Solid Mechanics - Unit 1 Notes

Unit I: Simple Stresses and Strains
PC221CE: SOLID MECHANICS

UNIT I: SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAINS
Introduction, Mechanical Properties of Materials, Concept of Stress, Types of Stress
Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

Strength of Materials or Mechanics of Materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals
with the behaviour of deformable solid bodies subjected to various types of loadings. While studying
Engineering Mechanics it is assumed that all bodies are either rigid or point particles. In this course
on Strength of Materials, the bodies are considered deformable and subjected to failure or
breakage. The focus is more on the internal effects in a body due to externally applied loads. This
helps in determining the safe loads on a structure and is essential in the safe design of all types of
structures like airplanes, antennas, buildings, bridges, ships, automobiles, spacecrafts, etc. This
course forms the foundation for most engineering disciplines.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

The mechanical properties of a material are those which affect the mechanical strength and
ability of material to be engineered into a suitable shape or application. Some of the typical
mechanical properties of a material are as follows.
Strength: The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure. Failure
is the state of the material in which it is no longer able to bear the applied load.
Elasticity: The property of a material by the virtue of which it returns to its original shape and size
after removal of the applied load is called elasticity. The materials which follow such behaviour are
said to be elastic.
Plasticity: The property of a material by the virtue of which it undergoes permanent deformations,
even after removal of the applied loads is known as plasticity. The materials which are not elastic
are said to be plastic.
Ductility: Ductility is a property which allows the material to be deformed longitudinally to a
reduced section under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of material to get
stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical property is also an aspect of plasticity of
material.
Brittleness: Brittleness means lack of ductility. A brittle material cannot be deformed longitudinally
to a reduced section under tensile stress. It fails or breaks without significant deformation and
without any warning. It is an undesirable property from structural engineering point of view.
Malleability: Malleability is property of the material which allows the material to get easily
deformed into any shape under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized by the ability of
material to be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. This mechanical property
is an aspect of plasticity of material.
Toughness: Toughness is the ability of material to absorb energy and gets plastically deformed
without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per unit volume. It
unit is Joule/ m3. Value of toughness of a material can be determines by stress-strain characteristics
of material. For good toughness material should have good strength as well as ductility. For example:
brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not tough enough. Conversely,
Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 1

materials having good ductility but low strength are also not tough enough. Therefore, to be tough,
material should be capable to withstand with both high stress and strain.
Hardness: Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface abrasion. Hardness
measures are categorized into scratch hardness, indentation hardness and rebound hardness.
Concept of Stress and Strain

Stress: There are no engineering materials which are perfectly rigid and hence when material is
subjected to external loads, it undergoes deformation. While undergoing deformation the particles
of the material exert a resisting force. When this resisting force becomes equal to the applied load,
an equilibrium condition takes place and deformation stops. This internal resistance is called stress.
Definition of Stress: Thus, we can define stress as follows:
When a body is subjected to an external load, the internal resistance developed in the material per
unit area of a chosen plane of cross-section is called intensity of stress (σ).
Its SI unit is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).
It is common in civil engineering practices is to specify the units of stress in N/mm2 or MPa.
Consider a uniform cross-section bar under an axial load P. Let us pass an imaginary plane
perpendicular to the bar along the middle so that the bar is divided into two halves. What holds one
part of the bar with the other part is the internal molecular forces, which arise due to the external
load P. In other words, due to the external load there is an internal resistive force that is generated
which the holds the body together. This internal resistive force per unit area is deﬁned as stress. If A
is the area of cross-section of the bar, then the average stress (σ) on a given cross-sectional area (A)
of a material, which is subjected to load P, is given by
P
 (1)
A
Saint Venant’s principle:
We must note that the above expression for stress is the average value of the stress over the entire
surface. In reality, the stress varies along the cross-section, particularly at the ends of the bar
carrying axial load, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Illustration of Stress Concentration and St. Venant’s Principle

(Image taken from Chapter 2, “Mechanics of Materials” by F.D. Beer, E.R. Johnston and J.T. DeWolf)

The stresses are highly concentrated in the immediate vicinity of the point of application of the load
and reduce is magnitude as we move away from it along the cross-section. However, as we move
away from the end of the bar towards the middle portion of the bar, the stress distribution becomes
more uniform throughout the cross-section. Thus, away from the ends, the cross-sections can be
assumed to have uniform stress, as given in equation (1). This is called the St. Venant’s principle,
which is more formally stated as:
The stresses in a deformable solid body at a point sufficiently remote from the point of application of
the load depend only on the static resultant of the loads and not on the local distribution of the loads.
Figures (1) and (2) depict this principle.
Figure 2. Illustration of St. Venant’s Principle

Image taken from the website University of Manchester, U.K.:
http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/teaching/civil/structuralconcepts/Statics/stress/stress_mod3.php
Types of Stress
A) Normal/Direct Stress
1. Tensile Stress
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pull, as a result of which
there is an increase in length, is known as tensile stress. Tensile stress tends to elongate the body.
Figure 3. A bar subjected to tensile (axial) loading

