouns (e.g. “we” and “our”) or singular pronouns (e.g. “I” and “me”)
can activate relevant cultural mindsets and their associate networks. Our
brain is so flexible that we are capable of representing multiple cultures in our
mind and switching between values simultaneously, depending on the given
priming culture.65-66-67 We are capable of having both strong and weak group
attachment. We will think about selfhood in a way that is consistent with
the cultural schema provided. As much as the plasticity of the brain, the self
is malleable rather than static. In the same vein, William James – a famous
philosopher and the father of American psychology – once concluded: “A
man has a many social selves as there are individuals who recognize him.”
In the DMIS model, Bennett refers the self in the “adaptation” stage to
an “expanded” self. Let’s return to Orla. In addition to her primary “Irish,”
“affective,” “feminine,” “low context” self, her brain plasticity allows her to
respond to diverse contexts and become a more complex version of the Orla
at this moment. Upon working with her Pakistani counterparts, she can
react to the high context cues and think, feel or behave in a more subtle
and implicit manner. Insofar as this behavior emerged from her feeling
for the cultural patterns in Pakistan, it would be considered part of her
selfhood.68 Bennett’s argument is compatible with the wholesomeness of
CQ. Orla would not be a person with high CQ if her adapted behavior does
not go hand in hand with heartfelt interest and intrinsic CQ motivation for
the Pakistan’s high context dependent culture. In another word, she can
fake it, but the expanded self and CQ are achieved only when the faking
gives way and evolves to genuine feeling from the heart.
Their advice, which makes Puett’s course one of the most popular at
Harvard, is to intentionally break the pattern, even if that goes against your
emotion at that moment. For example, you are in a long-simmering resent-
ment with your colleague. The first step is to acknowledge that the problem
is not because you two are incompatible, but that your communication
has fallen into a pattern. Both you and him have responded to the genuine
emotion of anger, irritation and apathy. To break this pattern, you need to
see him as a complex, multifaceted person with a pleasant side. And so do
you. There is a more tolerant side in you that would not mind talking to
the pleasant side of him at all. Ask yourself “Can I act as if this side of me
is talking to that positive side of him?” If the answer is “yes,” you are off
to a good start. You may begin with a friendly greeting, even though that
would be the last word you want to utter. You may want to force a deliberate
moment of silence the next time you want to snarl. The chance is big that
your colleague will react differently to that “as if” behavior, and that means
both of you stand a chance to break away from the dangerous pattern. Puett
argues that by actively working to shift ourselves “as if” we were different
people in that moment, we may open up infinite possibilities that we did
not know existed.
Your body postures influence your mind. This ancient wisdom of how
rituals inculcate personality has been lost in the modern age, but starts to
revive with modern studies of neurosciences and psychology. It is based on
the notion that if the body leads, the mind will follow. In the 19th century,
William James referred to this wisdom and emphasized that our emotions
are both the result and the cause of our physical expression. In Chapter 4,
where we discussed the impact of non-verbal communication, a study of
Amy Cuddy was mentioned to illustrate how body language influenced
our state of mind. In what has become the second most-watched TED talk
in history – “Your body shapes who you are”70 – she showed the powerful
connection between the body and the mind. The high-power posers (hands
on hips or clasped behind the head, chin tilted upwards, feet planted wide
apart) showed a 19 per cent increase in testosterone, and a 25 per cent
decrease in cortisol. The low-power posers (hands rested closer to the body,
legs closed together, heads held downward) showed the opposite pattern, a
10 per cent decrease in testosterone, and a 17 per cent increase in cortisol.71
In sum, if you expand your body when you feel powerful, then you also
naturally feel powerful when you expand your body.72 Based on this result,
Cuddy advises us to take up a confident body posture to boost our hormones
before an important event, and definitely stop crouching over small devices
such as the mobile phones.
244 Intercultur al Communication
A power pose makes you feel powerful and can influence your performance outcome/ ”Jenifer Patel’s
power pose,” JUHAN SONLN.73
Fake it until you become it. Arnold Schwarzenegger, the world’s biggest
bodybuilding icon, once had breakfast with his rival, Lou Ferrigno, prior
to facing off for their big competition. Ferrigno’s parents were also at the
breakfast table. When Arnold was asked about how he felt going into the
competition, he said he had already called his mom and told her he had
won!74
Since the Soviets started using it back in the 1970s to compete in sports,
such mental training has become popular among professional athletes.
They would act as if they had already won the competition, by using their
dominant body language, even pounding their chests like gorillas, or an-
nouncing “I’m the greatest,” as legendary boxer Muhammad Ali did. Brain
research shows that the same patterns activated when a weightlifter lifts
hundreds of pounds are also activated when they only imagine lifting the
weight. Mental training has proved to increase athletes’ strength by 35 per
cent with only mental exercises, without even budging a finger, compared
to 53 per cent with physical training.75 It may sound too good to be true,
but it is fact: Your muscles will get stronger just by imagining exercise
(i.e. sitting still for 11 minutes, 5 days a week, for 4 weeks, as conducted in
a neurophysiology research).76 For Matthew Nagle, whose whole body is
paralyzed, a silicon chip implanted in his brain helps him to use his thoughts
to move a computer cursor, open emails and control robotic arms.77
Intercultur al Compe tence – Creating Yourself 245
The powerful connection between the body and the mind tells us that
when we adopt a certain body language and ritual, or when we imagine a
certain vision, our mind will react accordingly, and we will eventually feel
accordingly. Note that thought is not fact (e.g. you only imagine you have
won a major contract), and the action may not be originated from genuine
feeling (you deliberately gave a friendly greeting to the colleague you often
have quarrels with). But by doing exactly that you are able to tap into your
personal power and unleash the braver, nicer, better version of who you
really are; or, better put, who you are meant to become. Little by little, you
can develop parts of yourself you never knew existed.
Aristotle said “we are what we repeatedly do.” By deliberately changing
what we repeatedly do, i.e. breaking the pattern and adopting an “as-if”
action, we can expand the perspectives to the hidden and the unknown.
As you cultivate yourself in a certain direction, it slowly becomes second
nature and radiates outward. This applies to all aspects of your life, in Puett’s
and Gross-Loh’s words:
“[…] intentionally seek out things you don’t love, or aren’t good at; pay
attention to interests you think you have no time for; choose experiences
precisely because they are so not you. The point is not to […] develop
expertise in a new area. The point is to get in the habit of expanding your
perspective and expanding your life. It’s to practice constantly engaging
in anything that that forces you away from the constraints that come
from living as a singular, authentic self. You’re opening yourself up to
living life as a series of breaks: breaks from your true feelings, your true
interests, your true strengths.”78
Summary
1. The most culturally attuned individuals are likely to be the most successful.
2. Similarity is a signal of ingroup – those we can trust and share resources with.
It is natural that we seek companions among those with similar traits and
backgrounds.
3. The bias towards ingroup results in ethnocentrism. We are ethnocentric when
we see our own culture as central to reality and interpret the world from our
own viewpoint.
4. However, humans are able to move beyond ethnocentrism and ingroup bias
in order to accumulate knowledge from outgroup people, fusing different
cultures, continuing to make culture an effective mechanism to survive and
advance.
5. Acculturation is a process of interacting with different (co-)cultures.
6. DMIS is a framework of acculturation. If “C” represents “culture,” then it goes
from denial (C only) to defense (C1>C2), minimization (C1=C2), acceptance
(C1≠C2), adaptation (C1 or C2), and integration (C1+C2).
7. Cultural shock is part of acculturation, referring to the mismatch of old and new
cultural patterns. Cultural shock contributes to early return and it is costly.
8. Stages of cultural shock may follow the U and W-shape: honeymoon, disenchant-
ment, adjustment, effective functioning and reversed cultural shock.
9. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is culture-bound while Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
is culture-free. CQ is to know, to be motivated and to act in a culturally ap-
propriate way.
10. Regardless of cultural aff iliation, we are capable of representing multiple
cultures in our mind and switching between values to fit different contexts.
This indicates that we can develop CQ to become bicultural/multicultural
individuals and not be held back by self-perceived personal traits.
7. Diversity management and inclusion
Objective
At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify the major categories of diversity in organizations.
