BUILDING CLIMATOLOGY

Climate responsive design for tropical climates Module 5

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Climate responsive design for tropical climates
• Design considerations for
1. warm humid
2. hot dry
3. composite climates.
Architectural design strategies can be formulated for various climatic zones under the
following headings such as:
1. Form and planning
2. External spaces
3. Roofs, walls & openings
4. Roof & wall surfaces
5. Ventilation & air flow
WEATHER -The weather of a place CLIMATE -Integrated weather condition
represents the state of the atmospheric over several years is generally referred to as
environment over a brief period of time. climate.
WORLD CLIMATIC ZONES
Climate can be derived by two sets of factors
• INVARIABLE FACTORS VARIABLE FACTORS
• Latitude Temperature
• Longitude Rainfall
• Distance from sea or major water body Wind direction and wind velocity
• Terrain altitude
Atmospheric pressure
Humidity
Factors that determine climate of a place

The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces, together with
the distribution of land and sea masses, produces an almost infinite variety of climates.

(A) Solar radiation- Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity
of sunrays falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in Watts per square metre
(W/m2).
(B)Ambient temperature- The temperature of air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure is
known as the ambient temperature; it is generally expressed in degree Celsius (ºC).
(C)Air humidity- which represents the amount of moisture present in the air, is usually expressed
in terms of ‘relative humidity’. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water
vapour in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature, to the mass of water vapour in the
same volume of saturated air at the same temperature; it is normally expressed as a percentage.
Factors that determine climate of a place

(D) Precipitation- Precipitation includes water in all its forms rain, snow, hail or dew.
(E) Wind- Wind is the movement of air due to a difference in atmospheric pressure, caused by
differential heating of land and water mass on the earth’s surface by solar radiation and rotation
of earth.
(F) Sky condition- Sky condition generally refers to the extent of cloud cover in the sky or the
duration of sunshine.
GLOBAL CLIMATIC ZONES
Module 1
GLOBAL CLIMATIC ZONES

Module 1
CLIMATIC ZONES

▪The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces, together with
the distribution of land and sea masses, produces an almost infinite variety of climates.
▪Regions having similar characteristic features of climate are grouped under one climatic zone.
▪It is essential for the designer to be familiar with the character and location of these zones
▪1. Simple classification in 4 major groups: Cold, Temperate, Hot Dry and Warm-Humid (e.g. Drysdale,
1959).
▪2. Classifications with further subdivision of the 6 major groups (e.g. Atkinson, 1953; Lee, 1953;
which give specific attention to hot climates).
▪3. Detailed grouping based on temperature and precipitation criteria, but not on humidity (Köppen
classification)
CLIMATIC ZONES
The Climatic zones
 Considering 2 atmospheric factors which dominantly influence human comfort: air temperature and
humidity
Type of Tropical by G A Atkinson in 1953.
Climate

Warm Humid Hot Dry Desert Composite or

Climate Climate Monsoon Climate
2-3 months climate
patterns are varying

Warm Humid Hot Dry Maritime Tropical Upland

Island Climate Desert Climate Climate

• The classification given above was suggested by G A Atkinson in 1953. - for building application
• It has since been widely accepted and proven useful. The basis of this classification is given by the two
atmospheric factors which dominantly influence human comfort: air temperature and humidity.
• The main criterion is: what extremes of these two factors are likely to cause discomfort.
CLIMATIC ZONES
Accordingly the tropical regions of earth are divided into three, major
climatic zones and three subgroups:
Tropical climates

