IMAGING

When the exposure, or x-ray button is pushed:

On the cathode side of the x-ray tube:

Electron Target Interaction a. High negative charged strongly repels

electrons.
 The projectile electron interacts with the b. The electrons stream away from the
orbital electrons or nuclear field of target cathode and toward the anode (tube
atoms. current)
 These interactions result in the conversion
of electron kinetic energy into thermal On the anode side of the x-ray tube:
energy (heat) and electromagnetic energy a. High positive charge strongly attracts
in the form of infrared radiation (also electrons in the tube current.
heat) and x-rays. b. These electrons strike the anode.
c. X-rays and heat are produced.
Anode Heat

 Most of the kinetic energy of projectile

electrons is converted into heat. The
projectile electrons interact with the
outer-shell electrons of the target atoms
but do not transfer sufficient energy to
 If the projectile electron interacts with an
these outer-shell electrons to ionize them.
inner-shell electron of the target atom
Rather, the outer-shell electrons are
characteristic x-rays can be produced.
simply raised to an excited, or higher,
 Characteristic x-rays are emitted when an
energy level.
outer-shell electron fills an inner-shell void.
 Approximately 99% of the kinetic energy of
projectile electrons is converted to heat.
Only approximately 1% of projectile electron
kinetic energy is used for the production of
x-radiation.

1. Production of electrons (Thermionic

emission)
2. Acceleration of electrons
3. Deceleration of electrons
4. Emission of electron as Heat & X-rays

When the rotor, or prep button is pushed:

On the cathode side of the x-ray tube:

184
Tungsten: 74W
a. Filament current heats up the filament
b. This boils electrons off the filament
Binding
(Thermionic emission) Shell # of e-
energy (keV)
c. The electrons gather in a cloud around the
filament (Electron cloud) K 2 69
d. The negatively charged focusing cup keeps L 8 12
the electron cloud focused together
M 18 3
e. The number of electrons in the space
charge is limited (Space charge effect) N 32 1
O 12 0.1
When the rotor, or prep button is pushed:
P 2
On the anode side of the x-ray tube:
Note: Only the K-characteristic x-rays of tungsten
a. The rotating target begins to turn rapidly, are useful for imaging.
quickly reaching top speed.
IMAGING
exposure, is often used instead of x-ray
intensity or x-ray quantity.

 X-ray quantity/X-ray intensity/Radiation

exposure is the number of x-rays in the
 Bremsstrahlung is a German word that useful beam.
means “slowed-down radiation”.
Bremsstrahlung x-rays can be considered
radiation that results from the braking of
projectile electrons by the nucleus.
 Bremsstrahlung x-rays are produced when
a projectile electron is slowed by the
nuclear field of a target atom nucleus. 1. milliAmpere-seconds (mAs)
 X-ray quantity is directly proportional to
 Note: Bremsstrahlung x-rays can be the mAs. When mAs is doubled the number
produced at any projectile electron energy. of electrons striking the tube target is
doubled, and therefore the number of x-
 K-characteristic x-rays requires an x-ray
rays emitted is doubled.
tube potential of at least 69 kVp.
 milliAmpere-seconds (mAs)
At 65 kVp, for example, no useful characteristic x-
rays are produced, therefore, the x-ray beam is X-ray Quantity and mAs
all bremsstrahlung.
Mathematically, I1/I2 = mAs1/mAs2

where I1 and I2 are the x-ray intensities at

mAs1 and mAs2, respectively.

2. Kilovolt peak (kVp)

 X-ray quantity varies rapidly with changes

in kVp. The change in x-ray quantity is
proportional to the square of the ratio of
the kVp.
 In other words, if kVp were doubled, the x-
ray intensity would increase by a factor of
4.

 Kilovolt peak (kVp)

X-ray Quantity and kVp

Mathematically, I1/I2 = (kVp1/kVp2)2

 X-rays are emitted through a window in the where I1 and I2 are the x-ray intensities at
glass or metal enclosure of the x-ray tube kVp1 and kVp2, respectively.
in the form of a spectrum of energies.
3. Distance
 The x-ray beam is characterized by:
 X-ray intensity varies inversely with the
Quantity -the number of x-rays in the beam and;
square of the distance from the x-ray
Quality -the penetrability of the beam. tube target. This relationship is known as
the inverse square law.