• Explain the nature of creativity and the connection with diversity.
• Describe the advantages and challenges of a diverse workforce.
• Describe the pros and cons of various diversity strategies
Chapter outline
7.1 The drivers and dimensions of workforce diversity 249
7.1.1 The Drivers of Workforce Diversity 249
7.1.1.1 Social Movements 250
7.1.1.2 Economic and Demographic Changes 250
7.1.2 The Dimensions of Workforce Diversity 252
7.2 The benefits of a diverse workforce 252
7.2.1 The Creativity Argument 253
7.2.1.1 Creativity is a Process 253
7.2.1.2 Diversity of Thought and Creativity 254
7.2.2 The Cost Argument 255
7.2.2.1 Gender Diversity and Financial Profit 255
7.2.2.2 Racial Diversity and Financial Profit 260
7.2.2.3 Ability Diversity and Financial Profit 260
7.2.3 The Marketing Argument 261
7.2.3.1 Better Customer Satisfaction 261
7.2.3.2 New Markets 262
7.2.4 The Resource Acquisition Argument 266
7.2.5 The Positive Publicity and Reputation Argument 268
7.3 The challenges of diversity 270
7.3.1 Diversity and Conflict 270
7.3.2 Diversity without Inclusion 272
7.4 Strategies for diversity 274
7.4.1 Diversity Enlargement 274
7.4.1.1 Affirmative Action 274
7.4.1.2 Fault Lines 275
7.4.1.3 Surface Diversity 275
7.4.2 Diversity Training 275
7.4.2.1 Mandatory Training to Avoid Legal Actions 276
7.4.2.2 Categorical Training 276
7.4.3 Affinity Network 277
7.4.4 Managerial Discretion Control 278
248 Intercultur al Communication
accounted for 47 per cent of the increase in the workforce in the US and 70
per cent in Europe.5 In the Gulf, non-national workers account for 48 per
cent of the total workforce, with 88.5 per cent in the UAE and 85.7 per cent
in Qatar.6 For many developed countries, a large number of immigrants is
constantly needed to maintain their working-age population levels.
Asia hosts three of the world’s top economies, measured by purchasing power parity. Western immigrants
are now being replaced by Asian-born, internationally educated and multilingual immigrants within the
region.7 Intra-regional moves have created many foreign communities in each country. For example, the
Korean population in Ho Chi Minh city comprises up to 100,000 people, making it the fourth largest Korean
diaspora in the world8 / ”Night view of Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam,” DIEGO DELSO.9
In its 2013 report,12 Deloitte made a bold statement that it was time to rethink
diversity. Advances in neurological research show that diversity of thought
is the future of the workforce, which enables us to blend the “cacophony of
ideas” in the workplace to “spark innovation and creativity.”
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10
Spencer X X X X X
Jeff X X X X X X X
Rose X X X X X X
Creativity is simply a new combination of old data. A diverse workforce can act as a
“collective brain” in creating a great variety of data combinations:
• diversity trumps ability
• diversity guards against “group think” and “overconfidence in experts”
• differences prompt us to work harder
we discuss women being the “richer sex” and replacing men as “future
breadwinners” within 20 years,29 but black women are already the lifeblood
of their families, especially in communities hard hit by recessions and
in countries where black men are challenged by racism and obstacles to
employment.30
In the West, women started to enter the workforce during the Industrial
Revolution because their cheap labor helped factory owners earn more
prof it.31 As more and more jobs require brainpower and not physical
strength, and with education becoming a women’s game (women earn
53.5 per cent of all bachelor’s degrees and make up 57.4 per cent of gradu-
ate students in 28 European countries),32 the two sexes are more evenly
matched, sometimes, to women’s advantage, as in the case of leadership.
Women are the backbone of agriculture and animal husbandry/ “A farmer in Pakistan,” MAI
NGUYEN-PHUONG-MAI.
Diversit y management and inclusion 257
Research among 7,280 global leaders in 2011 (64 per cent of the data set
was male) shows that women outscore their male counterparts in 15 out
of 16 identified leadership competencies.33 This partly explains why the
gender mix of an organization’s top management relates positively to its
performance. A report examining 2,360 companies globally demonstrates
that companies with one or more women on the board delivered higher
than average returns on equity, lower gearing and better than average
growth.34 On average, “female representation on top management leads to
an increase of $42 million in firm value.”35 In Asian markets, female board
directors have a positive effect on performance in more than 800 companies
in Malaysia,36 in the top 30 firms on India’s Bombay Stock Exchange,37 and
Vietnamese companies led by women made twice as much profit as others
over five years.38
The benefit of gender diversity is also profound when women take part in
all others aspects of employment. In the UK, for every ten per cent increase
in gender diversity, EBIT (Earnings Before Interests and Taxes) rose by 3.5
per cent.39 Another good example is the Sweden-based fast-fashion retailer
H&M, which is close to reaching gender equality. Women make up 58 per
cent of the board, 41 per cent of its top leadership team, and 80 per cent of
the employees. In 2016, H&M ranked at the top of Ledbetter’s list, composed
of companies culled from the Fortune 100.
If we take a step back and look at the big picture, the benefit of incor-
porating women into the economy is staggering. According to a report by
McKinsey, 40 if all countries match the rate of improvement of the fastest-
improving country in their region, we could add 12 trillion dollars to global
growth. A “full potential” scenario, in which women play an identical role
in labor markets to that of men, could add $28 trillion, or 26 per cent to the
global annual GDP by 2025.
CASE STUDY
Bangladesh
The participation of women in the workforce not only makes direct financial
sense, but it is also a “cure” for social issues. In Bangladesh, an all-female driving
school aims to improve the country’s appalling road safety record and “de-tes-
258 Intercultur al Communication
tosterone” the traffic.41 20,000 people die every year on Bangladesh’s roads – one
of the highest road fatality rates per capita in the world. It is rare for women to
drive, let alone work as drivers.
Japan
Japan’s gender equality ranks 105th out of 145 countries, much lower than many
emerging economies, including Rwanda (6th) and the Philippines (7th).42 Approxi-
mately 70 per cent of women give up their career after having their first child.43
Welfare systems also encourage the “male breadwinner model” by allowing
husbands to claim a tax deduction if their wife’s income is below a certain level,
and families can also claim a state pension without paying any premiums. 70 per
cent of Japanese companies provide a dependents allowance for wives so their
husbands can focus on work.44
However, with its recovering economy, the world’s lowest birthrate, a shrink-
ing and greying workforce and an acute labor shortage, Japan is being forced to
change its view on gender diversity. Closing the gender employment gap could
boost Japan’s GDP by 13 per cent.45 The government now aims to see women ac-
count for 30 per cent of corporate managers by 2020. This is quite a turnaround
for Abe’s Conservative Party, which, in 2005, was still warning against the dam-
age of gender equality and referred to women as “baby-making machines.”46
Saudi Arabia
While Saudi women still cannot drive and need permission from their male
guardians to open a bank account or to go abroad, this country is also witness-
ing an unprecedented rate of women entering the workforce at 48%, more than
double the rate for men.47
In the face of a changing global energy market and the plunging oil price,
Saudi can no longer rely on oil revenue and has approved sweeping economic
reforms to ensure the country can live without oil by 2020. A major task in the
reform is to increase women in the workforce.48 Female graduates make up 49.6
per cent, but women only account for 16.4 per cent of the job market.49
Vietnam
In Vietnam, a great number of women traditionally took the role of primary or
co-breadwinners. The exalted status of women may actually date back millen-
nia to when Vietnam had a matriarchal society. This changed under the influ-
ence of Confucianism when the country was invaded by the Chinese. However,
compared to other Confucianism-influenced cultures such as China, Japan and
Korea, matriarchal values leave a strong legacy. Europeans who arrived in the
1600s observed that women were prominent in trading and commerce. The
Diversit y management and inclusion 259
decades-long Vietnam War witnessed active roles for women, fighting side by
side with men, which helped them to approach gender parity more easily than
other conservative societies.50 As of 2012, the number of female Vietnamese en-
trepreneurs is higher (51.35 per cent) than male entrepreneurs (41.11 per cent).51
1. Analyze the causes of women’s employment in each case and find similarities
among them.
