FS ACADEMY

NAVIGATOR
MANUAL VERSION
14 APRIL 2022

1
 Contents
INTRODUCTION 3
INSTRUMENTATION 6
SUPPORT 12
NAVIGATOR 01. THE VIEW FROM ABOVE 13
NAVIGATOR 02. STEPPING STONES 20
NAVIGATOR 03. WATCHING THE CLOCK 23
NAVIGATOR 04. BLOWN AWAY 28
NAVIGATOR 05. STRETCHING YOUR LEGS 30
NAVIGATOR 06. RADAR CONTACT 34
NAVIGATOR 07. FROSTBITE 41
NAVIGATOR 08. NIGHT SHIFT 44
NAVIGATOR 09. MOUNTAINEER 48
NAVIGATOR 10. SKYLINE 52
NAVIGATOR 11. ISLANDER 54
NAVIGATOR 12. HIGHLANDER 58
MISSION ACCOMPLISHED 70
WHERE NEXT 71
ABBREVIATIONS 72

2
 FS ACADEMY
NAVIGATOR
NAVIGATOR will add a new dimension to your flying, enabling you to navigate cross-country
using real techniques to find your way. Find NAVIGATOR in ACTIVITIES → CUSTOM CONTENT.

Escape the shackles of the airfield circuit and spread your wings by learning step by step the
skills and techniques required to go and explore.
Starting off with the basic principles of waypoint selection, we will build up to incorporate
timings, wind drift and varied landscapes to complete your skillset and prepare you for
embarking upon your own adventures.
The first thing we need to cover is how your aerial vantage point changes the look of the
landscape below you, so that you can select useful ground features to use as waypoints when
planning your journey. From there we will progress to stringing a series of waypoints together,
forming a basic route towards San Francisco before incorporating more advanced techniques
including drift corrections, night flight and tackling winter flying.
Our aircraft of choice is the trusty Cessna 152. With its high-wing configuration it offers a clear
view of the ground below, plus overall great visibility and conventional instrumentation. We
will explore some of the world’s most iconic destinations and cover a wide range of weather
conditions and situations to give you the broadest skillset possible.
Once we begin more advanced navigation you can find the relevant ‘NavLogs’ and maps in the
dedicated chapters of this manual.
Please note that for each turning point it is required that the turn be made promptly, otherwise
you may stray too far from the route for your instructor to be able to help you.

3
 COCKPIT CAMERA
We will be visually acquiring towns, buildings and other ground features, so a good view
forward is essential. By default, your viewpoint is slightly low in the cockpit, so raising your
seating position to the ‘Landing’ Cockpit Camera Selection can improve forward visibility. Also
consider shifting your virtual seating position left slightly, so you can get a better view from the
cockpit side window. Also, consider using the external view to enhance your vision of
waypoints.

OBJECTIVES PANEL
The directions from your instructor will be
supplemented by on-screen objectives in flight,
which will display what you need to do next in
order to progress through the tutorial.
Make sure to have the objectives panel displayed,
so that you don’t miss any important steps. Enable
the objectives panel using the custom toolbar
menu in-game.

SUBTITLES
Full subtitles in English are available and can be displayed by enabling subtitles, found here:
OPTIONS → GENERAL → ACCESSIBILITY

4
 TRACK KEEPING
A crucial aspect of navigation is starting your turns promptly and precisely. Your instructor will
remind you to commence your turn if they notice a delayed change of heading and may
terminate the lesson if this delay becomes excessive. In such a case, your instructor will ask
that you restart the lesson. This is due to the risk of a compounding error, where a sequence
of late and/or inaccurate turns end up causing major track keeping issues, pushing you too far
off course to make reasonable corrections. Please ensure that turns are made to the correct
next heading accurately and in a timely manner. Strive for a high accuracy of heading keeping,
as this is the cornerstone of a successful navigation flight.

Your instructor, subtitles, route maps, on screen objectives and visual markers are all there to
help you, but we cannot detect all potential navigation errors. If the mission does not appear
to be progressing, it may be that you have not turned correctly or accurately onto your next
leg. If you suspect this to be the case, please restart the mission to reattempt, checking the
route maps and navlog.

Each lesson that includes a route to fly is accompanied by a map and navigation log in the
relevant chapters of this manual. When we begin to use enroute fixes, you will need to be able
to refer to the drift lines drawn on your map to check your track keeping, so it may be useful
to have the map printed out or displayed in another window or on a device such as a phone or
tablet. You can pause the mission at these enroute checks to help you with this and your
instructor will assist you inflight with their estimation of any tracking errors.

Some landmarks will be highlighted on screen by a marker to aid identification, but as these
are not always located on the centreline of your route, this does not necessarily imply you
should steer towards them. Your instructor will guide you appropriately.

VFR navigation requires concentration and discipline, as a single major error can disrupt your
entire route. We will try our best to help you, but we suggest that you will get best use of this
course if you permit yourself the undistracted time to focus on the content. Reading the
associated chapters in this manual prior to launching a mission will be most rewarding and will
open up your capacity to take on this new set of skills.

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 WORLD UPDATES
The world scenery included with Flight Simulator is updated and improved over time in a series
of 'World Updates'. Make sure to have installed the appropriate World Update scenery so that
you benefit from the best available visual experience. World Updates are available for free
from the in-game marketplace.

INSTRUMENTATION
Let’s run through the main cockpit instruments and equipment you will be using which are
most relevant to VFR navigation, so that you are familiar with them when the time comes to
put them to use.

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A Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
The airspeed indicator is essentially a pressure gauge. The
harder the air is hitting the aircraft and flowing into the Pitot
Tube, the higher the reading, which is calibrated to display
Nautical Miles Per Hour (Knots). The speed of the air going over
the wing is directly related to the lift produced.
The cruise speed we will plan for our C152 will be 100kts.

B Attitude Indicator (AI)

The main use of the attitude indicator for navigation is to ensure
consistent turns and to aid with setting a straight and level
attitude. A bank angle of 20 degrees is appropriate for normal
turns, as shown here.
When established on a heading, regularly refer to the AI to
ensure that you have level wings, as any roll will cause a turn,
taking you from your desired heading over time.

C Clock
Time keeping is an essential element of proper navigation
techniques, so the importance of even a simple analog clock
should not be underestimated.
You can use any timing device you wish, such as a wristwatch or
stopwatch.

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D Altimeter
Normally set to display altitude Above Mean Sea Level (AMSL)
the altimeter displays your vertical height in feet. Maintaining
accurate altitude control is especially important when flying
through or near to airspace boundaries, as we often avoid
entering controlled airspace by flying at an altitude below the
floor of airspace above us.

E Heading Indicator (HI)

The heading indicator is your primary reference for flying
particular headings. Over time, the heading indicator will drift
out of proper alignment. Your instructor will help you check
that your instrumentation remains aligned with the magnetic
compass and point out if significant drift is present.

Take care when making any adjustments, as an improperly set

heading indicator could cause large tracking errors that may be
confusing to diagnose and correct. Your instructor will continue
their dialog once they see the correct alignment.

You can press D to quick-align the heading indicator with the

compass, but only in straight and level flight.

F Yoke Clickspot
Some switches are located on the lower section of the cockpit
panel, but are obscured by the yoke. To hide the yoke, click on
the base of the control column. This will give you full view of the
panel. To re-show the yoke, click on the hole that the control
column passes through. You will likely need to hide the yoke
when turning on the pitot heat in lesson 7.

8
G Fuel Gauges
Located beneath the heading indicator there are a pair of fuel
gauges which display the remaining fuel quantities for both the
left and right fuel tanks, located in the wings.
Some aircraft require manual switching between left and right
tanks, which must be performed by the pilot periodically in order
to consume fuel evenly and ensure that the aircraft remains
balanced.

H Oil Gauges
Normal operation of the engine oil system is indicated by the
temperature and pressure gauges displaying their needles in the
green band. High oil temperature or low oil pressure indicate an
issue with the engine, so this must be monitored periodically to
ensure that any unusual indications are spotted quickly, allowing
time to troubleshoot and perform a precautionary landing if
necessary.

I Communications Radio
The C152 is fitted with two communications (COMM) radios.
Each radio is fitted with an active/use window and a standby
window. Turning the inner and outer knobs to the bottom right
of the radio allows for tuning of the standby frequency. Once
correctly set to the desired frequency, pushing the white swap
button (<->) swaps the standby frequency with the active
frequency. We will be primarily using the COMM1 radio, which
is located at the top left of our radio stack.