Consider a uniform bar of cross-section area A subjected to an axial force P. The stress at any
section, x-x, normal to the line of action of tensile force P is shown in the figure. The internal
resistance R at x-x is equal to applied force P.
Resisting Force (R) P
TensileStress   (2)
CrossSectional Area (A) A
Under tensile stress, bar suffer stretching or elongation.
2. Compressive Stress
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposites pushes, as a result of
which there is decrease in length, is known as compressive stress.
Figure 4. A bar subjected to compressive (axial) loading
Consider a uniform bar of cross-section area A subjected to an axial compressive load P. The stress at
any section x-x normal to the line of action of compressive force P is shown in the figure. The
internal resistance R at x-x is equal to applied load P.
Resisting Force (R) P
Compressive Stress   (3)
Under compressive stress, bar suffers shortening.
Tensile Stresses are considered positive and compressive stresses are considered negative, as per
general numerical sign convention for stresses.
B) Shear/Tangential Stress
A shear stress, symbolized by the Greek letter tau, τ, results when a member is subjected to a force
that is parallel or tangent to the surface. The average shear stress in the member is obtained by
dividing the magnitude of the resultant shear force V by the cross sectional area A. Shear stress is:
Shear Force (V) V
Shear Stress,    (4)

Figure 5. A rivet subjected to shear force

Consider a section of rivet is subjected to equal and opposite force P acting in a direction parallel to
the resisting section. Such forces which are equal and opposite and act tangentially across the
section, causing sliding of particles one over the other, are called shearing forces and corresponding
stress induced in the rivet is called shearing stress.
Consider another example of a Clevis Joint as shown in Figure 6
Figure 6. A rivet in a Clevis Joint subjected to shear

a) Typical clevis joint b) Free body diagram of bolt
c) Free body of section mnqp d) Shear stresses on section mn
It should be noted that the distributions of shear stresses is not uniform across the cross section.
Shear stress will be highest near the center of the section and become zero at the edge. This will be
dealt in greater detail in Unit III.
Direct or simple shear arises in the design of bolts, pins, rivets, keys, welds and glued joints.
(a) Single Shear Joint, Shear Stress = F/A
(b) Double Shear Joint, Shear Stress = F/2A

(c) Punching Shear = Punching force / Area

Figure 7. Examples of Single, Double and Punching Shear
Concept of complementary shear stresses

Consider an element ABCD from a material subjected to shearing stress () on a faces AB and CD as
shown in the Figure 8 (a), due to equal and opposite forces F applied onto the two faces. Since the
element is in static equilibrium, it is not just the horizontal forces that are in balance, but the moment
also has to be balanced. This unbalanced moment is balanced by counter couple on the two
perpendicular faces BC and AD, as shown in figure 8 (b).
Figure 8. (a) Unbalanced Moments due to Shear

(b) Complementary Shear exists for Moment balance
To understand the existence of complementary shear, consider the following illustration. Suppose
that a material block is divided into a number of rectangular elements, as shown by the full lines of
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Illustration of existence of complimentary shear

(Image and concept taken from Chapter 3, “Strength of Materials and Structures (4th Edn.)”
by John Case, Lord Chilver and Carl Ross – Arnold Publishers, London)
Under the actions of the shearing forces F, which together constitute a couple, the elements will
tend to take up the positions shown by the dotted lines in Figure 9. It will be seen that there is a
tendency for the vertical faces of the elements to slide over each other. Actually the ends of the
elements do not slide over each other in this way, but the tendency to so do shows that the shearing

stress in horizontal planes is accompanied by shearing stresses in vertical planes perpendicular to

the applied shearing forces. This is true of all cases of shearing action a given shearing stress acting
on one plane is always accompanied by a complementary shearing stress on planes at right angles to
the plane on which the given stress acts.
C) Bearing Stress
A bearing stress, symbolized by the Greek letter sigma σb, is a compressive normal stress that occurs
on the surface of contact between two interacting members. The average normal stress in the
member is obtained by dividing the magnitude of the bearing force F by the area of interest. Bearing
stress for the situation in Figure 10 is
Punching Force P P
b    (5)
Contact Area Ab td
Bolts, pins and rivets create bearing stresses along the surface of contact.
Figure 10. Demonstration of Bearing Stress



Concept of Strain, Types of Strain, Hooke’s Law, Simple Problems
Strain
Strain is a measure of deformation produced by the application of external force. It is the ratio of
change in length to original length. It is denoted by Epsilon ( ). Strain is dimensionless. Strain in
direction of applied load is known as linear or longitudinal strain.
Change of length ( l )
Strain ( )  (6)
Original length (l )
Types of Strain
1. Tensile strain
Let initial length of bar before applied load be , when tensile load P is applied. Let the bar be
elongated by .
Figure 11. Tensile Strain
Tensile strain () = (7)
2. Compressive strain
Let initial length of bar before applied load be , when compressive load P is applied. Its length gets
decrease by .
Figure 12. Compressive Strain

Compressive Strain () (8)
3. Shear Strain ()

To get a proper definition of strain, it is important to understand the concept of complementary shear
stresses in a material as discussed in the previous section.

Consider again the element ABCD from a material subjected to shearing stress () on a faces AB and
CD as shown in Figure 13 (a). We may assume that the deformation occurs as shown in Figure 13
(b). However, this is possible only when the base AB is glued to the bottom. If the element ABCD is
the portion of the material as shown in Figure 14 (a) subject to shear forces, then its deformation will
be as shown in Figure 14 (b). This deformation is more common case of shear deformation in
materials.
Figure 13. Shear deformation when edge AB is glued at the bottom
Figure 14. Shear deformation in a plane in a general case

The shear strain is best defined as the change in the angle between the originally perpendicular edges
of the rectangular element of the material, upon application of the shear stress. Original angle
between AB and AD is 90O. After deformation it is . Thus, shear strain is defined as
 = 90O -  (9)
This definition is valid for both cases as shown in Figures 13 and 14.
Existence of Normal and Shear Stresses due to Axial Loading

To obtain a complete picture of the stresses in a bar, we must consider the stresses acting on an
“inclined” (as opposed to a “normal”) section through the bar as shown in the Figure below. Because
the stresses are the same throughout the entire bar, the stresses on the sections are uniformly
distributed.

