One of the most crucial components of mathematics, functions, are explained on this website

as a toolbox. This toolkit provides a fundamental overview of what a function is and what it requires,
but it focuses on explaining one of its key characteristics: transformations. The goal of this toolkit is
to clearly explain to the audience the various components of transformations and how they relate to
functions. The goal of this toolbox is to act as a review by giving students access to a source that
delivers an in-depth explanation.

The core concept of mathematics' calculus is functions. The unique varieties of relations are
the functions. In mathematics, a function is represented as a rule that produces a distinct result for
each input x. In mathematics, a function is indicated by a mapping or transformation. Typically, these
functions are identified by letters like f, g, and h. The collection of all the values that the function may
input while it is defined is known as the domain. The entire set of values that the function's output can
produce is referred to as the range. The set of values that could be a function's outputs is known as the
co-domain. The characteristic that every input is associated to exactly one output defines a function as
a relationship between a set of inputs and a set of allowable outputs.

A technique for determining whether or not a given relation is a function is the vertical line
test. The method is rather straightforward. The vertical line test demonstrates that a function is
defined. In other words, each x-value in a function must be paired with a unique y-value. A single
x-value can only be paired with a single value of y, according to the assumption made when a vertical
line precisely intersects the graph of a relation at one point. A vertical line test is used to determine
whether a curve is a function or not. If any curve cuts a vertical line at more than one points then the
curve is not a function.

3
Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

From this graph it can be indicated that this passes the graph, in the graph the blue line
indicates x = 1, and the equation is above, the graph passes at the point (1,1) and this
means it passes the vertical line test.

Parent function: in example 2 in the graph above f(x) = x3 would be a parent function, The parent function is a function
that exhibits the relationship between independent and dependent variables in their untransformed states in its simplest
form.
Transformations:

Reflections

A function can be transformed by flipping its graph around an axis, which is known as a reflection function. Reflecting
or reflection in mathematics, and more precisely in geometry, refers to flipping. Therefore, a function's reflection is
essentially the mirror image of the supplied function or graph. As a result, reflecting functions are a common name for
them.

A vertical reflection reflects a graph vertically across the A horizontal reflection of the graph y= f (x) on the y-axis:
x-axis:
When we have to reflect a function over the x-axis, the
points of the x coordinates will remain the same while we It is represented by y= f(-x). The x-coordinates changes
will change the signs of all the coordinates of the y-axis. and their sign changes. When we have to reflect a function
For example, suppose we have to reflect the given function over the y-axis, the points of the y coordinates will remain
y = f(x) around the x-axis. In that case, the reflection over the same while we will change the signs of all the
the x-axis equation for the given function will be written as coordinates of the x-axis. For example, if the function y =
y = -f(x), and here you can see that all the values of “y” f(x) is to be reflected over the y axis, then the resulting
will have an opposite sign as compared to the original function will be y = f(-x). As we can see, we are negating
function. The reflection of a point (x,y) over the x-axis will all the values of “x coordinates” in this case. The
be represented as (x,-y), therefore being multiplied by -1, coordinates (x,y) become (-x,y). All the x values would be
there is a translation in the graph but it's not affected by the multiplied by -1. In this case the translation is not affected
reflection. by the reflection.

Translations:

A translation is the movement of a shape left, right, up, or down. The translated shapes are identical to the original ones
in size, indicating that they are congruent. They simply changed positions in one or more directions. The shape is
unchanged because it is simply being transferred from one location to another.

Horizontally translating a graph is the same at shifting the base or the parent function of the graph left or right in the
direction of the x-axis. A graph is translated k units horizontally by moving each point on the graph k units horizontally.
Given the function g(x) = f (x - k), The value of k determines the shift.

In this graph the parent function is: Contrary to the last translation, this horizontal translation
f(x) = 𝑥
2 of subtracting 4 units caused a shift of 4 units on the graph
When the transformation is applied to the function it is: in the other direction. By calculating the x intercept below,
2 this may be seen in more detail by solving for the x
f(x) = (𝑥 − 4) intercept below by making y = 0.

it can be seen that, in the red line the parent function has From the table it can be seen that the red function's
been translated to the right by 4, and the value of k is -4. x intercept has increased by +4 in comparison to its parent
Each input is reduced by 4 prior to squaring the function. function. Therefore, all of the x values on the second graph
The result is that the graph is shifted 4 units to the right, can be translated 4 units to the right.
because we would need to increase the prior input by 4
units to yield the same output value as given in f.

General rule for horizontal translations:

Given a function f, a new function g ( x ) = f ( x − h ) , where h is a constant, is a horizontal shift of the function f . If h is
positive, the graph will shift right. If h is negative, the graph will shift left. if k > 0, the base graph shifts k units to the
right. if k < 0, the base graph shifts k units to the left

Vertical translation is the up or down movement of the graph of a function. The shape of the function remains the same.
It the shifting of the graph along the y-axis. Each point on the graph moves k units vertically and the graph is said to
translated k units vertically. Regardless of the input, we always add the same constant to the function's output value. For
a function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑎 , the function 𝑓(𝑥) is shifted vertically 𝑎 units.

Example: In this example the parent function is: In this example, the translation function has been shifted
f(x) = 𝑥
2 down by one unit. The parent function in the translation
When the transformation is applied to the function it is: has had 1 unit subtracted, which is what caused this shift.
2 As a result, the y value has decreased by 1. This is seen
f(x) = 𝑥 - 1 visually when we calculate the y intercepts:
Let's solve for y in both functions by replacing x with "0."
When the two functions are graphed they look like the
diagram below:

As it can be seen, the second function's y intercept has

decreased by -1 in comparison to its parent function. All of
the y values on the second graph can therefore be translated
by -1 unit down, regardless of the input value/x value.