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J Transponder (XPDR)
The code we set into the transponder is known as our ‘squawk’
code and is visible on the Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar screen.
To set the squawk, turn the knobs located under each number,
which have a range of 0-7. Lighting conditions in Flight Simulator
can often make the transponder difficult to read, so you may
need to zoom in to get a clear view. Leave the transponder mode
knob in the Altitude Reporting (ALT) position.

K Pitot Heat
As discussed above, you may need to hide the yoke in order to
get a clear view of the pitot heat switch, which is located at the
bottom of the instrument panel, towards your knees. To the left
of the pitot heat switch is the dome light switch, which can be
turned on if you find cockpit lighting conditions to be too dark,
depending on your display and graphics settings.

L Throttle Control
Speed control is achieved by use of the throttle lever. Make
smooth adjustments to the throttle in order to change speed, as
rapid movements make sudden changes to speed and lift, which
can make altitude holding more challenging.

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M Mixture Control
Beside the throttle you will find the mixture control. When flying
at higher altitudes the air becomes thinner. As the engine runs
most efficiently at a certain fuel:air ratio, we reduce the fuel flow
slightly after climbing in order to preserve this ideal ratio. This
ensures proper engine running and fuel efficiency.

N Magnetic Compass
Found at the top of the windscreen, the magnetic compass is the
reference we use to ensure that the heading indicator remains
reliable. The compass is subject to several inaccuracies when the
aircraft is doing anything other than straight and level flight at
constant speed, making the compass more difficult to use during
turns and manoeuvres. Also be aware of the ‘parallax’ error
when viewing the compass from either side, as the thin white
reference bar only appears atop the correct magnetic heading
when viewed from straight on.

You can press D to quick-align the heading indicator with the

compass, but only in straight and level flight.

11
 SUPPORT
Please visit our support page if you encounter difficulties.
fsacademy.co.uk/support-navigator

Let’s get started…

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 NAVIGATOR 01.
THE VIEW FROM ABOVE

Commence your exploration into the world of VFR (Visual Flight Rules) navigation by getting to
grips with the range of ground features available to you for route planning. See the pros and
cons of line, point and area features with a tour of the UK's south coast on a warm summer's
day.

Navigation is a fundamental skill of aircraft flying. Finding your way visually is one of the most
rewarding activities you can undertake in a light aeroplane, picking out landmarks and touring
the landscape by sight.

We will take a look at the different types of ground features we can use for enroute navigation
as we cruise across the UK’s south coast between West Sussex and Hampshire.
Choosing the right ground features to look for is an important step in planning a successful
route, so we will start by introducing you to the various ‘features’ that are most useful to you
as a pilot.

Features are roughly divided into three main types, which we will cover in turn:

LINE Road Railway Coastline Powerline

POINT Landmark Bridge Junction Airfield

AREA Town City Woodland Lake

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 LINE FEATURE
A feature of great length such as a
highway or railway can provide
excellent navigational guidance in a
single dimension.
This is to say that whilst following a
line you have an accurate and clear
indication of your lateral position in
relation to the line. You can instantly
see if you are to the right or left of the
feature. However, there is little
indication of distance travelled along
the line, unless it is supplemented by
other features such as service
stations, junctions or towns along its
length.
Often spanning long distances, some
line features such as major highways
and railways will be the only feature
you need to get between large towns
and cities, as this is the function that
such major infrastructure is designed
for. However, as a road must be built
across the landscape it must
compromise according to the terrain,
so will often not be the most direct
route.

Keep line features to your left as this will make them easier to see from your seating position
in the cockpit. Other aircraft should be doing this too, which will give some reassurance
regarding separation. There is no guarantee of this however, so be sure not to neglect looking
out for other air traffic and do not become fixated on ground features.

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 Great care must be taken when
in the presence of many similar
line features that you are in fact
following the line you intended,
as roads and railways tend to
look practically identical,
especially when viewed from a
distance.
Highways may split off into
multiple smaller roads and
railways can be shrouded by
trees.

Some features which appear obvious and highly

visible from the ground or on a map can look
very different from the air.
Powerlines may be especially difficult to pick
out, as the thin cables and skeletal-structured
pylons can seem to vanish when viewed from
above. This is an example of the importance of
contrast, as the bright blue sky becomes
replaced by green fields when viewed from
altitude. This is exacerbated by fading light and
misty conditions.
Small chimneys and radio masts can have the
same effect, with their red obstacle lights
practically invisible by day and their slender
appearance providing poor contrast against the
landscape.

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 POINT FEATURE

The most useful point features are unmistakable and distinctive, such as prominent local
landmarks. These provide a single accurate location, which make them suitable for turning
points, setting you off on the next leg of your route with the confidence that you commenced
the leg in the right spot.
As point features exist at a single spot on the ground, they will unlikely be of any assistance
with lateral guidance, as little indication will be given regarding the direction from which you
are approaching the feature.

Some local landmarks are designated as Visual Reporting Points (VRPs).

These are officially recognised and are chosen for their standout
features. As these are obvious choices for point features, be wary of
other traffic utilising the same features, as they are frequented by not
only aircraft enroute but also local area flights on training exercises or
flight experiences. VRPs are often congested, giving rise to a collision
risk.
Enhance your lookout for other traffic when nearing a VRP or popular local point feature, as
conflicting aircraft may also be making their approach, intending to use the landmark as a
turning point, making changes of direction overhead a point feature commonplace and difficult
to predict.

16
Airfields can make for excellent point features, as they are clearly charted and many have
unique features. Disused airfields can be particularly useful, as there is no longer any air traffic
operating from the runways to watch out for or Air Traffic Control (ATC) to become involved
with. However, as disused landing strips are attractive for re-development, they can take on a
wide range of appearances in accordance with their usage, meaning their original runways may
be missing or unrecognisable, making prior research important before selecting these as
waypoints.
Road junctions take a wide range of forms and are often highly visible and well lit. Major
highways in particular have large, sweeping intersections as dictated by the high speed and
volume of the traffic travelling along them. Many motorway junctions are of sufficient size and
visibility that they are designated as VRPs. These can add a useful point feature to add distance
information to this otherwise single-dimension line feature.

17
 AREA FEATURE
Covering large areas of ground, area
features are visible from great
distances due to their size. What is
gained in long range visibility is
traded for a loss in terms of pin-point
accuracy.
A large woodland, lake or forest may
be highly visible from a distance but
lack any discernible landmarks or
point features within them. They will
also lack the night lighting of a town
or city.
Even by day, built up areas can be
very uniform in appearance, making
exact position determination difficult
once you have arrived overhead.
Overflying wide expanses of
congested areas also requires extra
care in a single engine aeroplane, as
you must be able to glide clear and
land in a safe spot in the event of an
engine failure.

COMBINING FEATURES
All types of features have benefits and limitations, so the best choices for route making are
often a combination of several types.
You may follow a motorway across the countryside towards a large town. Once arriving at the
edge of town, use a prominent point feature such as a sports stadium or iconic building within
the town to provide high accuracy.
Using the edge of an otherwise large and featureless area, such the dam wall of a reservoir or
opening in the forest, utilises both the legibility of the area’s size with the accuracy of a
recognisable point.

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MAP – NAVIGATOR 01

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

19
 NAVIGATOR 02.
STEPPING STONES

Use what you have just learned about ground features to string a series of features together
into a simple route across California towards San Francisco.
Now that you have seen examples of the various types of waypoints we can select for
navigation, we will connect the dots and take a short trip across the San Francisco Bay,
terminating at the Golden Gate Bridge.
The simplest form of navigation is to fly visually from one feature to the next, like hopping
between stepping stones. This requires the distances between waypoints to be limited
however, as you must be able to see the next ground feature in order to turn towards it. This
can become an issue when traversing featureless terrain or when visibility is restricted.
However, if conditions permit this can be an easy and effective method of finding your way
across the landscape, requiring only minimal pre-flight planning and works particularly well
when flying in an area you are familiar with, offering total flexibility.

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 TRANSPONDER
As we approach San Francisco, we will have to be mindful of the airspace surround San
Francisco International (SFO). The first aspect of airspace we will encounter is the arrival into
a Transponder Mandatory Zone (TMZ). This is a defined area that surrounds many major
airports that require a transponder to be fitted to your aircraft in order to be permitted entry.