(a)
(b)
(c) Two-dimensional view of the previous image

Figure 15. Stress Distribution on an inclined section in axial loading
Specify the orientation of the inclined section pq by the angle θ between the x axis and the normal to
the plane.
(a)
(b)
Figure 16. Resolution of the axial stress into normal and shear components
The force P can be resolved into components:

Normal force N perpendicular to the inclined plane, N = P cos θ
Shear force V tangential to the inclined plane V = P sin θ
If we know the areas on which the forces act, we can calculate the associated stresses. The area of the
inclined plane section of the bar, pq, is A/ cos θ.

Figure 17. Normal and shear stresses on the inclined plane

Thus,
(10 a)
(10 b)
We can thus see that even a normal force offering axial load to a bar will produce both normal and
shear stresses in the internal material of the bar. We may also note that when θ = 0o, that is when the
plane pq is normal to the load P, we get normal stress as maximum and equal to P/A, while the shear
stress on plane pq is zero. Another very important observation is that when θ = 45o, the shear stress
is maximum and is equal to P/2A (in magnitude). The maximum shear stress produced is half the
value of maximum normal stress.
Hooke’s Law
Within elastic limit or more accurately up to the proportional limit of the material, the stress is
directly proportional to strain.
For normal stress, the Hooke’s law gives or

(11a)
Where = Axial/Normal Stress
= Axial/Normal Strain
E is known as Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus or Elastic Modulus.
Young’s Modulus (E) =
For shear stress, the Hooke’s law gives   or

  (11b)
Where  = Shear Stress
 = Shear Strain
G is known as Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus.
Modulus of Rigidity (G) = 


Simple Tension Test, Stress-Strain Curve for Mild-Steel, Definitions of Critical Points on the Stress-
strain curve, Strain-Hardening, Necking, Engineering Stress-Strain Vs True Stress-Strain
Simple Tension Test for Mild Steel Specimen on Universal Testing Machine (UTM)
To study the behaviour of ductile materials in tension, a standard mild steel specimen is used for
tensile test on universal testing machine (UTM).
 On the UTM more than one test can be performed like Tension, Compression, Bending and
Shear etc.
 The end of specimens is gripped in UTM and one of the grips is moved apart by hydraulic
jack or system, thus exerting tensile load on the specimen.
 The load applied is indicated on dial and the extension in the initial stages is measured by
using an extensometer fixed on specimen itself and later stages by scale fixed on machine.
 Almost all machines are provided with an autographic recorder which is directly records the
load vs deformation curve (or) stress vs strain curve.
 To fix the extensometer on specimen, two points are marked on a portion of specimen. The
distance between these points over which the extension is marked is called gauge length.
The load vs deformation curve is not unique, even for the specimen of the same material. As the
geometry (either length or cross-sectional area) of the specimen changes, the load-deformation curve
also changes.
On the other hand, the Stress vs Strain curve for a material is unique, irrespective of the geometric
dimensions of the material specimen. Thus, for studying engineering properties of a material, Stress-
Strain curve is commonly used.
The following is an example of a Stress-Strain curve for mild steel specimen obtained by performing
simple tension test.

Figure 18. Stress-Strain curve for mild steel

Procedure for testing is to be done as per the following IS code:
IS 1608: 2005 Title: Metallic Materials – Tensile Testing at Ambient Temperature
Important Points on the Stress-Strain Curve

• P, Proportionality Limit:
The point up to which stress is linearly proportional to strain and hence Hooke’s law is valid up to P.
i.e. linear elasticity is valid. The slope of this line OP is nothing but the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus.
• E, Elastic Limit:
The maximum stress that may be developed in a simple tension test such that there is no permanent or
residual deformation when the load is entirely removed. Between P and E material is non-linearly
elastic
• Y1, upper yield point:
Point around which dislocations break through interstitial carbon atoms and relieve lateral strains.
This phenomenon is particular to mild steels.
• Y2, lower yield point:
Once carbon atoms are overcome by the dislocation, relatively lower stresses are required to keep the
dislocation moving. This happens around Y2. This phenomenon is also speciﬁc to mild carbon steel.
The stress corresponding to this point is called as yield stress or yield strength.
Note: Yield stress is also defined, in other words, as the stress at which the material begins to deform
plastically. That means, once stressed beyond the yield point the specimen will not gain back the
original length even after the load is removed.
• U, Ultimate Stress
Maximum stress in a tensile test is reached at this point. The stress corresponding to this point is
called as the Ultimate Strength.
• B or R, Breaking point or Rupture point
Point at which specimen fails, breaking into two. The stress corresponding to this point is called as
the breaking strength or the rupture strength.
Note: Typical values of strains of mild steel test specimen are:

(i) y = 0.0014 at yield point

(ii) u = 0.16 at ultimate stress
(iii) r = 0.35 at rupture
Further Observations from Stress-Strain Curve
Strain Hardening:
Strain Hardening is a phenomenon occurs in certain materials, particularly ductile metals, when it is
strained beyond the yield point. An increased stress is required to produce additional plastic
deformation and the metal apparently becomes stronger and more difficult to deform.
Thus, Strain Hardening, also known as Work hardening or cold working, is defined as the
strengthening of a metallic material by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of
dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.
In the Stress-Strain curve of Figure 18, the zone between the lower yield point (Y2) and the Ultimate
Stress (U) is called as the strain-hardening zone.
In Figure 19, the phenomenon of strain-hardening is more clearly illustrated.
Figure 19: Illustration of the Phenomenon of Strain hardening

(Courtesy: Wikipedia)
For work hardening materials the yield stress increases with increasing plastic deformation. The strain
can be decomposed into a recoverable elastic strain, e and an inelastic strain, p. The stress at initial
yield is 0. But, once the materials is stressed beyond 0 and up to the point 3, at stress y, and
unloaded, it has a permanent strain p at zero stress. This permanent strain at zero stress develop due
to onset of plasticity in the material is also called as the permanent set or residual strain. If once
again the material is gradually stressed its stress-strain curve follows the straight line path till it
reaches y after which it again deforms plastically. This means that the yield stress is y for the
second cycle of loading, which is greater than the yield stress in the first cycle of loading, 0. This
phenomenon is called as strain-hardening.
Necking
Necking is a mode of tensile deformation in ductile materials where relatively large amounts of strain
localize disproportionately in a small region of the material. This results in prominent decrease in
local cross-sectional area and the material specimen assumes a shape in the form of a "neck". This
phenomenon is called necking.

In the Stress-Strain curve of Figure 18, the zone between the Ultimate Stress (U) and the point of
Rupture (B) is called as the necking zone.
Figure 20: The phenomenon of necking

(courtesy: http://www.engineeringarchives.com/les_mom_necking.html)
Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain

(also called as Nominal Stress and Nominal Strain)
To plot Stress Vs Strain curve for the test specimen used in the simple tension test, the stress and the
strain can be calculated in two ways.
Commonly, the Stress is calculated as the ratio of the applied load P measured on the test equipment
(Universal Testing Machine) and the original area of cross-section A0 of the specimen. This is called
engineering stress or nominal stress.
Applied load P
Engineering Stress  ; 
OriginalArea of cross-section A0
Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test. The
reference length for this purpose is taken as the original guage length, before the material is tested.
This is also known as nominal strain.
Change in the guage length of the specimen L
Engineering Strain  ; 
Original guage length of the specimen L0
True Stress and True Strain
In tensile test, since the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases as applied load P increases, the
stress plotted in the stress-strain diagram may not represent the actual stress in the specimen. This is
observed particularly for ductile materials after the onset of the yield.
Thus, true stress is defined as the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the
changing area with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.
Applied load P
True Stress  ; t  .
cross-section area at the time of load applied A
True strain at any particular instance of the loading of the specimen is equal to the natural log of the
L
quotient of current length over the original length as given by the equation:   ln .
L0

This expression for true strain is obtained as follows:

Instead of using the total elongation L and the original value L0 of the gage length, all the successive
values of L are used that have been recorded. Dividing each increment ΔL of the distance between the
gauge marks, by the corresponding value of L, the elementary strain is obtained:
L
 
L
Adding the successive values of Δε, the true strain, εt, is defined:
With the summation replaced by an integral, the true strain can also be expressed as follows:
Note: The diagram obtained by plotting true stress versus true strain reflects more accurately the
behavior of the material. There is no decrease in true stress during the necking phase. Also, the results
obtained from tensile and from compressive tests will produce essentially the same plot when true
stress and true strain are used. This is not the case for large values of the strain when the engineering
stress is plotted versus the engineering strain. However, engineers, whose responsibility is to
determine whether a load, P, will produce an acceptable stress and an acceptable deformation in a
given member, will want to use a diagram based on the engineering stress and the engineering strain,
since their respective expressions involve data that are available to them, namely the cross-sectional
area A0 and the length L0 of the member in its undeformed state.


Stress-Strain Curves for Other Materials - comparison, Proof Stress, Elasticity Modulus for Non-
Linear Elasticity, Ductility, and Permanent Set – Slip and Creep.
STRESS-STRAIN CURVES FOR MATERIALS OTHER THAN MILD STEEL

In Figure 18, the Stress-Strain Curve for mild steel was presented and discussed. Now we consider
the stress-strain curves for other materials.
(A) High Strength Steels
The behaviour of high strength steels, which are sometimes also referred to as High Strength
Deformed (HSD) steel bars are much different from mild steel as indicated by the stress-strain curves
in Figures 21 and 22.
Fig 21: Mild Steel Vs High Strength Steels Fig 22: Stress-Strain curve for High Strength Steels
Firstly, high strength steels are less ductile but of higher strength as compared to mild steel. This is
indicated by shorter strains and high rupture stresses in the stress-strain curves (Fig.21).
Secondly, the stress-strain curves for high strength steels (HSD steel bars) do not have a well defined
yield point as in the case of mild steel (see Fig 21 and 22).
The HSD material displays linear characteristics of the stress-strain curve up to proportional limit, say
p. Beyond ‘p’, a smooth transition of curvature takes place without a well-defined yield point.
Off-set method to determine the yield point and Proof Stress:

For such materials, the yield stress (y) is determined by 0.2% off-set method. A line parallel to the
initial straight line part of the curve is drawn from 0.2 percent strain on the x-axis (as shown in Fig
22) to intersect the stress-strain curve at y. This intersection point y is considered as the yield point
and the stress corresponding to this point is taken as the yield stress. This yield stress determined by
0.2% off-set method is called as the Proof Stress, and sometimes called as 0.2 percent proof stress.