2. What are the dominant cultural values in each culture?
3. Did these values give way to specific context (history, economy, circumstanc-
es, etc.)?
4. What conclusion can we draw from these cases: (a) culture is static; (b) cul-
ture is dynamic? How can we relate this to the notion of “culture as survival
mechanism”, i.e. culture evolves to help humans advance and survive?
“We Can Do It,” a Second World War propaganda poster, also called “Rosie the Riveter” after the fictional
character of a strong female war production worker, designed to attract women into work/ “We Can Do
It,” HOWARD MILLER. 52
260 Intercultur al Communication
Table 7.2. Mean revenues and numbers of customers for businesses with high,
medium and low levels of racial diversity
allowances in dress code rules or allowing somebody to sit (or stand) when
other positioning is customary. Any costs incurred are, generally, a one-time
cost, typically of $500.
Under the premise of diversity, we should rethink the concept of disability
and its negative connotation. For example, according to a noted doctor, half
of the innovators in Silicon Valley may have Asperger’s syndrome, reflected
in their ability to program for long hours.63 In fact, German software firm
SAP actively recruits people with autism diagnoses since they can perform
complex tasks that require a high level of concentration and exhibit potent
ability in relation to finding patterns and making connections.64 Their
“Autism at Work” program aims to have one per cent of its total workforce
(approx. 650 people) fall on the spectrum by 2020 – an initiative that
Microsoft has since adopted.65
Organizations with a diverse workforce are not only more likely to under-
stand different market segments better, but they are also more likely to
enter new markets.
CASE STUDY
I want to bluntly address the way you represent women in your magazine. I am a
surfer, my dad surfs and my brother has just started surfing.
Reading a Tracks magazine I found at my friend’s holiday house, the only photo
of a woman I could find was ‘’Girl of the month’’. She wasn’t surfing or even remotely
near a beach.
Diversit y management and inclusion 263
I clicked on your web page titled ‘’Girls’’ hoping I might find some women surfers
and what they were up to, but it entered into pages and pages of semi-naked, non-
surfing girls.
These images create a culture in which boys, men and even girls reading your
magazine will think that all girls are valued for is their appearance.
My posse of female surfers and I are going to spread the word and refuse to
purchase or promote Tracks magazine. It’s a shame that you can’t see the benefits
of an inclusive surf culture that, in fact, would add a whole lot of numbers to your
subscription list.
I urge you to give much more coverage to the exciting women surfers out there,
not just scantily clad women (who may be great on the waves, but we’ll never know).
I would subscribe to your magazine if only I felt that women were valued as
athletes instead of dolls. This change would only bring good.
Olive
They are more brand-loyal than other consumers84 and are well aware of
organizations that promote their voice, employ positive advertising mes-
sages,85 and include staff with a disability in the marketing team. 92 per
cent of people with disabilities favor companies that employ individuals
with disabilities, and 87 per cent would do business with them.86 It is a
simple rule: customers will purchase products that support their personal
identities and causes.
“Toy like me” is a campaign and art collective that aims at asking global toy industry to better represent
150 million children with disabilities/ “Snowman with a hearing aid,” REBECCA ATKINSON.87
trillion, with Asia leading (1.1 trillion), representing half of the LGBTQ on
the planet, followed by Europe ($950 billion) and the US ($900 billion).88
Much research done to date tells us that LGBTQ consumers often earn
more and spend more. They are more likely to move to big cities where
incomes are higher, more likely to focus on careers, have more savings, are
more likely to pay extra for top-of-the-line or cutting-edge products.89 In
general, they spend seven per cent more than heterosexual consumers.90 Not
only do they earn more and spend more, LGBTQ also significantly influence
the market as taste makers and trend setters. Many companies in music,
sports, apparel and media keep a close look eye on them for inspiration,
creativity and role models that can change the content of their products.
The fact that LGBTQ still suffer discrimination in almost every aspect
of their lives91 plays a crucial role in making them extremely loyal cus-
tomers of a brand. Similar to consumers with a disability, they are highly
aware of organizations that appear to be allies and those that are not yet
catching up in the equality game.92 Brands that are ignorant or insensitive
of LGBTQ issues are often collectively boycotted, while brands that are
progressive and supportive not only attract new customers but win their
loyalty. Sympathizing with their pleas, their friends and families advocate
LGBTQ policies93 and 78 per cent of them would make a switch to a more
LGBTQ-friendly brands.94 In order to be really effective in marketing to
the LGBTQ community, organizational commitment should start from the
inside out. Having a transgender or a lesbian featuring in an advertisement
is not enough, and can be easily seen as “tokenism if the organization itself
does not have its own house in order.”95 The representation and well-being
of LGBTQ employees should be first taken care of: “You want to be known
as an inclusive employer before trying to market to the larger community.”96
Global market. Making diversity a market-based policy helps organiza-
tions gain access to new international customer bases with more success.97
The complexity of local markets often challenges established multination-
als, and that is why a diverse management and marketing team can better
reflect the breadth of the company’s new geographical footprint and the
changing consumer landscape. A good example is Australia where, by
2020, one in four jobs will be Asia-related and the future of the country’s
business will be on this continent. The government has been actively
shaping an “Australia in the Asian century” with a “National Taskforce for
an Asia-Capable Australia.”98 Efforts to be more “Asia-literate” and “Asia-
capable” begin with early education, such as teaching Asian languages
at primary school.99 Organizations actively recruit staff who understand
Asia’s cultures since this has become a must for doing business with
266 Intercultur al Communication
CASE STUDY
For the first time in the history of the car industry, American women have
more driving licenses than men.102 Dealers of General Motors’ Cadillac division
reported that women wield influence in anywhere from 85 to 95 per cent of car
purchases.103 In the Philippines, women account for 45 per cent of new vehicle
purchases.104 Among millennials – the young adults that all industries have
started fighting for – 53 per cent of car buyers are female.105 As you are reading,
the numbers are increasing, and this trend is being seen in many other markets.
However, companies continue to have outdated marketing narratives that
promote female stereotypes. Women are still advised to “bring a man with you
to buy a car.” Advertisements mainly focus on men with an air of masculinity. In
the shops, women complain that macho car salesmen don’t treat them fairly,
using intimidating or patronizing sales tactics, believing that women don’t know
much about cars. A CarMax poll shows that 19 per cent of the surveyed women
thought they missed a fair trade-in value; 15 per cent didn’t have a trustworthy
salesperson; 13 per cent missed fair pricing; and the same number thought they
didn’t get a good finance rate.106 A study found that women and black customers
are consistently quoted higher prices than men because car dealers think they
are “easy to mislead.” 107
1. Car designs often prioritize speed, not utility, which matters more to women.
Conduct research on other automotive features that are more relatable to
women, but often ignored by car producers, e.g. child comfort or environ-
mental impact.
2. Expand the previous question to other markets such as millennials, LGBTQ,
people with a disability and people of color.
3. Search for successful strategies from the automotive industry that attract the
target markets of women, millennials, LGBTQ, people with a disability and
people of color.
Since it was coined by a McKinsey study in 1997, the “War for Talent” has
become even more competitive due to a dramatic demographic shift that
Diversit y management and inclusion 267
Talent retention in Asia comes with some important differences. For example, many managers in Asia are
young, but their parents often have strong influence over their adult children, to the extent that they can
veto job change decisions. Therefore, connecting with employees’ families through formal or informal
company events is a good strategy. If family members believe in the values of the company, they can be
counted upon to support an employees’ loyalty to the company/ “Participants in a diversity conference,”
OREGON DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION.
tougher monitoring ability, they pull along male directors as well.118 Research
looking at more than 6,500 organizations globally shows that having women
on a board is linked to fewer scandals such as bribery, fraud or shareholder
conflicts.119 It is not that women are more ethical than men, more that
diversity is a good proxy for better problem solving and cross-checking.