The transponder (often shortened to XPDR) of our

Cessna 152 can be found at the base of the radio
stack and is set to a ‘squawk’ code of 1200. This is
the standard code in the USA and some other
locations to label us on the ATC radar screen as a
light aircraft flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR)
and is referred to as the ‘conspicuity’ code.
Other countries will use the International Civil
Aviation Organisation (ICAO) conspicuity code of
7000.
Usage Squawk Code Other codes are inserted into the transponder in
VFR - USA, Canada, Australia, NZ 1200
the event of emergencies and radio faults. By
VFR - ICAO Standard 7000
setting these codes, ATC can instantly see that we
Emergency 7700
are encountering difficulties and will provide
Radio Failure 7600
Unlawful Interference 7500 assistance where possible.

Transponders vary in terms of sophistication. The most common type found in a light aircraft
is categorised as ‘Mode C’ which transmits our squawk code and indicated altitude, allowing
this information to be displayed to ATC.
‘Mode S’ transponders are more advanced units which can transmit much more data, such as
speed, aircraft type and autopilot settings and can even communicate with other similarly
equipped aircraft to provide collision avoidance functionality. Our more simplistic Mode C
transponder is more than enough to allow us into the TMZ, which is denoted on the map by
the red scalloped circle. This TMZ is listed as stretching from the Surface (SFC) to 10,000ft.

21
MAP – NAVIGATOR 02

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

22
 NAVIGATOR 03.
WATCHING THE CLOCK

The stepping stone method is limited to features that are within visual range of each other.
This works well for areas dense with useful features, but we will now add the element of time
to enable more flexible planning options which are unrestrained by line of sight. Use the five
T's to keep on top of your progress as we introduce the navigation log.

NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

REDRUTH 3000 205 4

ST ANTHONY HEAD “ 130 5
MEVAGISSEY “ 050 6
EDEN PROJECT “ 014 3
COLLIFORD LAKE “ 036 6

DEAD RECKONING
Using waypoints as stepping stones works well when you are surrounded by a familiar
landscape on a clear day, but we will rarely find that this is the most direct route and we also
remain vulnerable to poor visibility. We also lack an accurate indication of arrival times, which
are sometimes crucial to the success of a flight.

If your next waypoint is beyond visual range, obscured by terrain or difficult to spot from a
distance, knowing which magnetic heading you should turn to will set you off in the right
direction. If you accurately follow this heading for a pre-planned amount of time, you will arrive
at your waypoint after that time has elapsed.

23
This method of flying a heading for a time is known as Dead Reckoning and relies upon accurate
flying in order to work correctly. If you have a heading error of just 1 degree, after 60 miles you
will be 1 mile off laterally course, a phenomenon known as the 1 in 60 rule.
We will cruise in our Cessna 152 at 100kts indicated airspeed (IAS). Keeping accurate speed
control is also important, as this is the basis of our time calculations.

To move on to this more sophisticated method of navigation, we need to complete some

additional pre-flight preparation. This involves plotting our intended route onto a VFR map and
measuring the exact directions and distances between each waypoint.

NOTE: Please decide upon a method of keeping time before commencing this tutorial. It can
be a stopwatch or any other timing device, which you should have to hand.

ROUTE PLANNING
The Navigation Log or ‘NavLog’ is a top-to-bottom list of each leg of your route with the
required altitudes to fly, magnetic headings and enroute times in minutes. Let’s look at each
of these parameters. You can find all relevant NavLogs for our tutorials in this manual, along
with the route maps.

ALTITUDE
The altitude for each leg of your route is determined in the planning stage and is decided upon
depending on high terrain, airspace conflicts and cruising level regulations. In terms of
minimum altitudes, there are a handful of considerations to be made:

A minimum height of 500ft above the surface or

any obstacle within 500ft (150m) of the aircraft
must be maintained, except for the purposes of
taking off or landing.

Flying at such a low height restricts your options

considerably in the event of an engine failure and
increases the chance of bird strikes, proximity to
hazards such as power lines and less tall obstacles
not included on VFR maps, as only those taller
than 300ft AGL are represented.

Military low flying is concentrated below 1000ft

AGL, particularly in the UK across most of the
country, although activity is concentrated along
published low level flying routes used by the RAF.
When crossing congested areas such as towns and cities, a safety margin of 1000ft is to be
applied to the tallest obstacles within 2000ft (600m) of your aircraft. The ability to glide clear
after an engine failure remains a requirement and must also be observed.

24
 The highest terrain within 10nm laterally
of your route is noted and a 1000ft
(2000ft in mountainous areas) altitude
safety margin is added. This figure is
known as the Minimum Safety Altitude
(MSA).

Airspace is defined by both lateral and

vertical dimensions, with the latter
reported in altitude. As we saw in lesson
2, we may wish to avoid controlled
airspace by flying underneath it.

If planning to fly above 3000ft Above Ground Level (AGL) then VFR cruising levels become a
factor. Although they may vary slightly across different countries, the general principle is if you
are flying VFR on a westerly heading you are expected to fly at an altitude beginning with an
even digit, then add +500ft, e.g. 6500ft. If travelling eastbound, an odd number altitude +500ft
would be selected, such as 5500ft.

TRACKING WEST TRACKING EAST

EVEN +500ft ODD +500ft
MAGNETIC HEADING
This is the heading you will fly, as displayed by the cockpit instruments. After drawing a line
between two waypoints onto a map by hand, you can use a protractor to obtain the exact
direction that the line describes, known as a ‘bearing’. From a map, the bearing measured will
be in degrees True, which needs converting into degrees Magnetic.

The difference between True and Magnetic bearings are a consequence of the earth’s
magnetic north not residing at the same spot as the North Pole, where all lines of longitude
converge. The angular difference between True and Magnetic bearings is referred to as
Variation and is shown on aeronautical maps.

ESTIMATED TIME ENROUTE (ETE)

Using a chosen cruise airspeed for a known distance will result in an ‘estimated time enroute’
or ETE. If we fly on the correct heading for this calculated time, we will arrive at our waypoint,
ready to begin the next leg of our route. Time elapsed can be monitored by stopwatch, aircraft
clock or other timekeeping method of your choice.

25
 THE FIVE T’s
Upon reaching a waypoint it is time to turn onto the next leg of our route. Even a small error
or delay here can cause considerable harm to the accuracy of the next leg, so it is important
that we remain organised and have a quick procedure in place to avoid missing any steps. One
such system is the Five T’s, which list a series of parameters to check and confirm at each
turning point:

TURN Ensure an accurate turn onto your planned magnetic heading

TIME Start timing for this leg and check the ETE

TUNE Set radios and transponder codes. Check Heading Indicator

TEMP Check that engine temperatures and pressures are normal

TANK Consider switching fuel tank and that sufficient quantities remain

The first item is TURN. This emphasises the importance of a correct and accurate turn onto
your planned magnetic heading. Be wary of simple mistakes such as turning to 120 instead of
210, as making a wrong move at the start of a leg compromises the accurate tracking of that
leg, greatly increasing your chances of going off route and becoming lost.

Once your turn is complete, begin to TIME the leg. This can be performed in a number of ways,
such as noting the current time on the aircraft clock or starting a stopwatch. Instrumentation
can vary greatly between light aircraft types, so ensure you have a satisfactory timing device
before departing, as one may not be fitted in the cockpit.

Now that we are on our heading with the

clock running, we check for any
frequencies that we should TUNE into our
radio equipment. If we are planning to
arrive at a controlled airfield or pass
though controlled airspace, we would
make a note of the radio frequencies
needed for quick reference in flight.

As maintaining an accurate heading is

important, we need to periodically check that the Heading Indicator/Directional Gyro is aligned
with the magnetic compass, as this instrument will drift over time.

TEMP: Check that engine Temperatures and Pressures (Ts & Ps) are in their normal ranges.

TANK: Fuel leaks can be detected by unexpected imbalances between left and right fuel tanks.
Also, some aircraft require that pilot periodically switches which tank is feeding the engine.

26
MAP – NAVIGATOR 03

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

27
 NAVIGATOR 04.
BLOWN AWAY

Famous for its strong winds, Fuerteventura is the ideal place to demonstrate how the effect of
wind plays its part in navigation. Learn the simple clock face method of estimating your drift
angle, allowing for a quick calculation of your required heading to keep you on track when the
wind blows.