Thus, Proof Stress is defined as the stress which induces a specific residual strain (usually 0.2
percent) in the material.
(B) Concrete
The strength of concrete in tension is about one-tenth of its strength in compression. Thus, concrete is
usually tested in compression, as per the procedure specified by IS: 516-1959. The stress-strain curve
for concrete is shown in Figure 23.
Concrete shows a non-linear behaviour in the stress-strain curve even for small stress.
(NOTE: There is difference between non-linear elasticity and plasticity)
The strain at failure for concrete is about 0.002 to 0.004 which is about 100 times smaller than the
strain at failure for mild steel (which is about 0.35). Thus, concrete structures fails abruptly without
showing significant deformations to the naked eye. However, steel structures, being much more
ductile, show significant deformations before actual failure.
Initial modulus, Secant modulus and Tangent Modulus
In mild steel and other materials with initial linear characteristics of the stress-strain curves, the slope
of the initial linear portion of the curve is the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (E).
Figure 23: Stress-Strain Characteristics of Concrete in Compression
However, due to non-linear elasticity, the slope in the stress-strain curve in concrete is varying. Thus,
following are the methods to determine elasticity modulus in concrete.
Initial Modulus: The elasticity modulus of concrete is usually defined by the slope of the stress-
strain curve at the origin. This slope is called as the initial tangent modulus or simply initial
modulus.
Secant Modulus: If the elasticity modulus of concrete is defined by the slope of the line joining the
origin and a point (say a) on the stress-strain curve, then it is known as secant modulus,
corresponding to the stress at that point.
Tangent Modulus: If the elasticity modulus of concrete is defined by the slope of the tangent to the
stress-strain curve at some point (say b), then it is known as tangent modulus, corresponding to the
stress at that point.

(C) OTHER MATERIALS

Typical values of material and elastic properties of few metals and alloys are given below:
[Courtesy: Taken from “Strength of Materials – A Practical Approach Vol.1” by D. S. Prakash Rao.]
The stress-strain curves for various other materials are shown below in Figures 24.
Figure 24 (a) Figure 24 (b)
DUCTILE VS BRITTLE MATERIALS

The contrasting examples between the ductile materials like mild steel and brittle materials like cast
iron and concrete is illustrated through comparing their stress-strain curves in Figures 24(a), (b) and
Figure 25.
The stress-strain curves of the ductile materials are elongated. Before rupture, there is sufficient
elongation of the test specimen in the plastic zone. The stress-strain curves for brittle materials end
abruptly. That is to say that the brittle materials rupture suddenly, even before giving visual
indications of any significant plastic deformation.

Figure 25. Stress-Strain curve for ductile and brittle materials
It should be notes that for ductile materials fail primarily due to shear stress, and their typical fracture
mechanism is cup-cone fracture mechanism. While the brittle materials fails, primarily due to normal
stress and failure surface is flat, as shown in the following figures.
(a) (b)
Figure 27. Ductile and brittle failure patterns in materials
Ductility of a material is usually expressed in terms of percentage elongation of gage length of the
specimen at fracture or percentage contraction of cross-section area at fracture. These are calculated
as follows:
lu  l
Percentage elongation =  100 , where l = original gage length and lu = gage length at fracture
l
A  Au
Percentage contraction =  100 , where A = original c.s. area and Au = c.s. area at fracture
A

Concepts of Permanent Plastic Deformation (Slip and Creep)
If the material has a well-defined yield point, the elastic limit, the proportional limit and the yield
point are essentially equal. In other words, the material behaves elastically and linearly as long as the
stress is kept below the yield point.
Figure 28: Concept of Permanent Set
If the yield point is reached, however, yield takes place as described and, when the load is removed,
the stress and strain decrease in a linear fashion, along a line CD parallel to the straight-line portion
AB of the loading curve (Fig. 28).
The fact that  does not return to zero after the load has been removed indicates that a permanent set
or plastic deformation of the material has taken place. For most materials, the plastic deformation
depends not only upon the maximum value reached by the stress, but also upon the time elapsed
before the load is removed.
The stress-dependent part of the plastic deformation is referred to as slip, and the time-dependent part
is referred to as creep.
Creep usually occurs as a result of long-term exposure of the material to high levels of stress that are
still below the yield strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to
heat for long periods, and generally increases as they near their melting point. Unlike brittle fracture,
creep deformation does not occur suddenly upon the application of stress. Instead, strain accumulates
as a result of long-term stress. Therefore, creep is a "time-dependent" deformation.