In the black graph the parent function moves down by -1 in

the negative direction.

Note: Given a function f (x) , the g (x) = f(x) + k , where k is a constant, is a vertical shift of the function f(x) . The
output values or y values change by k units. If k is positive, the graph will shift up. If k is negative, the graph will shift
down.

Stretch

The position of a graph with regard to the axes altered when a constant was added to the function's inputs or outputs, but
the graph's shape was unaffected. We will now investigate the results of multiplying the inputs or outputs by a certain
amount. Either the inside (input values) or the outside (output values) of a function can be transformed.

Vertical stretches : Compressions

A function's graph is stretched or compressed vertically in In this graph below we can see that the function is being
proportion to the graph of the original function when 1
multiplied by 4 , and is compressed. The point of (2,2)
multiplied by a positive constant. We obtain a vertical
becomes (2,0.5), Therefore the Y value decreases. And 2
stretch if the constant is bigger than 1, and a vertical 1
compression if the constant is between 0 and 1. divided by 4 then the value of 0.5 is obtained.

f(x) has been multiplied by 4 therefore stretched vertically

by a factor of 4, this can be indicated in the graph as the y
value goes from (2,2) to (2,8) showing how the y value of
2 was multiplied by 4 to obtain the transformation.

General rule:
Given a function f (x ) , the function of g (x) = af(x) , where a is a constant, is a vertical stretch or vertical compression of
the function f (x) . If a > 1 , then the graph will be stretched. If 0 < a < 1 , then the graph will be compressed. If a < 0 ,
then there will be combination of a vertical stretch or compression with a vertical reflection. If the entire function is
multiplied or divided by a number, the y axis is stretched or compressed vertically. This is because every value of y gets
stretched or compressed when this occurs since each value is being divided or multiplied by a number. The x intercepts
would stay the same for both vertical compression and stretch instances. This is because the value of y in the case of x
intercepts would be "0" and everything multiplied by or divided by 0 is also 0, hence the values of the x intercepts
remain constant.

Horizontal stretches and compressions:

The graph of a function is stretched or compressed horizontally in proportion to the graph of the original function when
the input of a function is multiplied by a positive constant. The function is stretched horizontally if the constant is
between 0 and 1 and compressed horizontally if the constant is bigger than 1.
If given a function y = f ( x ) , and if put into the form of y = f (bx) results in a horizontal stretch or compression. b is the
value the signifies the factor the function is being stretched or compressed by.

Lets take the function shown below . The graph of looking at the function shown below . The graph of
y = (4x) is a horizontal compression of the graph of the 1
y = ( 4 x) is a horizontal stretch of the graph of the function
function by a factor of 4.
by a factor of 4. This can be seen as the x values of the
graph go from (2,2) to (8,2), indicating the x values were
multiplied by 4.

A different reaction than that seen in vertical compressions occurs in the case of horizontal stretches and compressions;
in this instance, the manipulation of the value of x is what causes the different reaction. We can demonstrate this by using
2
a simple function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

When doing horizontal compressions, it's important to keep in mind that

compression occurs when "x" is multiplied by a whole number higher than 1,
but a stretch occurs when "x" is divided by the numbers.

General rule:
A new function 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏𝑥) is a horizontal stretch or horizontal compression of the original function 𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑏
is a constant.
1 1
The graph will be compressed by 𝑏
if b > 1, The graph will be stretched by 𝑏
if 0 < b < 1,
A horizontal stretch or compression combined with a horizontal reflection will occur if
b < 0.
Now to combine all that has been learned so far, and to be able to give a function with a horizontal and vertical shift you
would need to do the following: Determine the formula's vertical and horizontal shifts. The output has a constant added
to it, which causes the vertical shift. For a positive constant, move the graph upward; for a negative constant, move it
below. A constant supplied to the input causes a horizontal shift. For a positive constant, move the graph to the left; for a
negative one, move it to the right. Use any order to apply the shifts to the graph.

Lets take an example:

The black function in this is the parent function y =
f(x), the transformation is the blue graph, y =
1
2
𝑓(− 𝑥 − 2) + 3 from this we can see moving fomr
1
left to right, there is a vertical stretch by the factor of 2
1
, and the negative before the 2
indicates a reflection
along the x-axis which is a vertical reflection, then
there is also a horizontal reflection which is the
reflection along the y axis, and then a vertical translation towards the right side on the x-axis by 4. Then there is also a
vertical translation which moves up the y-axis by a factor of 5.

The toolkit concludes by explaining the idea of transformations, the many types of transformations,
such as reflections, translations and stretches/compressions horizontally and vertically and how they
might affect the parent function.

Practice questions:
- www.savemyexams.co.uk
- www.khanacademy.org
- math.libretexts.org

Works Cited
“Compressions and Stretches | College Algebra.” Courses.lumenlearning.com,

courses.lumenlearning.com/waymakercollegealgebra/chapter/compressions-and-stretc

hes/#:~:text=the%20original%20function.-. Accessed 30 Nov. 2022.

“Language of Functions (2.3.1) | DP IB Maths: AA SL Revision Notes 2021.” Save My

Exams,

www.savemyexams.co.uk/dp/maths_aa-sl/ib/21/revision-notes/2-functions/2-3-functi

ons-toolkit/2-3-1-language-of-functions/. Accessed 30 Nov. 2022.

“Reflections of Graphs (2.5.2) | DP IB Maths: AA SL Revision Notes 2021.” Save My

Exams,

www.savemyexams.co.uk/dp/maths_aa-sl/ib/21/revision-notes/2-functions/2-5-transfo

rmations-of-graphs/2-5-2-reflections-of-graphs/. Accessed 30 Nov. 2022.