1 Warm-humid equatorial climate –

subgroup: warm-humid island or trade-wind climate

2 Hot-dry desert, or semi-desert climate –

subgroup: hot-dry maritime desert climate

3 Composite or monsoon climate (combination of 1 and 2) – subgroup: tropical

upland climate
Warm-humid climate
▪ Warm-humid climates are found in a belt near the Equator
extending to about 15°N. and S.
▪ Examples of cities in this zone: Lagos (nigeria), Dar-es-
Salam(Tanzania), Mombasa(Kenya),Colombo (Srilanka),
Singapore, Jakarta(Indonesia), Quito (Equidor) and Pernambuco
(Brazil).
▪ There is very little seasonal variation throughout the year, the
only punctuation being that of periods with more or less rain
and the occurrence of gusty winds and electric storms.
Nature of the climate
• The most prominent characteristics of this climate are the hot, sticky conditions and the
continual presence of dampness.
• Air temperature remains moderately high, between 21 and 32°C, with little variation
between day and night.
• It seldom exceeds normal skin temperature. Humidity is high during all seasons.
• Heavy cloud and water vapour in the air act as a filter to direct solar radiation; it is thus
reduced and mostly diffused – but clouds also prevent reradiation from the earth at night.
• Moisture in the air combined with moderate heat and high rainfall is favourable to the
growth of vegetation.
• The plant cover of the ground reduces reflected radiation, and lessens the heating up of
the ground surface.
• Winds are generally of low speed, variable in speed, but almost constant in direction
Physiological objectives
• Physiological objectives Because the air temperature is continually very near to skin
temperature, bodily heat loss to the air by convection or conduction is negligible.
• To achieve physical comfort, there must be some heat dissipation from the body to its
environment, at least as much as the metabolic heat production of the body.
• In high humidity air, the evaporation of a small quantity of moisture from the body would
form a saturated air envelope, effectively preventing any further evaporation, thus
blocking the last resort of heat dissipation.
• This saturated air envelope can be removed by air movement. Some degree of comfort
can be achieved by encouraging out-door breezes to pass not only through the building,
but across the body surface of the occupants. This is, in fact, the only way of ameliorating
thermal conditions.
• Radiant heat loss from the body will thus be negligible, as the surface temperatures are
near to skin temperature. Radiant heat gain from the sun and sky should, however, be
prevented.
Form and planning
• As movement of air is the only available relief from climatic stress, therefore vital to
indoor comfort, the building will have to be opened up to breezes and orientated to
catch whatever air movement there is.
• Failure to do this would produce indoor conditions always warmer than a shaded
external space which is open to air movement.
• In this type of climate buildings tend to have open elongated plan shapes, with a single
row of rooms to allow cross-ventilation
Form and planning
1. Such rooms may be accessible from open
verandahs or galleries, which also provide
shading.
2. Door and window openings are, or should be, as
large as possible, allowing a free passage of air.
3. Groups of buildings also tend to be spread out.
4. Extended plans, in a line across the prevailing
wind direction, afford low resistance to air
movement and is therefore the ideal solution.
5. If several rows of buildings follow, the air
movement through buildings in the down-wind
row will be substantially reduced by the first row.
Form and planning
• Plant cover of the ground tends to create a steeper wind gradient than an open surface,
i.e., it restricts the movement of air near the ground, and it is often necessary to elevate
the building on stilts, thereby avoiding the stagnant or slowly moving air at the ground
surface, capturing air movements of a higher velocity.

• The ground itself tends to be of the same temperature as the air, thus conduction of heat
away from the building into the ground would not be significant anyway. Although the
intensity of radiation is normally less than in hot-dry regions, it is nevertheless a
significant source of heat, therefore its entry into the building should be prevented.
Form and planning
• In hot dry climates, the radiation being mostly directional, shadow angles can be
established in quite precise terms, here much of the radiation being diffuse,
coming from the whole of the sky hemisphere, the shading devices should
provide a greater coverage, obstructing most of the sky and not just the location
of the sun.

• As the openings are far larger than in hot-dry climates, the shading devices will be
much larger on both counts.