DRIFT ANGLE
We steer the aircraft inflight by turning to a magnetic
Heading (HDG), as displayed on the Heading Indicator
in the cockpit. Your heading is the direction that the
aircraft nose is pointing. This is distinct from the actual
path we fly over the ground, which is our Track (TRK).
The difference between our HDG and TRK is known as
our drift angle and is the result of the wind.
Understanding wind drift is an important aspect of
navigation, as we must be able to account for the
effects of wind in order to fly the correct TRK between
our waypoints.
Wind direction is reported with reference to the
direction from which it blows in degrees and its
velocity. Therefore, a wind from the west blowing at 10
knots is denoted as 270/10.
In the planning stage, we will obtain the latest wind
forecast and use this figure to calculate how much drift
angle we can expect on each leg and what HDG we
need to steer in order to obtain our planned TRK.
By applying the drift angle to our planned TRK, we get
the HDG required for us to steer to follow that TRK.

28
Although electronic flight planning software will take care of computing the navlog, having a
base understanding of the components of drift is beneficial for the VFR pilot to understand, so
that quick inflight calculations can be made if needed. We can estimate our required HDG to
fly a desired TRK by completing a few steps:

STEP 1 – WIND ANGLE

Finding the difference between our desired TRK and the wind direction gives us our Wind
Angle. For example, for TRK090 and a wind of 060/20 then we have a 30-degree wind angle.

STEP 2 – CROSSWIND COMPONENT

To estimate how much of the wind will be acting with a sideways force, known as the crosswind
component, we can use a clockface analogy to determine how much of the wind speed we
should consider to be acting as a crosswind.
Imagine the minutes on a clockface. In the same sense that
30 minutes is ½ of an hour, a 30-degree wind angle means
we take ½ of the wind speed as a crosswind component.
For a 45-degree wind angle, 45 minutes is ¾ of an hour so we
would use ¾ of the wind speed as a crosswind component.
If we had a 60-degree wind angle (or greater), 60 minutes is
one full hour, so the full wind speed is considered to be a
crosswind component.
In our example, we have a 20kts wind from a 30-degree
angle. 30-degrees gives a factor of ½, so when applied to the
wind speed we get a 10kts crosswind component.

STEP 3 – CROSSWIND COMPONENT vs AIRSPEED

The faster we travel over the ground, the smaller our drift angle will be. If travelling at 60kts
our drift angle equals the crosswind component. A 10kts crosswind component at 60kts
airspeed gives a 10-degree drift angle.
Doubling our airspeed will halve our drift angle, so if we accelerated to 120kts, our drift angle
would halve to 5-degrees. We now apply this drift angle into-wind, to give us our required HDG
to steer.
Example: Desired TRK: 120⁰ Wind: 090/20 Airspeed: 120kts
Wind Angle 120 – 90 = 30⁰
½ of 20 = 10kts crosswind component
Drift Angle: 10 ÷2 = 5⁰ HDG TO STEER: TRK120 – 5 Drift Angle = 115⁰

29
 NAVIGATOR 05.
STRETCHING YOUR LEGS

More direct routes are possible when you know how to tackle longer legs, which is the subject
of this flight across New Zealand's North Island. Use enroute fixes and the drift lines from your
map to estimate your tracking and learn how to make corrections to keep you on course.

NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

NGARUAWAHIA 2400 299 9

LAKE WAIKARE 2400 343 8
PUKEKOHE 2400 294 12

A successful route is easiest to achieve when you get off to a good start. If you are planning to
fly your first leg at 3000ft and 100kts, ensure that you are stabilised at this altitude and speed
before reaching your starting point, as climbs and speed changes enroute will all affect your
ETE timings.
Have your maps and timing device to hand and ready for use, remaining mindful of your first
turn HDG. When enroute, stick closely to your plan, as any deviations will make error checking
and resolving much more difficult.

30
 ENROUTE FIX
When embarking upon longer legs, it
is helpful to have selected some
ground features along the leg for
reference enroute, as gross-error
checks. These do not have to be
located precisely beneath your flight
path, but they should be clearly
visible and unlikely to be
misidentified, such as the town of
Huntly (shown) we have selected as
an enroute fix between
Ngaruawahia and Lake Waikare.
We can designate an enroute fix by
a simple annotation to the map.
We’ll use a small black line across
the magenta track, as shown on the
map excerpt below, near Meremere.

During planning, we can add ‘drift lines’ to

our maps, to allow for a quick estimation
enroute of our lateral accuracy. The black
line we have drawn here from Lake
Waikare represents a 10-degree drift line.
When checking our position at an enroute
fix, if we find that we are on this line, then
we have drifted by 10 degrees to the right.
We use the line as a reference for
interpolation, so if we are halfway
between the magenta track and the black
drift line, we have drifted 5 degrees right.
Left drift can be determined by super-
imposing a mirrored drift line to the left of
course, or drawing a second drift line to
the left of track. It is best to minimise map clutter however, as each time we draw on a map
we obscure ground features, so using your imagination is usually sufficient and keeps the map
cleaner.

31
 DRIFT CORRECTIONS
Despite disciplined and precise pre-flight planning, we have to base our navlog calculations on
the forecasted wind, which will invariably have slight deviations to reality. This is compounded
by any other errors such as HDG accuracy, airspeed discipline and instrumentation limitations
all combining to introduce errors into our tracking.
Using our drift lines, we may have determined that we have drifted about 3 degrees to the left
of track. If we were to simply turn right 3 degrees, this would stop us from drifting any further
to the left, but will only result in us paralleling our track. We want to recapture our route
centreline, so instead we turn by double the drift, turning right by 6 degrees.
For example, if we find ourselves overhead the town of Huntly, rather than just to the east of
it, we have drifted left by around 10 degrees, as shown by the black 10-degree drift line we
have drawn. We would now apply double the drift and turn right by 20 degrees, which would
start to bring us back on track.
This method works best if the correction is applied around the halfway point on that leg, as
this gives equal time for the error to occur and then be corrected for. If applied too early in the
leg, doubling the drift may be too much, sending us through the route centreline and off to the
right of course.
The next enroute fix on this route is on the Lake Waikare to Pukekohe leg. We have selected a
tarmac racetrack and go-kart circuit at Hampton Downs (shown below), represented by the
black oval beside the Meremere VRP. We should pass Hampton Downs with it close to our left
wing. If you appear to be off-course, check the drift line and interpolate your tracking error,
then apply double this error to get you back on course by the time you reach Pukekohe.
You instructor will help you with enroute fixes inflight, giving you an estimation of your drift
and what corrections to make.

32
MAP – NAVIGATOR 05

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

33
 NAVIGATOR 06.
RADAR CONTACT

Venture into controlled airspace for the first time whilst learning how to operate the radios
and negotiating an Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ) before flying the special Low-Level Route
between Liverpool and Manchester, followed by a zone transit.

NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

STRETTON 1100 204 2

SANDIWAY 1100 208 5
WINSFORD FLASH 1100 138 2

We’re going to fly a route across the Greater Manchester and Cheshire regions of the UK to
explore how we can utilise the options that are open to us once we understand how VFR
flights can integrate into the Air Traffic Control (ATC) system. Whilst it is tempting and, in
some ways, simpler to avoid controlled airspace, having the knowledge and reassurance that
ATC can lend a helping hand opens up new possibilities for route planning.

34
 AERODROME TRAFFIC ZONE
Whilst large airports will have a Control Zone (CTR), smaller controlled
airfields in the UK have an Aerodrome Traffic Zone (ATZ). These surround
the airfield with a cylindrical shape, the height of which is 2000ft Above
Ground Level (AGL). To determine the ceiling of an ATZ in terms of
altitude, add 2000ft to the airfield elevation, which is displayed on the
airfield charts, or as shown in your planning software.

The radius of the cylinder depends on the length of the main runway at that airfield. Runways
of 1850m and below have an ATZ radius of 2nm (Nautical Miles), whereas the radius around a
runway greater than 1850m is 2.5nm.

Some ATZs in the vicinity of other controlled airspace will not have a complete circular shape,
but may be 'cut' by the larger airspace, such as in the case of the Manchester Control Area
(CTA) and the Barton ATZ. An ATZ may also be established surrounding an offshore installation
such as an oil rig.

Levels of ATC service varies between ATZs, the simplest being an 'Information' service, which
can provide basic information to pilots such as runway in use and weather conditions, but do
not convey any ATC clearances other than taxi instructions.

LISTENING SQUAWK
Although we may be remaining outside of controlled airspace, it is often very sensible to listen-
in on or 'monitor' the frequency of nearby airspace, to remain situationally aware and allow
the relevant controller to be able to contact us if needed. To signal to ATC that we are outside
of airspace but tuned to their frequency, we set a designated Frequency Monitoring Code
(FMC) or 'Listening Squawk' into the transponder.