Board diversity has been linked with increased corporate social respon-
sibility (CSR) in France,120 Indonesia,121 Vietnam122 and a number of multi-
nationals.123 In a study that measures the corporate philanthropic disaster
response of privately owned Chinese firms after two devastating earthquakes,
researchers concluded that having at least three women on the board was
associated with a more significant corporate response to natural disasters.124
However, there has been a trend for companies to remove diversity from
CSR reports and make it a poster child for quality. An impressive diversity
report, one that is not necessarily related to CSR, is at the core of a brutal
competition125 among businesses. Customers now demand it, often supported
by the media, who scrutinize the numbers, investigate evidence of policies
and initiatives, compare with other competitors, analyze practices, and call
on customers to make a responsible choice. A good report may result in a
media marketing blitz and a profit windfall. In fact, winning a diversity award
can make a company’s share price increase within ten days; by contrast, a di-
versity complaint going public will slash the share price within 24 hours.126-127
Having a good reputation on diversity also helps to minimize legal exposure
and risk. Regardless of the outcome, once a case is filed, the legal fees are often
incredibly expensive (approx. $55,000 per case). This goes hand in hand with
negative publicity, a damage payment that could reach millions of dollars,
the risk of losing contracts with critical clients128 and the loss of trust among
customers. In Asia, where white supremacy leads to “reverse discrimina-
tion,”129 organizations were sued by employees for favoring white men over
local Asians during downsizing.130 That is why the proactive and effective
management of diversity can prevent costly and embarrassing litigation.
ACTIVITY
Conduct a quick research to find out why the organizations were confronted
with costly lawsuits:
1. Coca Cola in 1999 with a record of $192.5 million settlement
2. Sumitomo Electric in 2004 with 10 million yen ($94,000) in compensation.
3. Eddie Jordan, the district attorney of New Orleans in 2007, with a $3.7 mil-
lion lawsuit and a resignation
ACTIVITY
In the second layer of the Inverted Pyramid Model, cultures can be analyzed at
four levels: global, national, organizational and group. Conduct research and
discuss the following questions:
1. How strongly does national culture influence an organizational culture?
2. How strongly does group culture influence an organizational culture?
3. How easy or difficult is it to change an organizational culture?
4. Which set of values will be more likely to enhance the likelihood of success-
ful diversity management (i.e. the degree of hierarchy acceptance/ group
attachment/ masculinity or femininity/ uncertainty avoidance/ time orienta-
tion)?
Poor diversity management can lead to the perception that benefits received
by underrepresented people come at the cost of the others. In the graphic,
this means that the boxes on which the tall person stood should not be
removed and given to the shorter person, technically taking away the
resource and reducing her/his status and potentially causing resentment.
In fact, this is backed up by research. In a study where half of the job seekers
were informed about the company’s diversity policies and the other half not,
white candidates in the informed group expressed concerns about being
treated unfairly. In comparison with those who were not informed about
the company’s pro-diversity policies, they also made a poorer impression
during the interview and their cardiovascular responses indicated they
endured more stress.138 This suggests that diversity messages can be very
sensitive for high-status individuals because they trigger identity threats
and resentment.
Diversity without inclusion is worse than useless. Organizations should
find ways to make all employees feel included and engaged, unless they
want to face the burden of “reverse discrimination,” polarization in the
work place, reduced morale and bitterness among those who perceive
themselves as being excluded or even victims of the policies. PR “window
dressing” diversity programs will not bring in the expected benefit and
can be counterproductive for workplace morale. That is to say, effective
diversity management goes hand in hand with significant changes in the
organizational philosophy and vision with regard to the role of diversity.
Diversit y management and inclusion 273
Millennial Arab female GenX Asian male GenX Arab female GenX Asian female
Millennial Arab female GenX Asian male Millennial Arab female GenX Asian male
Millennial Arab female GenX Asian male Millennial Arab female GenX Asian male
support one another in the promotion of diversity and do not compete for
funds, managerial priorities, or create social tensions among groups.
Participating in women’s networks is associated with higher levels of career-related social support, a
greater sense of well-being, and more positive attitudes towards the organizations for whom the woman
works156/ “New Delhi Dell Women’s entrepreneur network, India,” DELL’S OFFICIAL FLICKR PAGE.157
However, organizations with affinity networks are still in the minority, and
those with such networks may not realize their full potential and optimize
their capacity. In many cases, immature networks serve as little more than
safe gathering places to exchange experiences among like-minded people,
and the network itself has limited influence on the decision making process.
Workplace
1. In our organization, executive leaders’ annual bonus and/or pay are tied to
the performance of diversity and inclusion indicators.
2. In our organization, diversity and inclusion measures are a part of the organi-
zation’s overall scorecard, linked to the organizational strategy.
3. In our organization, leaders receive coaching in diversity and inclusion at
least once a year, and provide coaching to others.
Workforce
1. Hiring managers are not permitted to recruit or interview until they have
been educated in understanding cultural differences, biases, and their impact
in hiring.
2. Our organization tracks the advancement and promotion of our employees,
at a minimum by: gender, generation, ethnicity/national origin, and/or race/
color.
3. In our organization, attempts are made to accommodate religious practices
and to schedule around religious and cultural holidays even if they are not
the holidays of the majority.
4. In our organization, leaders are not permitted to execute performance evalu-
ations until they have been educated in understanding cultural differences,
biases, and their impact on evaluating performance.
Marketplace
1. Advertising and marketing are tested to ensure they are not offensive or per-
petuate negative stereotypes towards any religious group or demographic.
2. Our professionals/staff/associates/client service professionals receive training
that ensures they know how to respectfully address specific customer needs
and interest.
The most frequently applied practices in diversity management, such as diversity en-
largement, diversity training, managerial discretion control and affinity networks have
shown mixed results. They are best to combine with direct engagement from managers.
282 Intercultur al Communication
ACTIVITY
Conduct research and discuss the following affirmative actions. What else
should be done to ensure that diversity would effectively work in the long
term?
1. Brazil’s affirmative action requires companies with more than 100 employ-
ees to fill two to five per cent of their positions with either social security
beneficiaries or skilled disabled employees.
2. After a genocide that saw the deaths of more than 800,000 people, since
1994, Rwanda has worked hard to create a peaceful state, and one strategy
was to establish a quota for women in the government. The 2003 Rwanda
constitution provides for a minimum 30 per cent quota for women in all
decision-making organs. Rwandan has now become the only country
where there are more female MPs than male (64 per cent).
Summary
1. Diversity within an organization can be understood in terms of gender,
ethnicity, sexual orientation, religious background, disability, etc. Other
deeper dimensions of diversity are thinking style, educational background or
professional background.
2. A diverse workforce holds tremendous potential for competitive advantage:
financial gain, better customer service, winning new markets, retaining tal-
ents, increased corporate social responsibility and positive public reputation.
3. At a deeper level, diversity of thought is what best illustrates the advantages of
diversity. It boosts creativity and innovation that come from diverse perspec-
tives, regardless of any categories (e.g. race or gender).
4. The challenges of a diverse workforce include: potential conflicts, fear and
distrust, prejudices, discrimination and misunderstanding. These challenges
can be experienced by both dominant and co-cultures (or minority) within
an organization.
5. When confronted with these challenges, in order to benefit from diversity,
organizations should not back down but push forward the level of diversity and
employ effective strategies to deal with it. An organization will reap optimal
reward from diversity when it is truly multicultural.
6. Differences do not automatically bring benefits. Diversity only works if there
are effective strategies.
7. The most frequently applied practices in diversity management such as diver-
sity enlargement, diversity training, managerial discretion control and affinity
networks have shown mixed results. These strategies work better if there is
direct engagement from managers (mentoring program, appointing diversity
manager, or task force) who will be held accountable for the outcomes.
Diversit y management and inclusion 283
8. The chapter utilizes two metaphors: the giraffe’s cooperation with the elephant
and the people behind a fence. Both metaphors imply that a truly diverse
and multicultural organization requires much more than increasing the
number of people from non-dominant culture. It is about a critical change
in organizational philosophy and the willingness to build a new system that
values differences so everyone can eventually maximize reward from a culture
of inclusion.
To the readers
The author has set up a Facebook page to communicate with readers about
the content of the book. This is a place for fruitful and interactive discus-
sions, where answers to case studies will be analyzed, where lecturers and
students can share their experience in carrying out teaching and learning
activities. Through this page, the author would like to learn more about
examples and cases from non-mainstream cultures. Together, we can
shine the spotlight on under-representative communities, reducing the
US-centric and Euro-centric view of cultural discourse. Your contribution
will be credited in the next edition of the book.
www.facebook.com/culturemove
CultureMove@CultureMove.com
The name Culture Move derives from a taming technique used by
elephant trainers in Southeast Asia. Young elephants are loosely chained
to a pillar and can only walk within the circle created by the length of the
rope. As they get used to the habit, even when untied, they will tend to stay
within the invisible border.