• Openness and shading will be the dominant characteristics of the building

• Buildings must be responsive to solar orientation on the site. The sun is at a low angle during the winters
and to the south of east-west axis.
• During summer, its path is at a high angle and slightly north to the east west axis.
• The alteration in path affects solar radiation penetration patterns during different seasons and
consequently, heat gain and loss in a building.
Form and planning
• Shading of all vertical surfaces, of both openings and solid walls will be beneficial. This
task will be much easier, if the building height is kept down. Very often the roof will
extend far beyond the line of walls, with broad overhanging eaves, providing the
necessary shading to both openings and wall surfaces.

• From the point of view of solar heat gain, the best arrangement would be to orientate
buildings with the long axes in east-west direction.

• This will eventually place the longest façade in north and south direction along with a
short wall facing the east and west direction

• This may often conflict with the requirement of orientation for wind.
Form and planning
• Such a conflict should be subjected to detailed analysis in every individual case, as there is no
generally applicable rule.

• It must be remembered, however, that the solar geometry cannot be changed, but skillful use of
elements built outside, e.g. screen walls or even the projecting wing of a building, can change the
direction of air movement.

• With low rise buildings, where the walls would not get much radiation, orientation for wind is
more advisable. With high rise buildings the opposite is true, and avoidance of sun should be
the decisive factor.
• The form of the building and orientation of the spaces determine the thermal and visual
comfort to a large extent.
• Appropriate building orientation can result in reducing cooling demand and energy use
compared to a wrongly oriented building.
External spaces
• The same principles apply to the design of external spaces as to the design of
buildings.
• Shading and free passage for air movement are the two basic requirements.
• Trees and planting can be relied on for shading, as plants carry full foliage all year
round.
• Rarely will a structure be built just to provide shade to an open space, but
pergolas and light framing to be covered by climbing plants can be provided
quite cheaply and they can be very effective.
External spaces
• Open spaces left under buildings elevated on stilts can also be put to use as
shaded outdoor spaces.
• It is difficult to provide privacy as well as allowing for the passage of air, but
various systems of paling fences and screen walls have been devised which do
not permit direct view but allow the breeze to penetrate.
• Most of these consist of louvred timber boards or some overlapping
arrangements of boards or planks. Unfortunately, most of these reduce the air
velocity quite substantially
External spaces
• The density of development in warm-humid regions is always far less than in
hot-dry climates for three reasons:
1. To allow free movement of air through buildings and through spaces between
buildings
2. To provide privacy by distance, as walls and screens cannot be used for this
purpose (they would prohibit air movement)
3. Many activities are carried on out-of-doors
Roofs and walls
• Because the temperature of the outside air remains almost the same throughout the day and
night a building cannot cool off sufficiently at night-time to allow the storage of heat during the
day.
• The principle of thermal storage cannot be relied on in this climate. It is, in fact, advisable to
construct buildings of low thermal capacity materials, using lightweight construction.
• By opening up the building to air movements, thus to outside conditions, the influence of
structure upon indoor conditions is lessened considerably.
• The roof is practically the only element which has a very great significance. It cannot improve the
conditions, i.e. it will not produce temperatures cooler than the out-door air, but at least, if well
designed,
• it can prevent the indoor temperature increasing above the out-door air temperature, and keep
the ceiling temperature around the same level as other surfaces
• This will be achieved by Roofs and walls
• a reflective upper surface
• a double roof construction
• with roof space ventilated
• a ceiling with its upper surface highly reflective
• having a good resistive insulation.Both the roof and the ceiling should be of low thermal
capacity.
• As rainfall is rather high in these regions, a pitched roof will most often be used - covered by
corrugated iron, asbestos cement or bright aluminium.
• Alone, such a roof would create almost intolerable conditions indoors, with surface
temperatures up to 30 degC higher than the air temperature. It has been suggested as a
performance standard, that the ceiling temperature should not exceed the air temperature by
more than 4 degC.
• This could be achieved by a ceiling of some kind of insulation board with a U-value around
1.5 W/m2 degC (i.e. a roof-ceiling overall U-value of 0.8 W/m2 degC).
Roofs and walls
• Unfortunately, insulation of this quality is still rather expensive, exceeding the
cost limits of most low cost housing schemes.
• However, even the cheapest kind of ceiling would produce substantial
improvements.
• For solid vertical walls insulation is not necessary if they are shaded. However, if