Working Stress, Factor of Safety, Deformation of bars under axial loads – uniform sections,
abruptly varying sections.
Working Stress and Factor of Safety
In real life structural systems, there are uncertainties in

(a) load conditions,
(b) material characteristics at site,
(c) non-linearity of elastic modulus.
Thus, the predicted strength and behavior characteristics of materials in well controlled laboratory set-
up may differ at the actual application site. Therefore, as a safety measure, while designing a
structural member, we need to take into consideration the above mentioned uncertainties. For this
purpose, the structural member is assumed to bear stress which is much lower than the actual yield
stress.
Working Stress (w): Maximum stress that a material is allowed to bear in design practices is called
working stress, allowable stress or maximum permissible stress.
It is necessary that the working stress should be well below the elastic limit and to achieve this
condition, the yield stress is divided by factor of safety to obtain working stress.
Yield Stress ( y )
Working Stress ( w ) 
F.O.S.
Factor of Safety (F.O.S): Ratio of yield stress to working stress is called factor of safety.
Yield Stress ( y )
Factor of Safety (F.O.S.) 
Working Stress ( w )
Sometimes, factor of safety is taken as the ratio of ultimate stress to working stress, in some special
design methodologies.
Deformation of Axially Loaded Bars
Consider a bar of length L and cross-sectional area A, subjected to an axial load of P. If L is the
elongation of the bar due to this load then it follows from Hooke’s law


E
P L
Substituting for stress and strain as   and   in the above equation, we get the elongation
A L
of the bar as
PL
L  .
AE
This expression will be used for all the deformation problems in bars.

Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition simply states that on a linear elastic structure, the combined effect of
several loads acting simultaneously is equal to the algebraic sum of the effects of each load acting
individually.
In other words, the total displacement or internal loadings (stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
several external loads, which can be determined by adding together the displacements or internal
loadings (stress) caused by each external load acting separately.
Problems on Deformation of Bars under Axial Loads
Categories within Determinate Problems:

1. Based on Simple Tension Test and related characteristics
2. Design problems of a single bar or ropes of uniform cross-section
3. Bars of abruptly varying cross-section and materials
4. Bars of uniformly varying cross-section
5. Deformation of bars under self- weight


Lateral Strain, Poisson’s Ratio, Generalized State of Stresses in 3D, Volumetric Strain, Bulk
Modulus, and Relationship between various Elastic Modulii.
Lateral Strain and Poisson’s Ratio
In all engineering materials, the longitudinal deformation (elongation/compression) produced by an

axial force along the longitudinal axis is accompanied by a deformation (contraction/elongation) in
the transverse directions. This deformation of length in the transverse direction is referred to as lateral
deformation. Lateral deformation per unit length is called as lateral strain.
Strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain.
= Increase in length
= Decrease in breadth
= Decrease in depth
Figure 29: Transverse deformation of a bar
Lateral Strain = or
 If longitudinal strain is tensile, lateral strain will be compressive.
 If longitudinal strain is compressive, lateral strain will be tensile.
This lateral strain differs from material to material. For every material the amount of lateral strain
developed due to axial stresses is determined by an intrinsic characteristic of the material called as the
Poisson’s ratio.
Poisson’s Ratio: Ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio. It is constant for
given material, when the material is stressed within elastic limit. It is denoted by  (Greek letter Nu)
or 1/m.
Poisson’s ratio () = =
Poisson’s Ratio varies from 0.25 to 0.33 for steel and 0.45 to 0.50 for rubber. The value of  lies
between 0 and 0.5.
Material Characteristics:
The following are some of the important characteristics of a material in terms of studying their
mechanical properties:

A. Homogeneous Materials are materials of uniform composition throughout their geometry

that cannot be mechanically separated into different materials. Example: Metals
B. Isotropic Materials are materials whose mechanical properties remain same in all directions.
That is to say that Elastic modulus-E, Poisson’s ratio-, ductility, strength, etc. remain same in
all directions. Example: Most Metals, glass.
C. Anisotropic materials are materials whose mechanical properties differ in different
directions. Materials that are not isotropic are called as anisotropic materials. That is to say
that Elastic modulus-E, Poisson’s ratio-, ductility, strength, etc. differ in different directions
of loading. Example: Wood, layered minerals such as slate, carbon fibre reinforced
composites
D. Orthotropic materials are a class of anisotropic materials whose mechanical properties vary
along three mutually perpendicular directions.
Three Dimensional Stresses and Strains – Stress Tensor – Generalized Hooke’s

Law
So far we discussed stresses that are acting along one direction particularly for a member subjected
to axial loading.
Now we shall consider a case of generalized loading, that is, a material is loaded from all three
mutually perpendicular directions, both normal and shear loads. Consider a 3D rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system.
In this case, the stress developed at a point will have nine components as follows:
Normal stresses: xx, yy, zz (Most commonly denoted as x, y, z)
Shear stresses: xy , yz , zx , yx , zy , xz.
By the principle complimentary shear for body under static equilibrium,

xy = yx , yz = zy , zx = xz
Figure 29: Generalized State of Stress

Stress at a point in a material has 9 components and is a second order Tensor.

The Stress Tensor is given by
 x  yx  zx 
 
S   xy  y  zy 
 xz  yz  z 
 
Similarly, strain has 9 components, and is given as
  x  yx  zx 
 
e   xy  y  zy 
 xz  yz  z 
 
Let us consider that the material is homogeneous and isotropic. That means that the Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio are the same in all directions.
Now, for the stress x the corresponding axial strain is x , and the lateral strains will be
y = z = -  x ............................(i)
Similarly, for the stress y the corresponding axial strain is y , and the lateral strains will be
x = z = -  y ............................(ii)
And, for the stress z the corresponding axial strain is z , and the lateral strains will be
x = y = -  z ............................(iii)
Now if all the three stresses are acting simultaneously then by the principle of superposition
(a) total strain in the x-direction is
 x  ( x )(i )  ( x )(ii )  ( x )(iii )
x y z
 x   x    y   z   
E E E
 x   x   y   z 
1
E
Similarly in y and z directions the total strains are
(b)  y   y   x   z 
1
E
(c)  z   z   x   y 
1
E
Now, when we also include shear stress and shear strain relations then
(d)  xy  G  xy ;  yz  G  yz ;  zx  G  zx
Together the six equations in (a), (b), (c) and (d) together are called generalized Hooke’s law.
Generalized Hooke’s Law:
x 
1
E
 x   y   z  ;
y 
1
E
 y   x   z  ;
z 
1
E
 z   x   y  ;
 xy  G  xy ;  yz  G  yz ;  zx  G  zx