Similarly, each of us is metaphorically tied to the first culture seen at
birth. But we are capable of unchaining the shackles, crossing the line, and
adapting to the new environment. Only by moving can we realize that we
are tied.
Legs that move feel the chain.
7 takeaways from this book
Notes
Preface
1. “Geert Hofstede,” The Economist, accessed November 28, 2008, http://www.
economist.com/node/12669307.
2. Geert Hofstede, Gert-Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov, Cultures and
Organizations: Software of the Mind (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005), back
cover.
Chapter 1
1. Samuel Levy et al., “The Diploid Genome Sequence of an Individual Hu-
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Index of Names
Abdulcadir, Jasmine 340 Bem, Daryl 296
Abdullah, Shamsul 346 Bem, Sandra 333
Abe, Shinzo 159, 324 Ben Barka, Hazar 351
Abueva, Jobert 340 Benedict XV 230
Abu-Nasr, Donna 347 Bennett, Andy 317
Adams, René 351 Bennett, Janet 339, 342
Adetunji, Jo 324 Bennett, Jessica 348
Adler, Nancy 309, 340 Bennett, Milton 221, 228, 242, 303, 339, 340, 342
Ahlert, Arnold 313 Berry, John 299
Ahuja, Anjana 330 Bertrand, Marianne 312
Al Horr, Yousef 314, 321 Bird, Allan 163, 300, 301, 305, 338
Alesina, Alberto 333 Blackburn, Roger Lloret 340
Alhamdam, Shahd 347 Blackman, Carolyn 326
Allen, Joseph 321 Blair, Irene 304, 315, 338
Almashabi, Deema 347 Bock, Laszlo 120
Ambady, Nalini 296, 316 Boehm, Christopher 297
Amodio, David 311, 313 Bond, Michael Harris 319, 323
Anderson, Clifford Wilfred 317 Boroditsky, Lera 302
Andreasen, Nancy 344 Bos, Maarten 325
Ang, Soon 236, 341 Boserup, Ester 333
Arapova, Maria 317 Bosmans, Dirk 308
Archimedes 253 Bossard, Annette 340, 341
Aristotle 19, 245 Boucke, Laurie 318
Armoudian, Maria 312 Bouzizi 36
Aronson, Elliot 296, 309, 311, 329 Bowers, Olive 262, 349
Aronson, Joshua 309 Bowles, Samuel 40, 297
Arvey, Richard 330 Boyd, John 337
Ashwill, Mark 319 Boyd, Robert 291, 293
Aslam, Mubeen 322 Bozorghmehr, Shirzad 325
Asser, Martin 325 Brad Jakeman 261
Ataturk 35, 36 Brand, Jeffrey 308
Auguel 157, 323 Brazzel, Michael 343
Avery, Derek 351 Bregman, Peter 354
Ayalew, Workneh 292 Brennan, Bridget 348, 349
Ayres, Ian 350 Brewer, Marilynn 310, 339
Ayubi, Nazih 299 Brewer, Paul 302, 334, 336, 337
Brewster, Chris 341
Backman, Lars 299 Brihaspati 219
Bahaullah 220 Brodt, Susan 299
Bahns, Angela 304 Brooks, Arthur 334
Baird, Robert 311 Bruneau, Thomas 140, 319
Balkenende, Jan 211 Buller, Tom 295, 316
Ball, Richard 328 Burgoon, Judee 316
Barak, Michalle E. Mor 344 Burkart, Judith 297
Barker, Chris 317 Burke, Ronald 351
Barnard, Gregory 302 Burton, Jennifer 292
Barnett, Andy 329 Buss, David 333
Barrett, Anne 307 Butler, Judith 332
Barry, Bruce 299 Byrne, Donn Erwin 304
Barter, Nick 302
Baruch, Yehuda 341 Caldwell, John 304
Bass, Lee 322 Caldwell, Pat 304
Beauchamp, Mike 320 Callero, Peter 342
Beeman, Mark 344 Calvert, John 306
Bell, Cecil 302 Calvo-Merino, Beatriz 294
358 Intercultur al Communication
Plasticity 10, 13, 30‒33, 38, 47, 50, 59, 76, 114, Collectivistic 27, 53, 54, 56, 58, 59, 170‒172,
121, 139, 146, 165, 166, 171, 174, 182, 190, 213, 174, 175
241, 242, 253 Colonialism 223
Breadwinner 256, 258 Color
Building block 51, 61, 84, 169, 214 as in ethnicity 106, 114, 224, 251, 266, 277, 280
Bushido 187 as in context 118, 139, 149, 150, 153, 154
Business 7, 36, 45, 49, 68, 74‒79, 84, 85, 108, 109, skin 10, 14, 97, 100, 102, 106, 109, 112, 117, 126,
117, 142‒145, 150, 153, 157, 175, 176, 178, 179, 217, 225
190, 202, 203, 210, 212, 231, 240, 249, 260, 262, Command 180, 182
264, 265, 267‒269, 289 Communism 154
imperative/impetus/outcomes 237, 249, Communist 110, 183
251, 252, 279 Communitarianism 170
relationship, 24 Community 40, 44, 53, 70, 82, 135, 170, 179, 181,
student/people/partner/owner 10, 58, 76, 218, 229, 264, 265, 280
79, 82, 83, 90, 106, 142, 226, 237 Competition 24, 51, 52, 67, 103, 138, 173, 191, 192,
194, 199, 204, 244, 269
Caliphate 35, 73 Competitive 57, 59, 60, 146, 149, 164, 189, 194,
Capitalism 109, 110, 170, 250, 297, 313 195, 239, 245, 251, 266, 267, 282
Care 40‒42, 65, 66, 90, 118, 154, 156, 157, 167, 173, Conflict 9, 10, 39, 41, 43, 44, 67, 68, 87, 102, 103,
174, 177, 186, 188, 191, 192, 193, 196, 265 112, 122, 196, 235, 247, 249, 269, 270, 271, 275,
Career 9, 11, 97, 127, 137, 216, 234, 240, 258, 265, 282
268, 278 Conformity 26, 36, 37, 174, 185
Caring 42, 60, 72, 77, 189, 194, 195 Confucianism 187, 188, 202, 219, 258
economy, 42, 72, 77 Consensus 41, 70, 113, 255
Categorical training 247, 276 Conservative 36, 53, 56, 58‒60, 112, 116, 130, 207,
Cell 30, 31, 45, 62, 193 210, 258, 259
Change 10, 44, 46, 47, 50, 74, 76, 78, 96, 109, 115, Conservatism 53
136, 140, 142‒144, 146, 147, 149, 154, 190, 206, Constitution 205, 282
209, 218, 224, 241, 247, 250, 251, 254 Construct 14, 59, 66, 129, 154, 183, 190, 192, 205,
in behavior 34, 37, 60, 81, 139, 162, 227, 229, 207, 224, 236
239 Constructive 120, 175, 228
in brain 31‒34, 112 Context 7, 10, 15, 29, 32, 33, 39, 47, 52‒54, 57‒62,
in culture 7, 37, 49, 53‒56, 58, 60‒65, 67, 70, 65‒68, 71, 72, 77, 79, 82‒85, 93, 115, 124, 146,
79, 84, 119, 121‒123, 164, 165, 167, 172, 173, 169, 170, 174, 177, 178, 181‒185, 187, 188, 192,
178, 182‒184, 188, 192, 200, 202, 203, 207, 196, 198, 199, 202, 203, 206, 209‒214, 218,
212‒214, 221, 258 225‒229, 246, 249, 250, 259
in environment 22, 38, 72, 235 high 123, 132‒135, 137‒141, 147, 150, 152, 153,
in genes 17, 18, 35, 216, 287 155, 156, 158, 159, 162‒166, 175, 226, 227,
in organizational context 261‒263, 265, 236, 242
267, 272‒275, 279, 281, 283 low 123, 132‒141, 147, 150, 155, 156, 158,
Chosen nation/people 219 162‒166, 227, 236, 242, 245
Chronemics 123, 140, 141, 147, 154, 163, 165, 168, role of 49, 55‒59, 123, 130‒142