these walls are exposed to solar radiation (such as gable walls)
• Good insulation will prevent the elevation of inner surface temperature above
the air temperature.
• Reflective qualities on the outer surface of such unshaded walls will also be
helpful.
 Vegetation
• In warm and humid climate, vegetation
can be employed to maximize air flow by
proper planning.
• Tall trees should be provided such that
they provide shade as well as do not
hinder the air flow.
• Green cover should be extended on roofs
and walls increasing the cooling effect
inside along with reducing the glare and
providing filtered air in the interiors.
• Water bodies are not essential as they
would tend to further increase in
humidity.
Vegetation
• Trees and shrubs create different air flow patterns, provide shading and keep the
surroundings cooler in warm weather. Vegetation can be used for energy conservation in
buildings in the following ways:
• Shading of buildings and open spaces through landscaping
• Roof gardens (or green roofs)
• Shading of vertical and horizontal surfaces (green walls)
• Buffer against cold and hot winds
• Changing direction of wind
Vegetation is a flexible controller of solar and wind penetration in buildings.
It reduces direct sun from striking and heating up building surfaces and lowers the
outside air temperature which in turn effects the heat transfer from outside to building
envelope and interior.
Air flow and openings
• Openings must be placed suitably in relation to the prevailing breezes to permit
natural air flow through the internal spaces at body level, i.e. in the 'living zone'
(up to 2 m).
• Such openings should be large and fully openable; there is no point in having
windows with fixed glass panes.
• The flow of air can be influenced by topographical features, by the orientation of
the building and the position of surrounding buildings and other obstructions. All
these must be considered carefully, as the openings should be free from the
effect of outside obstructions. The air flow should not pass over hot surfaces
(such as asphalt) before reaching the building. ‘
Air flow and openings
• One of the most difficult problems which a designer must attempt to solve is to
provide large openings, but at the same time give protection from driving rain,
insects, smells and noise, without radically reducing air movement.
• Ceiling mounted or other electric fans may be used when there is little or no
breeze, but these will normally only provide an air movement (thus assist
evaporative cooling), not induce the exchange of air.
Air flow and openings
• Design openings (such as windows) in your home’s building envelope so that they
are in the path of wind flows from outside.
• These openings must be placed at a suitable height in the direction of the natural
breeze outside your home to allow air to flow through your rooms at body level
to help make you feel more comfortable.
• You can enhance the flow of air inside your home by using ‘jaalis’ (lattice wall)
and ventilators.
• Smaller windows funnel air into your home.
• Air passing through these small windows speeds up towards a larger opening in
the opposite wall that serves as an exit.
• This engineered wind flow makes your home cooler.
• Winds speed up as they pass from smaller to larger windows.
openings
• High openings such as clerestory windows and ventilators act as effective
exhausts for the hot air that accumulates near the ceiling of your home.
• Warmer air is lighter than cooler air, and therefore it rises up. This concept of
rising hot air is called the Stack effect.
• Windows near the ceiling aid in removing accumulated hot air.
Strategies to improve ventilation through appropriate window placement
Ventilation
• Ventilation, i.e. the exchange of air, is also necessary.
• Without the exchange of air, both the temperature and the humidity of room air will
increase above the out-door values, due to the heat and moisture output of human
bodies and of various human activities (e.g. washing and cooking).
• Thus in this climate there is a need for both a frequent change of air (ventilation) and for
a sensible air movement across the body surface.
• Ventilation will also be necessary to the space between the roof and ceiling, and
adequate openings must be provided for this purpose.
• Ventilation of the roof space can cause a ceiling temperature to drop 2 degC, without any
other constructional change.
• Care must be taken to avoid air which has passed through a roof space reaching the living
zone (e.g. discharged onto a verandah) as this will be much hotter than the normal out-
door air.
• In humid climates such as in Coastal regions, ventilation can bring in much
needed relief, because cool breeze replaces moist warm air faster away from our
bodies causing the sensation of comfort.
• In desert like climates, natural ventilation can bring in unwanted heat as well
which can cause discomfort.
• Wind passing over water bodies or through ‘khus’ pads, like in desert coolers, can
provide cooler air.
• In colder areas, cold winds can cause discomfort.
• Obstructions around the house may be used to slow the cold winds.
• In the plains, which see both hot summers and cool winters, the in-between
period is especially suited for natural ventilation when ‘Natural cooling’ can help
avoid use of air-conditioners.
According to a recent code of Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) the country
may be divided into five major climatic
zones.