Volumetric Strain and Bulk Modulus
Volumetric Strain: Change in dimensions of body will cause some change in its volume.
Volumetric strain is defined as the ratio of change in volume to original volume.
V
v 
V
Consider a unit cube whose edges are along the coordinate axes. Let the cube be subjected to normal
stresses only in all three directions. Normal stresses are x, y, and z. Let the corresponding normal
strains be x, y, and z . Shear stresses are considered to be absent.
Thus the elongated lengths of the edges of the cube after deformation will be
(1 + x), (1 + y) and (1 + z).
Therefore, the change in volume of the cube is  V  (1   x )(1   y )(1   z )  1 .

Neglecting the higher order terms of strain, we get the change in volume as
 V  x  y  z
Therefore, expression for volumetric strain is
V
v   x  y  z
V
Substituting the expressions for the three strains from the Generalized Hooke’s law we get,
v 
 x  y  z 

2  x   y   z 
or
E E
1  2      
v 
E
 x y z
BULK MODULUS:
A case of special interest is that of a body subjected to a uniform hydrostatic pressure.

Hydrostatic pressure at a point is a compressive stress that acts at a point equally from all
directions.
If the hydrostatic pressure is denoted by p, then the components of the stresses are
 x   y   z   p , where negative sign indicates compressive stress.
Substituting the above in the expression for volumetric strain, we get
3 1  2 
v  p
E
We now introduce the constant known as Bulk Modulus or the Modulus of Compression.
Bulk Modulus, K, is defined as ratio of the hydrostatic pressure acting at a point in a material to the
volumetric strain of the material about that point. Thus, Bulk Modulus is given by

p E
K  
v 3 1  2 
Bulk Modulus, K, is expressed in the same units as the modulus of elasticity E, that is, in Pascals.
Like the modulus of elasticity, bulk modulus is also an intrinsic material property.
The reciprocal of bulk modulus gives the compressibility of a material, that is, it gives a measure of
how much a material can be compressed upon an applied pressure.
With applied compressive pressure p, the volume of the material will tend to decrease, and thus
volumetric strain v will be negative. Since we want a positive sign for bulk modulus, a negative sign
in introduced in the definition.
From the above expression for bulk modulus in terms of E and , since K and E are positive values,
1
we find that 1  2  0    . Since the Poisson’s ratio is positive for all engineering materials,
2
1
we get 0    .
2
We note that:
(a) When  = 0, it represents an ideal material which could be stretched in one direction without
any lateral contraction. Bulk Modulus K will be exactly one-third of E.
(b) When  = ½ , we get K = , or 1/K = 0. Thus, it represents a perfectly incompressible
material, with volumetric strain as zero.
Elastic Constants:
1) Modulus of Elasticity: Ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain
or linear stress to linear strain. It is denoted by E.
Modulus of elasticity (E) =
2) Modulus of Rigidity: Ratio of shear stress to shear strain.

It is denoted by G.
Modulus of Rigidity (G) =

3) Bulk Modulus: When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular

stresses of equal intensity, the ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain is
known as bulk modulus. It is denoted by K.
Bulk Modulus (K) = =-
Relations between E, G and K

a. E = 2G (1 + )
b. E = 3K (1 - 2)
9 KG 9 3 1
c. E  or  
3K  G E G K

Bars of varying sections: Figure shows a bar which consist of three lengths l1 l2 & l3
with sectional area A1, A2 & A3 and subjected to an axial load P.
Even though the total force on each section is the same, the intensities of stress
will be different for three sections.
Intensity of stress on Section AB =
Intensity of stress on Section BC = 2 =

Intensity of stress on Section CD = 3=
Now let E, be the Young’s Modulus
Strain on Section AB =
Strain on Section BC =
Strain on Section CD =
Change in length on Section AB =
1 = 1 1
Change in length on Section BC =

2 = 2 2
Change in length on Section CD = 3 = 3 3
Total Change in length of bar = = 1+ 2 + 3
= +
= [ +
Note: When a body is subjected to a number of forces acting on its outer edge
as well as at some other sections, along the length of the body. In such case,
the forces are split up and their effects are considered on individual sections.
The resulting deformation of the body is equal to the algebraic sum of the
deformations of the individual sections, called principle of superposition.