205 Contract 90, 103, 143, 178, 205, 239, 245, 268, 269
Circle Test 206 Contradiction/ Contradictory 54, 56, 57, 83, 184
Citizen 39, 45, 72, 76, 96, 97, 102, 117, 154, 196, 211 Controversy 179, 224
Civilization 14, 55, 73, 80, 110 Cooperation 23, 39‒41, 43, 44, 47, 70, 74, 111, 121,
Class 136, 149, 201, 217, 218, 220, 221, 233, 283
educational 126, 141, 188, 281 Corporate
middle 192 culture/mindset/world/policy 37, 45, 184,
social 102, 110, 183, 192, 252 237, 245, 289
Climate 19, 26, 38, 72, 235 elite, managers, governance 176, 258, 268
Co-culture 60, 75, 77, 81, 84, 135, 136, 145, 216, jargon 239
252, 274, 282 samurai 173
Code of conduct 135, 200, 201 Social responsibility 72, 269, 282
Cognitive dissonance 36, 95 Corruption 76, 179, 189
Cognitive performance 35 Cost argument 247, 255
Cold War 10, 67, 68, 185, 249 Cost of connection 180, 188
Collectivism 163, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173 CQ Head / CQ Heart/ CQ Hand 215, 237‒240
Index of Subjec ts 367
Creativity 74, 129, 150, 153, 247, 252‒255, 265, racial 98, 247, 254, 260
267, 269, 282 surface 247, 275
Crisis 44, 45, 58, 67, 104, 228 strategies 247
Cultural clash 44 taxonomy 7, 167, 174, 185, 193, 201, 208
Cultural enhancer 198 Doctor 145, 146, 149, 183, 261
Cultural intelligence 83, 215, 236, 239, 246 Domestic 20, 71, 104, 197, 203, 251
Cultural resource 24, 25, 40, 43, 46, 51, 69, 78 Domesticated/Domesticable 20
Cultural shock 83, 215, 231‒235, 246 Dominance 129, 179, 185, 206
Cultural sponge 33 culture 75, 81, 107, 108, 117, 143, 145, 152, 221,
Cultural value 25, 26, 28, 35, 47, 53, 63, 65, 66, 223, 229, 270, 271, 277
79, 106, 182, 184, 214, 230, 259 Dopamine 201
Customer 37, 45, 53, 79, 81‒83, 89, 137‒139, 149, Dramatic 38, 81, 183, 250, 266
153, 156, 158, 171, 232, 238, 260‒266, 280 Dynamic paradigm 11, 49, 53, 145, 163, 169, 183,
satisfaction 247, 261, 269 191, 193, 198
service 138, 139, 261, 282
Cyclical 142, 143, 208 EBIT (Earnings Before Interests and Taxes) 257
Ecology 13, 22, 25, 38, 47, 55
Danger 59, 68, 89, 94, 101, 121, 149, 249 Economicus 42, 43, 47
Debate 66, 115, 158, 171, 175, 230, 276 Economy 42, 45‒47, 72, 77‒79, 103, 104, 109, 110,
Dedication 11, 173 144, 145, 176, 177, 251, 255, 257‒259, 262
Defense 109, 189, 215, 223, 224, 228‒230, 233, Economy of scale 40, 71
246, 271 Education 61, 65, 72, 103, 106, 129, 144, 164, 179,
Democracy 52, 72, 170, 223 197, 207, 208, 210, 225, 256, 265, 282
Demography/demographic 44, 46, 74, 78, 120, Egalitarian 181, 226
225, 247, 250, 251, 263, 266, 267, 274, 275, 280 Electrical impulse 30, 31
Dendrite 30, 31 Embarrassment 175
Denial 41, 106, 118, 215, 221‒224, 228, 229, 233, Emotion 29, 59, 88, 92, 112, 117, 125, 149, 150, 155,
246, 271 157, 162, 197, 206, 236, 243
Depression 26‒28, 150, 174, 232, 233 Emotional intelligence (EQ) 236, 239, 246
Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity Empathy 29, 101, 160, 170, 192, 236, 238, 245
(DMIS) 215, 221, 228‒230, 233, 242, 246, 271 Empire 36, 40, 51, 73, 249
Diaspora 44, 235, 251 Employer of choice 268
Dignity 136, 143, 175 Employment 144, 181, 187, 194, 200, 225,
Dimension 8, 38, 59, 100, 109, 140, 173, 179, 193, 256‒259, 279
205‒207, 214, 247, 249, 252, 282 Enculturation 72, 235
Disability 252, 260, 261, 263‒266, 282 Engagement 82, 149, 281, 282
Discrimination 88, 93, 223‒225, 250, 265, Entrepreneur 81, 96, 144, 180, 183, 202, 259, 267,
269‒274, 277‒279, 282 277, 278
Institutionalized 87, 105‒109, 122 Environment 23, 38, 40, 45, 53, 61, 87, 108, 117,
Positive 87, 110 120, 121, 130, 133, 140, 147, 165, 175, 190, 212, 285
Reverse 111, 269, 272, 274 culture/social 16, 31‒33, 35, 51, 101, 102, 158,
Disenchantment 233, 235, 246 164, 195, 218, 231, 254, 270, 271, 277, 281
Disneyland 154, 155 environmental determinism 13, 19‒22, 25, 47
Distance (in non-verbal communication) 147, evolves with culture, genes and behav-
148, 150, 152, 154, 164‒166 ior 25‒28, 34, 39, 46, 47, 50
Distribution 98, 180, 185, 213, 214 neo-environmental determinism 20
Diversity 8, 43, 114, 14, 15, 19, 26, 38, 43, 69, 71, physical 13, 18, 19, 25, 29, 55, 60, 149, 156, 174,
72, 77, 84, 98, 117, 125, 137, 150, 207, 220, 223, 178, 185, 188, 192, 196, 197, 201, 203, 207,
235, 237, 238 208, 266
Ability 247, 260 possibilism 21, 22, 25, 47
Chief Diversity Officer 279 probabilism 22
Cultural 7, 13, 18, 21, 22‒25, 40, 45‒47, 49, 50, working 74, 137, 139, 150, 156, 261, 274
60, 68, 69, 73, 78, 79, 217, 238 Epigenetics 34
Enlargement 247, 274, 275, 281, 282 Equality 54, 107, 118, 153, 192, 217, 225, 250, 257,
gender 247, 255, 257, 258, 260 258, 265, 273, 280
manager 248, 279, 282 Ethnic/Ethnicity 73, 75, 81, 91, 99, 102, 108, 111,
of thought 247, 252‒254, 282 129, 135, 173, 201, 204, 218, 250, 252, 261, 279,
pathways 7, 13, 25, 29, 33 , 34, 39, 55, 131, 280, 282
201, 213
368 Intercultur al Communication
Ethnocentrism 14, 25, 215, 218‒221, 223, 224, Gene 3, 10, 13, 14, 46, 47, 201
226, 230, 231, 246 DNA 14, 16, 34, 35
Evolution pressure 180 in Diversity pathways 25‒29, 33‒35, 38, 39,
Evolution/Evolutionary 3, 10, 13‒17, 22, 24, 25, in power transition to culture 15‒24, 50, 51,
28, 33, 36, 4047, 50, 51‒54, 59, 64, 69, 89, 100, 53, 61, 111, 126, 131, 198, 216, 287
101, 109, 114, 125, 126, 132, 146, 160, 167, 169, Gene–culture co-evolution 25, 170, 174, 178,
170, 174, 178‒180, 188, 193, 198, 201, 203, 214, 185, 188, 195, 203, 216, 217
216, 218, 220, 235 Generation 17, 18, 187, 208, 213, 267, 280
Excellence 188, 202 Genetic 14, 17, 18, 25, 28, 35, 39, 42, 109, 125
Expatriate 80, 83, 221, 223, 228, 232, 234 Genocide 108, 110, 223, 282
Expectation/Social expectation 88, 97, 98, 128, Genome 34, 291
141, 195, 216, 234, 240 Gestalt 274