As we progress through the corridor, we will tune to the Manchester FMC of 7366. Once away
from the airspace boundary and no longer wish to monitor the frequency, we would re-enter
the conspicuity code of 7000.

35
 ALTIMETER SETTINGS
As we are often navigating near to controlled airspace, remaining beneath the floor of airspace
above us, it is important to ensure that our altimeter is set correctly.

Our primary reference for VFR flight is our altitude Above Mean Sea Level (AMSL) which is
correctly displayed on our aircraft altimeter only if we have set the current air pressure
reference, known as our QNH.

QNH is reported on the Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) of an airfield, which
transmits the current weather conditions on a dedicated frequency.

LOW LEVEL ROUTE

This area of the UK is particularly busy, as we have two main airports,
several flying schools, major cities and a central location. As Liverpool
and Manchester airports are in close proximity, their combined
airspace forms a wide zone that would require ATC approval to
transit. As there is no guarantee that ATC will be able to
accommodate us, we would have to plan a long diversion to
circumnavigate this controlled airspace, totalling a distance of
around 60nm, compared to a much more palatable 30nm for a
straight line through the area.

A compromise was established to greatly ease north/south light

aircraft traffic in the form of the Low-Level Route often referred to as
'the corridor'.

The corridor is much like a tunnel that slots between Liverpool and
Manchester, allowing passage for VFR traffic as long as they remain
below 1300ft altitude.

This of course has the side effect of focussing traffic into a narrow
region both laterally and vertically, so traffic activity can be intense
and requires an enhanced look out.

We will use the corridor to make our way from Barton airfield to
Cheshire, before turning northbound again in the hope of being
permitted a transit through the Manchester control zone (CTR).

36
 ZONE TRANSIT
If ATC capacity allows, there is a possibility that a VFR flight may be allowed to fly through the
control zone (CTR) of a major airport, known as a zone transit.

This will require us to contact ATC and request the transit, which may consist of flying between
VRPs or allocated headings. An 'orbit' may also be required, where we make a 360⁰ turn, much
like a holding pattern, to sequence us in relation to commercial traffic which are taking off or
landing. This unpredictability makes planning a route through a zone inexact, but will certainly
still equate to a more direct and efficient route compared to avoiding the area entirely.

To get the best chances of being permitted to transit, it is best to arrange your flight so that
your transit would cause the controller the least amount of disruption. This can be achieved by
planning to cross major runways with a perpendicular flight path, rather than attempting to fly
down the length of the runway. It is common that you will be instructed to cross over a runway
at the landing threshold, as this keeps you out of the way of any departing traffic.

COMMUNICATIONS RADIO
To communicate with ATC and other aeroplanes we operate our communications or 'COMM'
radios.

The C152 is fitted with two COMM radios, known as COMM1 and COMM2. For each radio, we
have both active and standby frequencies displayed. Turning the knobs on the face of the radio
equipment will set the frequency in the standby (STBY) window, which can be made active by
pressing the swap button. The larger knob is turned to set the larger frequency numbers before
the decimal point, whilst the small knob on top sets the numbers after the decimal.

37
 SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
During the planning stage, an important aspect to consider is the location of any Special Use
Airspace (SUA) near to our route.

There are many classes of SUA, to cover a wide range of aerial activities. These include hang
gliding, gliding, training airfields, parachute drop zones and aerobatic flying.

Generally, it is best to avoid these areas outright, as this provides the greatest level of safety
to ourselves and those around us, plus it simplifies our route and reduces the risk of airborne
conflict.

However, if operating in a busy area and faced with an alternative of a long diversion, flying
through a SUA can be done with care. Many are only active between published times or dates,
allowing us to safely transit the area in the knowledge that the SUA is not currently active.

A map symbol with a ‘G’ (as seen in the first three symbols above) represents a gliding launch
zone and if an altitude figure is also present this indicates that glider winch launches are in use
up to that altitude. You must not fly through a launch zone below this indicated altitude as you
may encounter a winch cable. ‘2.5’ represents 2500ft AMSL. Where a figure is not provided,
towing operations can be assumed, where a powered aircraft tows the glider airborne, which
also presents a hazard to passing aircraft.

Once airborne, gliders are not restrained to remain within their launch zone and can be found
soaring many miles from their home base, usually accompanied by several other gliders as they
tend to congregate around features which produce rising air, known as thermals.

Parachute drop zones often have published hours of activity and may stretch as high as
15,000ft. Hang gliding typically occurs from steep valley walls and cliff edges.

Other areas are designated as Prohibited or Danger areas, which

are not to be entered unless confirmed as inactive, although
many of these surround sensitive locations such as nuclear power
stations and military firing areas and are active at all times.

Whilst services are available at some locations to assist with the

controlled transit of Prohibited and Danger areas, such as a
Danger Area Crossing Service (DACS), these add complexity and
risk of conflict to our route so are best avoided wherever possible.

38
 AIRSPACE CLASSES
The international airspace system is divided up into ‘classes.’ For a VFR flight, the most relevant
classes of airspace will be C, D and G.

Classes A to E are controlled airspace, meaning that you will need permission from ATC before
entry. Class G is uncontrolled so can be used with no interaction with ATC.

A large controlled airport is typically surrounded by a Control Zone (CTR) which stretches from
the ground (also known as the ‘surface’ or SFC) upwards to around 2500ft. Above the CTR
covering greater vertical and horizontal dimensions is the Control Area (CTA).

A CTR is typically Class D, whereas a CTA is usually Class C. The main difference between these
two classes for VFR flight is that Class C provides formal separation instructions to keep you
clear of other traffic, while only traffic information is passed within Class D.

Class A Reserved for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) traffic. No entry to VFR.
Class B Mainly Canada + USA, surrounds busy airports with ATC traffic separation.

Class C ATC provides separation INSTRUCTIONS between VFR and IFR traffic.
Class D ATC provides separation INFORMATION between VFR and IFR traffic.

Class E Radio not mandatory if VFR. Traffic may be separated if radio is used.

Class G Uncontrolled airspace.

CONTROLLED UNCONTROLLED
A B C D E G
RADIO + ATC NO ENTRY YES YES YES NO NO
SEPARATION ALL FROM IFR INFO INFO NO
SPEED LIMIT NO YES YES YES YES

39
MAP – NAVIGATOR 06

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

40
 NAVIGATOR 07.
FROSTBITE

Keep the show on the road after temperatures plummet and the snow moves in. Take to the
skies above southern Sweden to learn how to adapt to the new perspective offered by a snowy
landscape so that the winter months do not leave you grounded.

NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

YSTAD 2400 141 8

SMYGEHUK 1400 238 9
HÖLLVIKEN 1400 279 8
MALMÖ 2400 005 7

We will take to the skies above the Skåne region of Sweden to take a look at how our ground
features can become unusable or of changed appearance after snowfall.

Winter flying does have the benefits of generally quieter airspace, allowing more direct
routings and calmer weather conditions, providing smooth cruising.

Engine power is also aided by cold air, so aircraft performance is enhanced, reducing fuel
consumption. The winter landscape offers a scenic and impressive view on a clear day, which
coupled with the efficiency benefits and more direct routings make winter flying rewarding, as
long as we are aware of the hazards.

Many of our ground features such as disused airfields, small roads and grass airstrips are
concealed by snow and therefore unreliable as visual references.

41
 AIRCRAFT ICING
We must be wary of icing conditions in the winter months, as all traces of icing must be
removed from the aircraft before departure, which can involve expensive and time-consuming
de-icing procedures, which may not be available at all airfields.

Inflight protection is also required, as icing can block the air intakes
of critical instrumentation, rendering them useless. To protect our
airspeed indicator, we have the pitot heating system, which
electrically heats the pitot tube, used to measure the pressure of
the oncoming airflow for conversion to an indicated airspeed. If our
pitot tube becomes blocked with ice, the pitot tube will no longer
be able to detect oncoming airflow and so our airspeed indication
will drop to zero.

Sharp objects, such as the pitot tube, are usually the aircraft parts
that freeze first, which is why the pitot system in particular has a
dedicated heating system.

To turn on the pitot heat in our Cessna, use the switch below the
instrument panel. You may need to click on the yoke to hide it, as
the yoke may block your view of the pitot heat switch. Click again to
unhide the yoke afterwards.