X-ray Quantity and Distance

Mathematically, I1/I2 = (d2/d1)2

X-ray Intensity
where I1 and I2 are the x-ray intensities at distance
 The x-ray intensity of the x-ray beam of d1 and d2, respectively.
an x-ray imaging system is measured in
Compensating for a change in SID by changing mAs
milligray in air (mGya) and is called the x-ray
by the factor SID2 is known as the square law, a
quantity. Another term, radiation
corollary to the inverse square law.
IMAGING
The Square Law energy side, indicating an increase in the
effective energy of the beam. The result is
Mathematically, mAs1/mAs2 = (SID1/SID2)2 a more penetrating x-ray beam.
where mAs1 is the technique at SID1 and mAs2 is the  Increasing the kVp, increases the quality of
technique at SID2. an x-ray beam.

4. Filtration 2. Filtration
 X-ray imaging systems have metal filters,  The primary purpose of adding filtration to
usually 1 to 5 mm of aluminum (Al), an x-ray beam is to remove selectively low-
positioned in the useful beam. The purpose energy x-rays that have little chance of
of these filters is to reduce the number of getting to the image receptor.
low energy x-rays.
 Increasing filtration increases the quality
 Low energy x-rays contribute nothing of an x-ray beam.
useful to the image. They only increase the
patient dose unnecessarily, because they  Al (Z = 13) is chosen because it is efficient in
are absorbed in superficial tissues and do removing low-energy x-rays through the
not penetrate to reach the image photoelectric effect and because it is
receptor. readily available, inexpensive, and easily
shaped.

 As filtration is increased, so is beam quality,

but quantity is decreased.

1. Inherent Filtration
 Refers to the filtration that is permanently
in the path of the x-ray beam. Three
components contribute to inherent filtration:
1. the glass envelope of the tube,
2. the oil that surrounds the tube,
3. the mirror inside the collimator
Penetrability
2. Added Filtration
 As the energy of an x-ray beam is  Describes the filtration that is added to the
increased, the penetrability is also port of the x-ray tube. Aluminum is the
increased. material primarily used for this purpose to
absorb the low energy photons while allowing
 The penetrability of an x-ray beam is called
the useful higher-energy photons to exit.
the x-ray quality. X-rays with high
3. Total Filtration
penetrability are termed high-quality x-
 In the x-ray beam is the sum of the added
rays. Those with low penetrability are low-
filtration and the inherent filtration. For x-
quality x-rays.
ray tubes operating above 70 kVp must have
 Penetrability refers to the ability of x- a minimum filtration of 2.5 mm of aluminum.
rays to penetrate deeper in tissue.

1. Kilovolt peak (kVp)

 As the kVp is increased, so is x-ray beam

quality.

 An increase in kVp results in a shift of the

x-ray emission spectrum toward the high
IMAGING
Compensating Filter

 Are special filters to be added to the primary

beam to alter its intensity. These types of
 Coherent/Classical Scattering
filters are used to image anatomic areas
 Compton Scattering
that non-uniform in make-up, and assist in
 Photoelectric Effect
creating a radiographic image with more
 Pair Production
uniform density.
 Photodisintegration
Wedge Filters

 Most common type of compensating filters.

The thicker part of the wedge filter is lined up
with the thinner portion of the anatomic part
that is being image, allowing fewer x-ray
st
photons to reach that end part.  1 described by J.J Thompson

Bilateral wedge filter/Trough Filters

 Performs a similar function to the wedge

filter; however, it
is designed
differently. It
has a double
wedge. Commonly
used for AP
thorax to
compensate for
the easily penetrated air-filled lungs.

Special “Bow-tie”

 Shaped filters  X-rays with energies below approx. 10 keV

are used with interact with matter by coherent
computed scattering.
tomography
 The incident x-ray interacts with a target
imaging systems
atom, causing it to become excited.
to compensate
for the shape of  The target atom immediately releases this
the head or body. excess energy as a scattered x-ray with
wavelength equal to that of the incident x-
ray and therefore of equal energy.
However, the direction of the scattered x-
ray is different from that of the incident
x-ray.

 Named after Arthur Holly Compton

IMAGING
 In Compton scattering, the incident x-ray
interacts with an outer-shell electron and
ejects it from the atom, thereby ionizing
the atom. The ejected electron is called a
Compton electron or recoil electron.
 During Compton scattering, most of the
energy is divided between the scattered x-
ray and the Compton electron.

Figure 9.3. The probability that an x-ray will interact

through Compton scattering is about the same for
atoms of soft tissue and those of bone. This probability
decreases with increasing x-ray energy.
1. The minimum energy transfer occurs for a
0-degree photon scatter (gazing hit), there
is no interaction, and the scattered photon
has the same energy as the incident photon.
 Works of Albert Einstein
The electron is scattered at 90-degree
with zero energy.

2. The maximum energy transfer occurs for

a direct hit with a backscattered photon
(180-degrees) and yields a (minimum)
scattered photon energy. The electron has
maximum energy and travels in forward
direction.