Eye contact 123, 124, 126, 128, 135, 149, 155‒158, Glia cell 30, 31
162, 165, 166, 227 Global
citizen/mindset/nomad/identity/aware-
Face (social) 163, 167, 174, 175, 178 ness 45, 72, 96
Facebook 79, 81, 148, 285 community/industry 264
family 61, 77, 79, 101, 134, 144, 148, 163, 173, 177, culture 67, 72, 77, 84
178, 182, 186, 190, 202, 206, 207, 209, 210, 222, diasporas/demography 44, 46, 47, 78
225, 232, 236, 240, 267 economy/business/crisis/brand/competi-
as a social group 23, 41, 43, 62, 100 tion/growth 45, 46, 47, 79, 82, 102, 144,
structure 71, 72, 145, 177, 192, 257
Farmer 21, 180, 256 market/supply chain 45, 265, 258
Fashion 94, 129, 130, 233, 257 manager/leader/leadership 56, 257, 267
Fault lines 247, 275 village 39, 43, 79, 82
Fear 69, 83, 94, 101, 125, 155, 160, 175, 179, 197, warming 38, 209
219, 270, 271, 282 Globalization 7, 13, 14, 39, 40, 43‒47, 50, 54,
Female genital mutilation 230 78‒80, 82, 84, 92, 111, 125, 208, 216, 218, 220,
Femininity 59, 60, 167, 189‒193, 195, 196, 213, 221, 229, 251
218, 237, 272, 277 glocal 82
Feral child 16 GLOBE 65, 169, 173, 184, 198, 201, 203, 205, 207
Fidelity 71, 72 Golden rule 219, 220
Fight or flight 89, 101, 112, 126, 147 Government 36, 52, 54, 75, 98, 104, 105, 129,
Financial profit 247, 255, 260 142, 144, 152, 170, 173, 196, 209, 212, 250, 258,
First best guess 138, 164, 172, 213, 214 265, 282
Folk belief 202 Grey matter 31
Freedom 51, 52, 61, 77, 78, 172, 186, 203, 250 Gross National Happiness 197
Frontier Thesis/spirit/theory 201, 203, 208 Group attachment
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging strong 171‒175, 177, 178, 202, 268
(fMRI) 98 weak 171, 175, 177, 178, 214, 240, 242
Fundamental concern 49‒52, 55, 61, 62, 67, 72, Group Conformity 26, 174, 185
73, 77, 78, 84, 140, 169, 170, 173, 181, 183, 189, Group love 87, 100, 109, 121
198, 214 Group-mindset 26, 27, 35, 174, 185
Funnel effect 149 Guidance 33, 45, 46, 159, 167, 188, 210, 216, 223
Future shock 44 Guru 188
Gay 60, 75, 82, 95, 104, 108, 118, 264, 277 Hadith 210
Gaze Social/business/intimate 157 Haka 160, 162
Gen Xer 250 Handicapitalism 263
Gender 10, 21, 28, 32, 33, 54, 78, 91, 97, 100‒102, Handshake 158, 159
106, 111, 112, 121, 126, 167, 169, 223, 275‒277, Happy Planet Index 27
280, 282 Hard-wired 33, 35, 47
association/relation 7, 58, 167, 169, 189, Harmony 139, 153, 163, 167, 174, 175, 178,
191‒196, 198, 213, 214 250‒252, 271
bias/stereotype 118, 154 Health 39, 44, 57, 61, 94, 197, 230
diversity 247, 252, 255, 257‒262 Healthcare 35
equality/index 42, 54, 257, 258, 280 Hedonistic 198, 207
parity/pay gap/separation 106, 130, 259 Heritage 44, 55, 74, 88, 100, 117, 206‒208
transgender 110, 224, 264, 265, Heterogeneity/Heterogeneous 249, 252, 271
Index of Subjec ts 369
Hierarchy 51, 52, 84, 153, 159, 179, 203 Interdependence 167, 173, 175‒178
as in hierarchy acceptance, see acceptance Intersectionality/Intersectional invisibil-
Hijab 52, 54, 56, 81 ity 252, 277
Hindoo Invasion 103, 110 Intuitive 42, 135, 139, 261, 271
Hinduism 219 Inverted Pyramid Model 49, 66, 67, 71‒73,
Hip-hop 83 75‒79, 82‒84, 88, 92, 93, 124, 129‒132, 140,
Hippocampus 32, 216 146, 165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 174, 180, 184, 191,
Hire/Hiring 69, 102, 113, 124, 126, 128, 177, 218, 198, 206, 214, 225, 230, 235, 272, 276
266, 251, 254, 268, 270, 274, 275, 277‒280 Invisible 68, 117, 231, 277
Hispanic 83 border 147, 148, 285
Holacracy 184, 188 disability 263
Holistic 61, 66, 76, 77, 135‒137, 139, 140, 165 hand 42
Holy Death 210 model minority 99
Homo-economicus 42, 43, 47
Homogeneity/Homogeneous 57, 61, 88, 254, Jihadism 80
255, 270 Judge 9, 88, 93, 101, 112, 117, 129, 134, 148, 156, 177,
Homosexuality/Homosexual 60, 104, 164, 223 217, 218, 223, 271
Honeymoon phase (in DMIS) 233 Judgment 89, 90, 91, 100, 115, 116, 121, 123, 126,
Honor 11, 44, 57, 64, 159, 163, 175, 183, 210, 225, 230 130, 165, 223, 224
Hunter-gatherer 21, 95, 111, 194, 255
Karma 202
Identity 10, 32, 72, 80‒82, 92, 101, 109, 123, Kinesics 123, 160,
128‒130, 170, 174, 217, 223, 224, 228, 272, 276, Kinship 41, 43, 44, 47, 220, 233
277 Ku Klux Klan 91, 132, 154
Ideology 42, 80
Immigrant 44, 75, 81, 99, 102‒104, 108, 110, 213, Labor/laborer/labor force/ labor market 71, 102,
222, 223, 229, 232, 251, 266 111, 171, 177, 183, 250, 256, 257, 258
Immigration 92, 110, 172, 218, see also migration division 180, 194, 196
Imperialism 19 Language 9, 14, 16, 17, 29, 44, 54, 67, 68, 82, 87,
Implicit Association Test 91, 119 117, 121, 123, 186, 205, 233, 237‒239, 252, 265
Inclusion 8, 223, 247, 249, 251, 253, 255, 257, 259, as a mechanism 24, 51, 125
261, 263, 265, 267, 269, 271‒273, 275, 277, as in body language, see body languag
279‒281, 283, 289 diversity 18, 19, 21, 60, 7
Independence 73, 163, 170, 171, 201 of space 147
Indicator 88, 120, 123, 126, 147, 163, 165, 214, of time 140, 141, 146
279, 280 Law 36, 40, 54, 61, 62, 66, 102, 105, 109, 168,
context as indicator 61, 84, 125, 130, 146, 184 198‒203, 205, 213, 250‒252, 255, 274
physical traits as indicator 101 in-law 176, 226
Individualism 163, 167, 169, 170, 172, 173, 240 lawyer/lawsuit 112, 270, 276, 278
Individualistic 56, 58, 59, 163, 170‒172, 174, 175 of attraction 69
Industrial revolution 146, 256 Leader/leadership 104, 106, 108, 174, 194, 211,
Inequality 27, 52, 77, 98, 105‒107, 194 227, 250, 267, 268, 273, 279, 289
Infant 41, 69, 217 as mentor 37, 280, 281,
Inferior prefrontal cortex 98 female leadership 256, 257
Ingroup 24, 43, 44, 69, 100‒102, 121, 122, 126, 141, in hierarchy acceptance 179, 181, 184, 185,
160, 170‒174, 192, 198, 213, 214, 217, 218, 220, 187, 239
221, 238, 246, 261 in non-verbal communication 152, 160
Innovation 17, 23, 24, 53, 74, 150, 175, 203, 220, Lego identity 92