Stress in the bars of uniformly tapering circular sections:
Consider a circular bar of uniformly tapering circular sections
Let P = Pull of bar, l = length of bar, d1 = diameter of bigger end, d2 = diameter

of smaller end. Now consider a small element of length dx of the bar, at a
distance x from the bigger end.
We can find out diameter of bar at a distance x from the left end A by using
polynomial equation
D = a+bx ………………………………….(i)
Where D = diameter of taper section at a distance x
from left side In figure
At x = 0 at x = l
D = d1 D = d2
a = d1 d2 = a+bl or d2 = d1+bl so b =
put in equation (i)
D = d1 +( )x or D = d1 + (d2 – d1)
D = d1 - (d1 – d2) or D = Bigger end dia (major dia – minor dia)
D = d1 kx Where k = ( )
Cross section are of the bar at this section Ax = (d1 - kx)2
Induced stress at this section
Strain at this section = = =

Elongation of elementary length = . dx =
.dx
Total extension of bar may be found out by integrating the above equation
between the limit
0 to l.
= let 1 k =M
= (- )
0 –k.dx = dM

dx
Limit changing if x = 0 then 1= M
if x = l the M = 1 k
=
=+ Put the value of k and by solving
δl =
Note: Same method & fundamental will apply for all tapering sections like
square, Rectangular tapering section.
Bars of Composite section or Composite Bars:

A bar made up of two or more than two different materials, joined together is
called a composite bar.
1) The total external load on the composite bar is equal to sum of load
carried by each different material
2) The extension or compression in each bar is equal. Hence deformation
per unit length, i.e. strain in each bar is equal
P = Total load on composite bar

l = Length of composite bar and also length of bars of different materials
A1 = Cross-sectional area of bar 1
A2 = Cross-sectional area of bar 2
E1 = Young’s Modulus of bar 1
E2 = Young’s Modulus of bar 2
P1 = Load shared by bar 1
P2 = Load shared by bar 2
1 = Stress induced in bar 1
2 = Stress induced in bar 2
ε1= Strain in bar 1

ε2= Strain in bar 2

By first point discussed above P = P 1 + P2

P= A1 + A2
By second point discussed above that strain is same for both bar
Strain in bar 1 (ε1) = Strain in bar 2 (ε2)
= =
Where is known as Modular Ratio.
Thermal stresses or Temperature stresses:

Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to change in
temperature. Thermal stresses are setup in a body. When the temperature of
body is raised or lowered and the body is not allowed to expand or contract
freely. But if the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, no stress will be
setup in the body.
You must have notice that in many times is structure will provide a gap
between two structural elements. We allow the structural member to expand or
contract due to variation in temperature. You must have noticed in the railway
tracks are not continuous; some gaps are maintained at a certain distance
travel. If this not, then rail track will be subjected to tremendous amount of
stress.
Consider a body which is heated at a certain

temperature. l = original length of the body Δt =
variation in temperature E = young’s modulus
α = Co-efficient of linear expansion/ thermal
expansion
δl = extension of rod due to rise of temperature
δl is proportional to strain Δt.l, Δt = + for
expansion
Δt = for contraction
If the rod is free to expand δl = α Δt.l
AB represents the original length and BB’
represents the increase in length due to
temperature rise, Now suppose that an external compressive load P is applied
at B’ so that the rod is decreased in its length from (l+ α Δt.l) to l = (l+ α Δt.l)
– δl = l
Total compressive strain

Thermal strain
= =
Thermal stress
= εT. = α E
If ends of body are fixed to rigid supports, so that its expansion is prevented then
compressive stress and strain will be set up in the rod. These are known as thermal stress
and thermal strain. If supports yield by an amount equal to d,
Then the actual expansion = expansion due to rise in temperature δ
= α Δt.l – δ
– –
Actual Strain = = ; Actual Stress =


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Unit I: Simple Stresses and Strains

PC221CE: SOLID MECHANICS

Introduction, Mechanical Properties of Materials, Concept of Stress, Types of Stress

Introduction to Mechanics of Materials

Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 1

Concept of Stress and Strain

Figure 1. Illustration of Stress Concentration and St. Venant’s Principle

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 2

Figure 2. Illustration of St. Venant’s Principle

Figure 3. A bar subjected to tensile (axial) loading

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 3

Figure 4. A bar subjected to compressive (axial) loading

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 4

Figure 5. A rivet subjected to shear force

Figure 6. A rivet in a Clevis Joint subjected to shear

(a) Single Shear Joint, Shear Stress = F/A

(b) Double Shear Joint, Shear Stress = F/2A

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 5

(c) Punching Shear = Punching force / Area

Concept of complementary shear stresses

Figure 8. (a) Unbalanced Moments due to Shear

Figure 9. Illustration of existence of complimentary shear

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 6

stress in horizontal planes is accompanied by shearing stresses in vertical planes perpendicular to

Figure 10. Demonstration of Bearing Stress

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 7

PC221CE: SOLID MECHANICS

Concept of Strain, Types of Strain, Hooke’s Law, Simple Problems

Figure 11. Tensile Strain

Tensile strain () = (7)

Figure 12. Compressive Strain

3. Shear Strain ()

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 8

Figure 13. Shear deformation when edge AB is glued at the bottom

Figure 14. Shear deformation in a plane in a general case

Existence of Normal and Shear Stresses due to Axial Loading

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 9

(c) Two-dimensional view of the previous image

The force P can be resolved into components:

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 10

Figure 17. Normal and shear stresses on the inclined plane

For normal stress, the Hooke’s law gives or

For shear stress, the Hooke’s law gives   or

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 11

PC221CE: SOLID MECHANICS

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 12

Figure 18. Stress-Strain curve for mild steel

Important Points on the Stress-Strain Curve

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 13

(i) y = 0.0014 at yield point

Figure 19: Illustration of the Phenomenon of Strain hardening

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 14

Figure 20: The phenomenon of necking

Engineering Stress and Engineering Strain

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 15

This expression for true strain is obtained as follows:

Dr. Akshay S K Naidu Lecture Notes on SOLID MECHANICS Page 16

PC221CE: SOLID MECHANICS