3. The 90-degree Compton scattered photon

energy will always be less than the incident
photon energy. The electron travels in a
direction that depends on the incident
photon energy.

 Note: Compton scattering reduces image

 X-rays in the diagnostic range also undergo
contrast.
ionizing interactions with inner-shell
electrons. The x-ray is not scattered, but
it is totally absorbed.
 This process called the Photoelectric
effect.
 The electron removed from the atom is
called a photoelectric electron.
 A photoelectric interaction cannot occur
unless the incident x-rays has energy equal
to or greater than the electron binding
energy.
IMAGING
electrons and come close enough to the
nucleus of the atom.
 The interaction between the x-ray and the
nuclear field causes the x-ray to disappear,
and in its place, two electrons appear, one
positively charged (positron) and one
negatively charged. This process is called
pair production.
 The incident x-ray photon must have at
least 1.02 MeV of energy. An x-ray with less
than 1.02 MeV cannot undergo pair
production.
 The positron unites with the free electron,
and the mass of both particles is
converted to energy in a process called
annihilation radiation.
 Because pair production involves only x-
rays with high energies greater than 1.02
MeV, it is unimportant in x-ray imaging, but
is very important for Positron Emission
Tomography imaging (PET) in nuclear
medicine.

Figure 9.5. This relative probability that a given x-ray will

undergo a photoelectric interaction is inversely
proportional to the third power of the x-ray energy and
directly proportional to the third power of the atomic
number of the absorber.

 X-rays with energy above approx. 10 MeV

can escape interaction with electrons and
the nuclear field and be absorbed directly
by the nucleus.

 When this happens, the nucleus is raised to

an excited state and instantly emits
nucleon or other nuclear fragment. This
process is called photodisintegration.

Of the five ways an x-ray can interact with

tissues, only two are important to radiology:

 Compton Scattering
 Photoelectric Effect

 If the incident x-ray has sufficient energy,

it may escape interaction with the
IMAGING

 Differential absorption occurs because of

Compton scattering, photoelectric effect,
and x-rays transmitted through the
patient.  P. Interaction = Radiopaque
 Compton-scattered x-ray contributes no  Transmitted = Radiolucent
useful information to the image.
What causes blacks, whites, and grays of an
 X-rays that undergo photoelectric
interaction provide diagnostic information x-ray image?
to the image receptor. Because they do not
 X-ray beams contains x-ray photons
reach the image receptor, these x-rays
of differing energies
are representative of anatomical
structures with high x-ray absorption As these photons pass through our body
characteristics; such structures are
radiopaque. Photoelectric absorption  Some are absorbed completely - white
produces light areas in a radiograph, such
 Some are not absorbed at all (transmitted)
as those corresponding to bones.
- black
 Other x-rays penetrate the body and are
 Some are absorbed partially- gray
transmitted to the image receptor with no
interaction. They produce the dark areas of a
radiograph. The anatomical structures through
which these x-rays pass are radiolucent.

 Basically, an x-ray image results from the

difference between those x-rays absorbed
photoelectrically in the patient and those
transmitted to the image receptor. This
difference in x-ray interaction is called
differential absorption.

 Differential absorption increases as the kVp is

reduced.

 Dependence on Atomic Number (Z)

 Example: Extremity examination
 More photons are absorbed
photoelectrically in bone than in soft tissue
 Probability of PE interaction is 7 times for
bone than soft tissue
 Photoelectric absorption is proportional to
Z3

Approx. 1% of the photons that interact with the patient

(primary beam) reach the IR. Of that 1% approx. 0.5%
interact to form the image.
IMAGING
 Dependence on Mass Density
 Intuitively, we could image bone even if
differential absorption were not related to
Z
 Bone has a higher mass density than soft
tissue
 Mass density: mass per unit volume (kg/m3)
 All interaction is proportional to mass
density

 Contrast Examination
 Barium and Iodine
 Both have high Z and density than soft
tissue  An interaction such as the photoelectric
effect is called an absorption process
because the x-ray disappears.
 Interactions in which the x-ray is only
partially absorbed, such as Compton
scattering, are only partial absorption
process.
 The total reduction in the number of x-
rays remaining in an x-ray beam after
penetration through a given thickness of
tissue is called attenuation.
 When a broad beam of x-rays is incident on
any tissue, some of the x-rays are
absorbed, and some are scattered. The
result is a reduced number of x-rays, a
condition referred to as x-ray attenuation.

Figure 9.15. Interaction of x-rays by absorption and

scatter is called attenuation. In this example, the x-ray
beam has been attenuated 97%; 3% of the x-rays have
been transmitted.