When considering your view of the landscape, as the removal of

snow and ice is expensive and resource intensive, usually only major
infrastructure is kept clear, such as main highways and airport
runways. Smaller grass airstrips are unlikely to receive this
treatment, so be sure that the airfields you are planning to fly to or
use as potential diversions are in fact open at the time of your flight.

As daylight hours are shorter in the winter, give thought to your expected arrival time, as what
may seem only a moderate delay to departure could push your landing time back to after dark,
which has its own set of considerations as discussed in the next tutorial.

42
MAP – NAVIGATOR 07

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

43
 NAVIGATOR 08.
NIGHT SHIFT

Be adaptable to the lighting conditions and see how you may need to reconsider your
options when operating after dark.

Once the daylight fades, we still need to retain the ability to navigate cross-country if we are
to have the full skill set of a VFR navigator. We will tour the skies above Las Vegas on a clear
evening to introduce how the picture changes after the sun goes down.

GROUND FEATURES
We must adapt our choices of waypoints to include ground features
which remain useful after dark. Features that may be highly visible and
practically unmissable in the daytime can appear to vanish after
nightfall, so more care is to be taken when forming a route.

In a similar fashion as winter flying, many of the minor airfields and

ground features may be less visible or unavailable after sun-down,
reducing our options considerably.

One of the most significant changes to our choice of waypoints is the

highly visible street lighting of towns and cities, possibly providing
visibility of many miles and being much easier to spot than during
daylight hours. Conversely, most natural features such as rivers, ridges
and water bodies become practically invisible at night, so these would
be unwise waypoint or enroute fix choices for a VFR night flight.

The lack of a clear horizon will make visual flight more challenging, as
you will have to give more importance to your Attitude Indicator (AI)
to ensure the correct flying attitudes, especially the enforcement of
level wings to avoid drifting off your headings.

44
 LIGHTING
Airfield lighting will generally be one of two extremes. The airport may
come to life after dark with an array of runway and approach lighting
systems, or fade away into the darkness and be impossible to see. Airfield
lighting in the USA usually includes an airfield beacon, which rotates on
top of a tall mast and is seen as a flashing green and white light, making
picking out an airfield surrounded by built up areas easier.

Civil and military airfields are distinguished by a change to the flashing of

the airfield beacon. A civil airport beacon will have one green flash
followed by one white flash, whereas at a military installation the green
flash is followed by two white flashes. Note that the presence of a beacon
helps with visually acquiring an airfield at night, but does not guarantee
that the airfield is open to traffic, nor do the regulations require a beacon
to be used.

Tall buildings and manmade obstacles may be fitted with red lights to assist visibility in the
dark, but there will unlikely be the presence of any lighting on steep terrain and other natural
features, so particular attention must be given at the planning stage with regards to obstacles
and high terrain along your flight path. Be aware that VFR maps will only display obstacles such
as masts that are greater than 300ft AGL and such smaller structures may also be unlit.

In clear conditions, other aircraft become considerably easier to spot at night, as all aircraft
approved for night-flight are required to be equipped with a system of lights, which not only
make the aircraft visible after dark but also provides an indication of its direction of travel.

The right wingtip is fitted with a green position light, with a red light fitted to the left wingtip
and a white light on the tail. This gives orientation information to the observer, as it is possible
to interpret the direction of travel based on which lights are visible.

For example, if only a green light is in view, the observer can be sure that they are looking at
the right wing of the traffic. If both red and green position lights are in view, you are
approaching roughly head-on.

45
Sports stadiums can be large, brightly-lit landmarks when a game is on, but may not be nearly
as conspicuous in the off-season. Their usage for night navigation is often best if treated
opportunistically, rather than a fundamental part of your plan. A delayed departure, stadium
power failure or game cancellation could all scupper your plans and require last minute in-
flight replanning.

In all cases, care must be taken when selecting point features that are lighting dependant, as
there is no guarantee that these lights will be operational at the time of your flight. Towns and
cities present highly visible area features, with only the very unlikely possibility of a widespread
blackout causing a threat to their use.

NIGHT VISION
Preserving your night vision is an important aspect worth considering. Picking out VFR
waypoints in the dark, lit or otherwise, will be more difficult if you have not allowed your eyes
to properly adjust to low lighting conditions.

It can take around 30mins to gain full night adaptation, but even a single flash of white light
can reset your vision, requiring an additional 30mins to restore. Keep cockpit lighting low, and
avoid the use of flashlights or camera flashes. Red lighting has a far lower impact on night
vision, so any additional lighting should be red in colour wherever possible. Be aware however,
that reading a map under coloured light will affect its appearance as some colours on the map
will be absent when lit monochromatically.

46
MAP – NAVIGATOR 08

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

47
 NAVIGATOR 09.
MOUNTAINEER

Forced down into the valleys by low cloud, complete your route to Chambery through the
twists and turns of mountain flying.

NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

FAVERGE 4000 143 8

VAL DE CHAISE “ 059 2
UGINE “ 194 3
ALBERTVILLE “ 194 3
INTERCHANGE “ 232 10
CHAMBERY “ 315 3

A system of designated routes is often available for popular mountainous regions, allowing for
easy flight planning and making your flight path and those of other traffic easy to predict and
communicate. In this lesson we will find that our original intended route has become
unavailable by cloud which is lower than forecast, causing us to take the longer routes through
a series of valleys in the French Alps.
The twists and turns of a valley flight makes the importance of correct identification of your
turning points all the more critical, as one wrong turn could easily lead you towards a dead end
in the valley or lead you astray more subtly, with your confusion growing as the miles pass.
When identifying features, avoid the temptation to succumb to what is known as “confirmation
bias” where you consider only the clues which agree with your assumptions and disregard
those that defy them.

48
 VALLEY AIRFLOW

Valley flying can present a multitude of hazards to the uninitiated, even on days with otherwise
moderate weather conditions. Wind has a profound effect on the safety of a mountain route,
as the air acts much like fast-flowing water, spilling down one valley wall and rushing up the
other. A downward flow of air is called a downdraft and when strong, they can prove to be
hazardous to light aircraft. They occur on the downwind (leeward) side of the valley. Where
the air is pushed up and over the upwind (windward) side, the rising air is an updraft and makes
for much smoother conditions.
Fighting a downdraft can cause you considerable difficulties, such as uncontrolled descent,
severe turbulence and considerable loss in performance. An updraft however can be very
beneficial, allowing you to ride along a wave of rising air, saving fuel and enhancing climb
performance. It should be noted however that the attraction of an updraft can cause a
congregation of other traffic and gliders, who are also looking for an easy path through the
valley.
In windless conditions, it is customary to fly on the right-side of a valley, to aid with separation
with opposite direction traffic. During stronger wind conditions this may no longer be safe or
possible, so beware of oncoming aeroplanes that may be flying along the same valley wall as
you are.

49
As air reaches a restriction, such as a narrowing of the valley, the venturi effect can cause the
wind speed to increase locally and rapidly. This can be troublesome when flying with a tailwind
as the speed of this tailwind can quickly increase, leaving you with a loss of lift. As you take the
turns through a valley route, the air can do more unpredictable things such as quickly changing
direction or speed, so high wind speeds must be a careful consideration if planning a mountain
flight.

Strong sunshine can also cause effects to the air, as exposed rock surfaces can heat quickly in
the sun, causing strong but very localised columns of rising air known as thermals. The same
bright sun can cause dark shadows, obscuring potential obstacles such as rock formations,
trees or cables that might stretch across the valley.

MAXIMUM ELEVATION FIGURE

Maximum Elevation Figures (MEF) are depicted on VFR
charts to alert the pilot regarding the highest elevation
within a particular grid square on the map. The most
common method to determine the MEF is to take the
highest point of terrain within each grid square and
then add a 300ft margin before rounding up. If 134 is
indicated, this represents an MEF of 13,400ft.

These figures give rough terrain clearance guidance at

a glance, which can be especially useful when having to
leave your planned route due to weather or airspace
restrictions. Note that each map provider may have
differing criteria for determining an MEF, so care should
be taken to add your own safety margin.

50
MAP – NAVIGATOR 09

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

51
 NAVIGATOR 10.
SKYLINE

What better place is there to take in the NYC skyline than from your airborne vantage point
above the Hudson. Take advantage of a Class B Exclusion Zone and slip through the crowded
New York airspace and around the Statue of Liberty.