1. Hot and Dry

2. Warm and Humid
3. Composite
4. Temperate
5. Cold
Warm & Humid (climate in India)
• The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country, such as Kerala,
Tamil Nādu & Goa.
• The main design criteria in the warm and humid region are to reduce heat gain by
providing shading and promote heat loss by maximizing cross ventilation.
CHARACTERSTICS OF WARM AND HUMID CLIMATE
• High humidity, strong sun, glare from the sky and horizon.
• There are long monsoon periods with heavy rain.
• The breezes, especially in coastal areas, can alleviate discomfort considerably.
Warm & Humid (climate in India)
• Semi open spaces such as balconies & porches can be used
advantageously for day time activity.
• In multistoried building a central courtyard can be provided with
vents at higher level to draw away rising hot air.
Warm & Humid (climate in India)
▪ Temperature is moderately high during day and night
▪ Very high humidity and rainfall
▪ Diffused solar radiation if cloud cover is high and intense if sky is clear
▪ Calm to very high winds from prevailing wind directions
▪ Abundant vegetation
▪ Provision for drainage of waterRHis required
Precipitation Sky condition Example
 Traditional shelter
• Two basic types of traditional shelters are found in warm-humid climates.
• Where timber is scarce, single storey, earth-walled houses are typical, with the roof
framed in timber, bamboo or palm frond and covered with thatch.
• Broad overhanging eaves shade the walls.
• There are several disadvantages with this form of shelter.
• Firstly, the poor or non-existent air movement inside the dwelling will create
unbearable conditions.
• Secondly, what little benefit may be gained from breezes is frequently prevented by
the fenced or walled compound.
• The intense, heavy rains are likely to erode the bases and surfaces of earth walls,
therefore annual maintenance is essential. Unventilated interiors often remain
constantly damp.
• In regions more favoured with timber or where earth is
unsuitable for building, the traditional shelter is often
elevated on stilts and is constructed from local timber
or a bamboo frame with open-weave matting, timber
or split bamboo walls, floors, doors and shutters.
Traditional shelter
• Thatch or built up layers of leaves cover a bamboo or
timber roof-frame, which usually has broad
overhanging eaves.
• The lightweight timber construction holds little heat
and cools adequately at night.
• The elevated position provides a better security and
better air movement than single storey shelters.
• The thatched roof is an excellent thermal insulator,
although it may not be quite waterproof when new.
• The broad eaves shade the walls and openings,
provide protection from driving rain and sky glare and
permit the openings to be kept open most of the time.
• One weakness is that the thatch is a convenient
breeding ground for insects, and the entirely wood and
vegetable matter structure gives food and easy
passage to termites.
Traditional shelter
• The intense, heavy rains are likely to erode the bases and surfaces of
earth walls, therefore annual maintenance is essential. Unventilated
interiors often remain constantly damp.
• In regions more favored with timber or where earth is unsuitable for
building, the traditional shelter is often elevated on stilts and is
constructed from local timber or a bamboo frame with open-weave
matting, timber or split bamboo walls, floors, doors and shutters.
Thatch or built up layers of leaves cover a bamboo or timber roof-
frame, which usually has broad overhanging eaves