251, 253, 254, 275, 282 LGBTQ 83, 229, 264‒266, 277
Insider 135, 136, 163, 255 gay 60, 75, 82, 95, 104, 108, 118, 264, 277
Inspiration 188, 209, 246, 253, 265 lesbian 75, 264, 265, 277
Instinct 42, 59, 118, 131, 147, 152, 157, 197 Liberal 36, 56, 58‒60, 81, 106, 112, 116
Insurance 35 Local 105, 233, 235, 269
Integration 55, 215, 228, 246 culture/custom/language/context… 63, 67,
Intellectual 97, 180, 183 78‒83, 136, 212, 238, 240, 265
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 236, 254 localization 137
Intercultural competence 7, 49, 184, 215, 217, plan local 49, 82, 287
219, 220, 221, 223, 225, 227, 229, 231, 233, Long term potentiation 31
235‒237, 239, 241, 243, 245 Loyalty 51, 167, 173, 187, 188, 265, 267, 268
370 Intercultur al Communication
European 36, 61, 105, 109, 129, 138, 145, 153, 156, Kenya 21, 149
161, 201, 204, 256, 258, 262 Kiribati 209
Korea, North 222
Fertile Crescent 20 Korea, South 45, 54, 115, 175, 179, 183, 184
Finland 42, 93, 141, 163, 164, 175, 176, 193, 226 Kuwait 189
Finnish 193 Kyrgyzstan 236
Finns 163, 175, 193, 226
Flemish 44, 200 Laos 200
France 31, 44, 52, 70, 94, 129, 145, 153, 170, 269 Latin America 67, 100, 115, 152, 158, 260
French 9, 76, 82, 88, 108, 144, 145, 169, 170, 183, Latin American 115, 152, 158
190, 205, 231, 281 Latino 99, 142
Latino 99, 142
Geneva 153 Latvian 184
Georgia 145 Lebanon 116, 231, 232
German 88, 137, 139, 158, 189, 226, 261 Lesotho 21
Germany 36, 70, 104, 115, 145, 153, 170, 172, 183, Liberian 83
197, 200, 204, 227 Libya 14, 63
Ghana 190 Lithuanian 73, 82
Greece 19, 31, 43, 72, 145, 200 London 9, 31
Greek 19, 103, 140, 232 Luxembourg 70, 192
Guatemala 172, 183, 200
Guinea 20, 21, 190 Maasai 21
Gulf 75, 94, 130, 251 Macanese 138
Guyana 17 Macedonian 73
Madagascar 210
Haiti 145 Malawi 177
Hawaiian 142 Malaysia 45, 57, 138, 164, 182, 183, 192, 257
Himalayas 190 Malaysian 210
Hindus 217 Maldives 209
Hokkaido 201 Mali 44
Honshu 201 Manila 199
Hopi 146, 190 Maronite 232
Hungary 172, 192, 197, 207 Mauritania 52
Melkites 232
Iceland 16, 52 Mexico 20, 27, 132, 172, 210, 235
India 16, 22, 23, 79, 129, 143, 164, 190, 209, 211, Middle East 19, 36, 94, 116, 118, 137, 145, 151, 152,
217, 235, 257, 262, 278 173, 176, 230, 231
Indian 17, 74, 159, 201, 204, 268 Middle Eastern 81, 152, 173, 208, 277
Indonesia 45, 54, 142, 190, 200, 207, 230, 269 Minangkabau 190
Iran 54, 129, 154, 161, 172, 277 Minnesota 158
Iraq 20, 44, 96 Moldovan 76
Ireland 141, 172, 183, 207, 222 Monaco 125
Islam 80, 118, 153, 204, 208, 210, 219, 220 Mongol 73
Islamic 36, 52, 54, 81, 93, 130 Mongolia 45, 161
Israel 20, 57, 75, 94, 110, 141, 152, 172, 176, 183, Mormon 82
184, 186, 219 Moroccan 76, 105
Italian 9, 88, 90 Morocco 54, 172, 184
Italy 36, 70, 92, 145, 161, 172, 173, 183 Mosuo 190, 193
Mozambique 189
Jainism 219 Mumbai 23, 217
Jamaica 200 Mundugamor 190
Jamaican 155 Muslim 64, 75‒77, 80, 81, 93, 108, 109, 118, 129,
Japan 31, 54, 57, 58, 67, 145, 153, 154, 164, 172, 130, 161, 173, 210, 217, 222, 228‒230, 232
173, 175, 178, 183, 187, 188, 192, 201, 207, 232, Myanmar 190, 200
258, 262
Japanese 56, 93, 103, 136, 145, 159, 173, 186, 197, Nagovisi 190
204, 212, 219, 258 Namibia 21
Jews, 104, 109, 110, 186, 219, 230 Native American 146, 190
Judaism 219 Nepal 172
Index of Geogr aphy, Culture and Religion 375
Nepalese 239 Serbia 236
Netherlands 44, 70, 105, 133, 145, 179, 192, 195, Shanghai 79
196, 207, 222 Sheba 219
New Guinea 20, 21, 190 Sidi Bouzid 36
New Orleans 270 Sikh 239
New Zealand 93, 160, 162, 178, 183, 200, 219 Singapore 129, 145, 175, 188, 200, 201, 207
Niger 60, Sinop 72
Nigeria 99, 145, 172, 183, 186, 207 Slavic 81
Nigerian 142 Slovakia 183, 192, 197, 200
North Korean 185 Slovenia 192
Norway 42, 183, 192, 200, 207 Solomon Islands 209
South Africa 57, 111, 138, 212, 222
Oman 119 South Korean 179
Oregon 267 Southern European 138, 145, 156, 161
Oriental 92 Soviet 67, 73, 129, 244
Orthodox 232 Spain 145, 173, 176, 207
Oslo 42 Sri Lanka 159, 209
Ottoman 36, 73, 204 Sri Lankan 63
Sudan 161, 189
Pakistan/Pakistani 161, 183, 192, 237, 242, 245, Surinamese 105, 211
256 Sweden 42, 108, 184, 192, 195, 200, 257
Palestine 20, 232 Switzerland 36, 183
Panama 145, 172, 183 Syria 20, 44, 116, 232
Papua New Guinea 20, 21, 190
Paris 155 Tahiti 190
Parisian 76 Tanzania 99, 145
Persia 104 Tanzanian 266
Persian 277 Tari 20
Peru 20, 145 Tchambuli 190, 193, 195
Philippines 138, 183, 199, 207, 258, 266 Tel Aviv 152
Piraha 146 Thailand 45, 63, 145, 184, 197, 200, 207
Poland 197 Thimphu 204
Polynesian 219 Tibetan 190
Portugal 145, 200, 207 Timor Leste 117
Protestant 232 Togo 60, 61
Puerto Rico 44 Tokyo 155
Tripoli 63
Qatar 251 Tunis 56
Qing dynasty 73 Tunisia 54, 56, 116, 191
Tunisian 36
Rastafarians 219 Turkey 20, 35, 36, 72
Roman 14, 19 Tuvalu 209
Romania 172, 183
Rome 43, 154 UAE 80, 81, 138, 251
Russia 129, 154, 183, 235 Uganda 99
Russian 45, 67, 193 UK 73, 99, 105, 115, 138, 172, 199, 232, 238, 257,
Rwanda 258, 282 260, 262
Rwandan 108 Ukraine 31
United Arab Emirates 80
Saigon 82 Uruguay 200
Samoan 142 US 9, 11, 37, 45, 57, 75, 80, 99, 102, 103, 106, 115,
Sarajevo 41 159, 161
Saudi Arabia 75, 92, 105, 151, 232, 258
Scandanavian 42, 192, 200 Vanuatu 27
Scandinavia 143, 156, 207 Vatican 52
Scientology 220 Venezuela 20, 115, 172, 192
Scotland 73, 222 Venezuelan 115
Schiphol 133
Senegal 55, 189
376 Intercultur al Communication
Vietnam 27, 60, 63, 74, 75, 142, 143, 145, 153, 154, West 20, 102, 129, 150, 154, 176, 190, 250, 256
159, 164, 172, 176, 178, 183, 184, 186, 188, 190,
200, 207, 212, 250, 251, 258, 259, 269 Yemen 64, 130, 151
Vietnamese 186, 187, 212, 219, 257, 259 Yemeni 64
Viking 192 Yugoslavia 73
Wales 157 Zambia 21
Washington 224 Zimbabwe 21, 99, 145
West Sumatra 190 Zurich 45
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