Major cities around the world are usually surrounded by one or more international airports,
with their associated airspace network. Such busy areas could be impassable by light VFR
traffic, as the constant flow of jetliner traffic would preclude any possibility of a zone transit.
To help alleviate this issue for VFR pilots, many locations have incorporated special procedures
to allow safe transit.
In the USA these often take the form of ‘Flyways’ which are agreed routes across busy
metropolitan areas, where VFR traffic can make their way across the city, safely keeping out of
the way of commercial traffic.
The route we’re going to take will allow us to follow the Hudson southbound, passing NYC on
our left and New Jersey on our right. To do this, we will use the ‘Class B Exclusion Zone’, part
of the New York Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA).
The concept is simple, if we remain below 1300ft and keep to the right-side of the river, we
can traverse this otherwise intensely busy airspace. We will need to make position reports as
we pass each ‘mandatory reporting point’ along the designated route, using the following
format:
AIRCRAFT TYPE – LOCATION – ALTITUDE – DIRECTION

Example: “Cessna – Statue of Liberty – 1000ft – Southbound”

This will be transmitted on the assigned Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF). This type
of radio frequency is dedicated to pilot-pilot communication, allowing VFR pilots to remain
aware of each other’s locations and avoid other aircraft without the supervision of ATC.

52
MAP – NAVIGATOR 10

53
 NAVIGATOR 11.
ISLANDER

Traverse the stunning landscape surrounding the Isle of Arran, Scotland, crossing stretches of
water as you set up for the VFR entry procedure into Glasgow, keeping and eye on your fuel
mixture.

NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

MOUNT STUART HOUSE 4000 059 6

INVERKIP 1900 034 5
GREENOCK “ 056 3
BISHOPTON 1100 106 4

VFR ENTRY/EXIT ROUTE

Traffic flying under IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) routinely follow pre-determined routes to and
from airfields, known as STARs (Standard Terminal Arrival Routes) and SIDs (Standard
Instrument Departures). VFR traffic can take advantage of a similar philosophy, where
dedicated routes are established to allow aircraft to enter and exit a control zone in an
organised manner, known as Entry/Exit routes.
Common at UK airports, the use of Entry/Exit procedures allows for simplification of ATC
clearances. To arrive at Glasgow, we are going to follow the River Clyde entry route.

54
 WATER CROSSING
Modern and well-maintained aircraft engines are incredibly reliable. However, once faced with
the prospect of a large stretch of water, having some background knowledge of your gliding
ability becomes more of a priority. As a general rule in an aircraft such as our C152, you can
glide 1.5nm for every 1000ft of altitude. We will cross over from the Isle of Arran to the Isle of
Bute, which involves a water crossing of roughly 6nm in length.
To calculate a suitable altitude to enable us to glide clear in the event of an engine failure, we
can divide the distance by our 1.5nm gliding range:
6NM ÷ 1.5 = 4000ft
This is of course a conservative figure, as this would allow us to glide the full 6nm distance,
whereas our real worst-case scenario is for the engine failure to occur once furthest from land,
at the halfway point.

55
 FUEL MIXTURE
Aircraft engines perform most efficiently at an optimal fuel:air ratio. When flying at higher
altitudes, the air becomes less dense, so we need to reduce the fuel flow to help preserve our
fuel:air balance.

The engine is considered to be

running ‘rich’ if too much fuel is
being supplied. This can cause
carbon deposits within the engine
and cause rough running and poor
fuel economy.
The red mixture control knob is
used to reduce the engine’s fuel
flow slightly, a process known as
‘leaning’ the mixture.
Be sure not to pull the mixture
control back too far, as this will
close the fuel supply completely
and shut down the engine!

Once flying level after a climb, lean the mixture by pulling the mixture control back a small
amount, until you notice the engine RPMs rise. Leaning too much will cause the RPM to drop
again and engine temperature will start to rise. Find the mixture setting that gives the highest
RPM.
When coming in to land, the mixture is returned to full rich, so that maximum fuel is available
in the event of full engine power being required for a go-around.

56
MAP – NAVIGATOR 11

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

57
 NAVIGATOR 12.
HIGHLANDER

Put your new skills to practice and complete your Navigator experience by going solo and
taking to the skies above the Scottish Highlands, looking down upon some of the most glorious
landscapes imaginable in this authentic multi-leg Bush Trip.
Find Navigator 12. Highlander within the Bush Trip category of your Custom Content menu.
Split up into 5 legs, this trip will take you across the Highlands and give you ample opportunity
to settle into a longer journey, putting your new skills to good use. Use the in-game navlog to
see your headings and ETEs in-flight, which also features a stopwatch function to help you keep
track of the time enroute. We have provided the airfield charts for those destinations that have
published Jeppesen charts (all except for Oban), courtesy of Navigraph.

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 NAVLOG
TO WAYPOINT ALT HDG TIME

BARRHEAD 2000 163 3

EAST KILBRIDE “ 104 4
POLMONT “ 048 12
PHILIPSTOUN (M9 J2) “ 092 3
EGPH - EDINBURGH ELEV 136 110 3
FORTH ROAD BRIDGE 3000 344 2
KELTY “ 004 4
PERTH “ 354 9
EGPN - DUNDEE ELEV 17 074 8
BROUGHTY CASTLE 1100 080 3
FORFAR 3000 357 6
LAURENCEKIRK “ 048 10
STONEHAVEN 1400 045 6
GIRDLE “ 025 7
BRIDGE OF DON “ 335 1
EGPD - ABERDEEN ELEV 215 299 3
KINTORE 1400 296 3
INVERURIE “ 340 2
INSCH “ 299 4
HUNTLY 4500 321 5
KEITH “ 321 4
FOCHABERS “ 316 3
FORRES “ 275 9
EGPE - INVERNESS ELEV 31 261 8
INVERNESS CLIMB 237 4
DORES 4500 218 3
FORT AUGUSTUS “ 223 9
FORT WILLIAM “ 220 12
CORRAN POINT “ 223 4
CASTLE STALKER DESCEND 212 5
EGEO - OBAN ELEV 24 187 4

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EGPF - GLASGOW

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LEG 1 – GLASGOW TO EDINBURGH

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

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EGPH - EDINBURGH

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LEG 2 - EDINBURGH TO DUNDEE

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

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EGPN - DUNDEE

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LEG 3 – DUNDEE TO ABERDEEN

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

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EGPD - ABERDEEN

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LEG 4 - ABERDEEN TO INVERNESS

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

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EGPE - INVERNESS

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LEG 5 – INVERNESS TO OBAN

Map courtesy of SkyDemon

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 MISSION ACCOMPLISHED

…or is it?
It takes a disciplined approach and high accuracy to visually navigate in a light aircraft, so we
hope that you can feel the sense of accomplishment from completing this course.

Now that you are armed with the VFR navigation skillset, you can go forwards and plan your
own trips, safe in the knowledge that you are doing it in an authentic and true to life fashion,
which is the goal of all FS Academy tutorial packs.

From the FS Academy team, we wish you years of enjoyment in exercising your new skills and
we hope that it will help you explore our world with new eyes.

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 WHERE NEXT?
FS Academy VFR
Navigator has taught you how to get from place to place once airborne. Learn how to operate
a light aircraft from takeoff to landing, including handling exercises, entering the airfield circuit
and overhead joins.

FS Academy VOYAGER
If you want to expand your VFR experience and tackle full-length Bush Trips, Voyager is a series
of 7 journeys across glorious locations from around the world. All trips are supplied with
Jeppesen charts and fully prepared navlogs.

FS Academy IFR
When the weather turns sour and the clouds roll in you must navigate by your instruments
alone. The perfect introduction to the world of instrument flight, learn the true to life
procedures and techniques used to keep the show on the road.

FS Academy JETLINER
Learn a whole new way of flying by stepping up to the heavy metal. Discover the handling
techniques required to control a modern airliner during a routine flight from London Gatwick
to Barcelona plus execute emergency procedures such as engine failures and depressurisation.

fsacademy.co.uk

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 ABBREVIATIONS
Aviation is awash with abbreviated terms. This list will help you navigate a selection of the most
common and useful to know abbreviations that will come up from time to time.
Bold indicates some of the most commonly used abbreviations for VFR navigation.

AAL Above Airfield Level

ACARS Aircraft Communications and Reporting System
ADF Automatic Direction Finding
AI Attitude Indicator
AER Approach End Runway
ADS Automatic Dependent Surveillance
AFB Air Force Base
AFM Aircraft Flight Manual
AGL Above Ground Level
AGNIS Azimuth Guidance Nose in Stand
AIAA Area of Intense Aerial Activity
ALS Approach Lighting System
AMM Aircraft Maintenance Manual
AMSL Above Mean Sea Level
APU Auxiliary Power Unit
ASDA Accelerate Stop Distance Available
ASI Airspeed indicator
ASU Air Start Unit
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
ATPL Airline Transport Pilots Licence (UK)
ATR Airline Transport Rating (USA & Canada)

BALS Basic Approach Light System

BC Patches
BR Mist

C/S Callsign
CAA Civil Aviation Authority
CAS Calibrated Airspeed
CAT Clear Air Turbulence/Approach Category
CAVOK Cloud and Visibility OK
CB Cumulonimbus
CDA Continuous Descent Arrival
CDI Course Deviation Indicator
CDL Configuration Deviation List

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CG Centre of Gravity
CGL Circling Guidance Lights
CLL Centreline Lights
CPDLC Controller-Pilot Datalink Communications
CPL Commercial Pilots Licence
CRM Crew Resource Management
CTA Control Area
CTAF Common Traffic Advisory Frequency
CTR Control Zone
CVR Cockpit Voice Recorder

DA Decision Altitude
DACS Danger Area Crossing Service
DCL Departure Clearance
DER Departure End of Runway
DFDR Digital Flight Data Recorder
DH Decision Height
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DST Daylight Savings Time (Summer)
DU Dust
DZ Drizzle

EAS Equivalent Airspeed

EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
EAT Expected Approach Time
ECAM Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring
EFB Electronic Flight Bag
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System
EGPWS Enhanced GPWS
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
EICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter
EMDB Embedded
EPR Engine Pressure Ratio
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
ETE Estimated Time Enroute
ETP Equal Time Point
EVS Enhanced Vision System
EWH Eye to Wheel Height

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAF Final Approach Fix
FALS Full Approach Lighting System
FANS Future Air Navigation System
FAP Final Approach Point
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation

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FBL Feeble/Light
FC Funnel Cloud/TAF with validity <12hrs
FD Flight Director
FG Fog
FL Flight Level
FMC Frequency Monitoring Code
FMS Flight Management System
FT TAF with validity >12hrs
FU Smoke
FZ Freezing

GA Go-Around/General Aviation
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GP Glidepath
GPU Ground Power Unit
GPS Global Positioning System
GPWS Ground Proximity Warning System
GR Hail
G/S Glideslope/Ground Speed
GS Small Hail

H24 Applies 24hours

HDG Heading
HG Mercury
HIALS High Intensity Approach Light System
HJ Applies only in Daytime
HN Applies only at Night
HP/hP Holding Pattern/Hectopascals
HOT Holdover Time
HSI Horizontal Situation Indicator
HUD Head Up Display
HURCN Hurricane
HZ/Hz Haze/Hertz

IAF Initial Approach Fix

IAS Indicated Airspeed
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
IF Intermediate Fix
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
ILS Instrument Landing System
IM Inner Marker
IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions
INOP Inoperative
INS Inertial Navigation System
IR Instrument Rating

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IRS Inertial Reference System
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
ITCZ Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

KM Kilometres
KTS Knots

LCTR Locator. Shorter range NDB.

LDA Landing Distance Available
LIAL Low Intensity Approach Lighting
LMT Local Mean Time
LNAV Lateral Navigation
LOC Localiser
LT Local Time
LTNG Lightning
LTS Lower Than Standard
LVO Low Visibility Operations
LVP Low Visibility Procedures

MA Missed Approach
MAPt Missed Approach Point
MATZ Military Air Traffic Zone
MBST Microburst
MCDU Multifunction Control and Display Unit
MDA Minimum Descent Altitude
MDH Minimum Descent Height
MEA Minimum Enroute Altitude
MEF Maximum Elevation Figure
MEL Minimum Equipment List
MMEL Master MEL
METAR Meteorological Aerodrome Report
MFA Minimum Flight Altitude
MGA Minimum Grid Altitude
MHA Minimum Holding Altitude
MI Shallow
MIALS Medium Intensity Approach Light System
MISAP Missed Approach Procedure
MLW Maximum Landing Weight
MLS Microwave Landing System
MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Specifications
MOC Minimum Obstacle Clearance
MORA Minimum Off Route Altitude
MPS Meters Per Second
MRA Minimum Reception Altitude
MROT Minimum Runway Occupancy Time
MSA Minimum Safe Altitude
MSFS Microsoft Flight Simulator

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MSL Mean Sea Level
MTCA Minimum Terrain Clearance Altitude
MTOW Maximum Takeoff Weight
MVFR Marginal VFR
MZFW Maximum Zero Fuel Weight

NADP Noise Abatement Departure Procedure

NALS No Approach Light System
NAVAID Navigational Aid
NCD No Cloud Detected
NDB Non-Directional Beacon
NM Nautical Mile
NOSIG No Significant Change
NOTAM Notice to Airmen
NPA Non-Precision Approach
NSC Nil Significant Cloud
NSW Nil Significant Weather
NTZ No Transgression Zone

OAT Outside Air Temperature

OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude
OCH Obstacle Clearance Height
OCNL Occasional
OEI One Engine Inoperative
OFP Operational Flight Plan
OM Outer Marker
OTS Other Than Standard
OVC Overcast

PALS Precision Approach Lighting System

PANS Procedures for Air Navigation Services
PAPI Precision Approach Path Indicator
PAX Passengers
PBN Performance Based Navigation
PCL Pilot Controlled Lighting
PCN Pavement Classification Number
PDC Pre-Departure Clearance
PDG Procedure Design Gradient
PFD Primary Flight Display
PIC Pilot in Command
PL Ice Pellets
PN Prior Notice Required
PO Dust/Sand Whirls
POB Persons on Board
PRFG Partial Fog
PRNAV Precision Area Navigation
PROB Probability

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QDM Magnetic Heading to Station
QDR Magnetic Bearing from Station
QFE Air Pressure at Airfield Level
QFU Magnetic Orientation of Runway
QNH Air Pressure at Sea Level
QRH Quick Reference Handbook

RA Rain
RAF Royal Air Force
RAIL Runway Alignment Indicator Lights
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
RASN Rain and Snow
RCLL Runway Centreline Lights
RCLM Runway Centreline Markings
REDL Runway Edge Lights
REIL Runway End Indicator Rights
RENL Runway End Lights
RET Rapid Exit Taxiway
RFFS Rescue and Fire Fighting Services
RTIL Runway Threshold Identification Lights
RMI Remote Magnetic Indicator
RMK Remark
RNAV Area Navigation
ROC Rate of Climb
ROD Rate of Descent
RSC Runway Surface Condition
RTIL Runway Threshold Identification Lights
RVR Runway Visual Range
RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minima

SA Sand
SAR Search and Rescue
SCT Scattered
SEV Severe
SELCAL Selective Calling
SFC Surface
SFRA Special Flight Rules Area
SG Snow Grains
SH Showers
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SIGMET Significant Meteorological Information
SIGWX Significant Weather
SKC Sky Clear
SLP Speed Limiting Point
SM Statute Miles

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SMC Surface Movement Control
SNOCLO Airport Closed due to Snow
SQ Squall
SRA Surveillance Radar Approach
SS Sandstorm
STAR Standard Terminal Arrival Route
SUA Special Use Airspace
SWY Stop way

TA Transition Altitude
TAF Terminal Area Forecast
TAS True Airspeed
TCAS Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System
TCH Threshold Crossing Height
TCU Towering Cumulus
TDO Tornado
TDZ Touchdown Zone
TECR Technical Reason
TEMPO Temporary
TL Transition Level
TS Thunderstorm

U/S Unserviceable
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UNREL Unreliable
UTC Coordinated Universal Time

VA Volcanic Ash
VASI Visual Approach Slope Indicator
VC Vicinity
VFR Visual Flight Rules
VMC Visual Meteorological Conditions
VMCA Minimum Control Speed (Airborne)
VOLMET Weather reports for aircraft inflight
VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range
VPT Visual Manoeuvre with Prescribed Track
VRP Visual Reporting Point
VV Vertical Visibility

WIP Work in Progress

WKN Weakening
WS Windshear
WTH Wheel to Threshold Height
WX Weather
WXR Weather Radar
XPDR Transponder

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Copyright © FS Academy LTD 2022. All rights reserved.
Charts Copyright © Jeppesen 2020 via Navigraph. All rights reserved.
Maps Courtesy of SkyDemon.

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