ELS 2ND QUARTER

Lesson 1

Paleontologist - a scientist who studies fossils.

Fossils - The remains of a plant or animal that existed in a past geological age and
that has been excavated from the soil.

Stromatolites - Layered sedimentary formations that are created by photosynthetic cyanobacteria.

Evolution -Usually refers to a process that produces a better or more complex form.

Genetics - Is the study of the traits people and other animals inherit from their family through DNA.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - is what makes you uniquely you. It's that double helix that your
genes are made of.

Hierarchy - describes a system that organizes or ranks things, often according to power or
importance.

Life and Remarkable Beginnings:

These pieces of evidence have also led scientists to conclude that the first life-forms began in the
deep spring located in hydrothermal vents, cracks on Earth’s surface (ocean floor). They have
traced that the ancestor of all the organisms came from aquatic microorganisms that survived even
very high temperatures such as those in hydrothermal vents.

Characteristics of Living Organisms:

1. (Energy Processing) The use of chemical energy to help organisms perform activities and carry out
chemical reaction.
2. (Evolutionary adaptation) Ability of individual to adapt to their environment.
3. Growth and development
4. Systematic and highly ordered structure of organisms
5. The ability of organisms to control their internal environment (regulation).
6. Respond to stimuli
7. Ability of every organism to reproduce its own kind.

The Levels of Biological Hierarchy:

1. Biosphere - The highest level of the hierarchy.
2. Ecosystem - consist of various groups of organisms and the physical components in a particular
environment in which particular organisms interact.
3. Community - Group of different organisms living in a particular ecosystem.
4. Population - A particular species living in a specific area.
5. Organism – A living thing in a population.
6. Organ system – Several organs that function together.
7. Organ- Group of tissues and other structures that perform a specific function.
8. Tissue – Made up of similar cells.
9. Cell – Fundamental unit of life.
10. Organelles - Consist of membrane-bound structure
11. Molecule - Smallest physical unit of an element or compound
12. Atom –Building block of matter.

Lesson 2

Spontaneous Generation
Spontaneous generation states that vital forces or organic matter can create organisms from inanimate
objects.

Redi’s Experiment
Francesco Redi was an Italian scientist. He designed an experiment to demonstrate that maggots don’t
just appear spontaneously but are produced from the eggs of flies.

Spallanzani’s Experiment
Lazzaro Spallanzani was an Italian scholar who sought to verify Needham’s test. He repeated
Needham’s test by boiling equal amounts of chicken broth in 2 containers. He concluded that
Needham didn’t heat the broth enough to kill all the organisms. Therefore, he did not support
spontaneous generation.

Pasteur’s Test
Louis Pasteur opposed the concept of spontaneous generation. He believed that microorganisms
present in putrefying materials are present in the air or on the surface where decaying materials are
on. - In his experiment, he used a swan necked flask and nutrient solution. The solution remained
sterile indefinitely. When the flask was broken, the solution was found teeming with organisms in just
a few days.
Lesson 3

Cytology is the exam of a single cell type, as often found in fluid specimens
Protoplasm is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane.
Cell the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.

Cell Theory:
As early as 1590, Zacharias Janssen, a Dutch, tried to study cells using an improvised microscope.
But it was Robert Hooke, an English scientist, who made the most important observation using a
microscope in 1665. He examined a thin slice of cork from the bark of an oak tree and saw a pattern
of tiny rectangular chambers. Since the cork was dead tissue, the chambers were empty. He called the
chambers “Cells” or ‘Small rooms”.

People involved in the Cell Theory :

Theodore Schwann - pointed out the both animals and plants are made up of cells.
Zacharias Jannsen - Invented microscope
Rudolf Virchow - All cells came from pre-existing Cells
Antonie Leeuwenhoek - Devised a simple microscope that
can magnify up to 200 times.
Johannes Purkinje - He discovered fibres
“A cell is not empty but contains of gelatinous fluid.”
Robert Hooke - Observed that there are small honeycomb compartment in he sheet of cork,
and called it cells - small compartments
Matthias Jakob Schleiden - Plants are made up of cells.

IMPORTANT PARTS OF THE CELL:

Nucleus - Control center of the cell

Cell Membrane - Controls what enters and leaves the cell
Chromosomes - Genetic Information in the nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum - Transport System
Ribosome - Makes Proteins
Golgi Body - Packages Proteins
Vacuole - Stores Water
Lysosome - Breaksdown cell part
Mitochondria - Provides Energy

Lesson 4
Reproduction- process by which organism produces its own kind to ensure that its species live on
Gametes- sexual reproduction takes place
Zygote- union of male and female sex cells
Petals- flower’s brightly colored parts
Receptacle- where the flower is attached
Sepals- leaf like parts enclose and protect the flower
Stamen- male reproductive part
Filament- stalk the supports the anther
Anther- where pollen is produced
Pollen- tiny grains containing the sperm
Carpel/Pistil- female reproductive part
Stigma- sticky part that catches the pollen grains
Style- long tube like part that connects the stigma to the ovary
Ovary- contains ovule or unfertilized egg

Reproduction in Plants

Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

Pollination and Fertilization

Reproduction in flowering plants starts with pollination, or from the anther to the stigma of the
same plant. This type of transfer is called self-pollination. Animals, humans, water, and wind can
serve as agents of cross pollination as they aid in the transfer of pollen grains from plant to plant.
Fertilization, or the process by which the sperm and egg cells unite, takes place after pollination.

Parts Used for Propagation

One type of asexual reproduction is vegetative propagation, wherein a new plant can grow
from a part taken from the parent plant.

Sexual Reproduction

Male and female reproductive parts produce sperm and egg cells respectively that fuse to form a
zygote. Sexual reproduction occurs when a sperm cell unites with an egg cell to form a zygote.

Monoecious or hermaphrodites – Organisms that have both male and female systems

Dioecious - organisms with separate sexes (either male or female).

Asexual Reproduction
Only one parent is needed.

Asexual reproduction can happen through:

1. Binary fission - This is the simplest process of asexual reproduction wherein the body of an
organism divides into new bodies.
2. Budding - In budding, outgrowths or buds develop on the parent organism.
3. Fragmentation - an organism's body is divided into two or more parts, wherein each fragment
develops into an organism like its parent.
4. Regeneration - This is a specialized form of asexual reproduction wherein detached parts of some
organisms can grow back (such as sea stars and salamanders).
Lesson 5

GENETIC ENGINEERING - the artificial manipulation, and recombination of DNA

GMA - A genetically modified animal
GMF - Genetically modified (GM) foods
GMP - Genetic modification of plants
GMO - Genetically modified organism

SAMPLE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Bt Corn - A gene from the Bt bacteria is added so the corn produces a protein that is poisonous to
certain insects but not humans.
Venomous Cabbage - Scorpion genes added to the cabbage prevents insects from eating it.
Fast-Growing Salmon - Genes from two other fish cause this salmon to continually produce growth
hormones.
Less Smelly Cows - Modifying bacteria responsible for methane production in cattle results in 25%
less-flatulent cows.

Pros:
The main argument that proponents of GMOs make is that they will help with global food production
and security. It can reduce environmental impact.
Cons:
Advocates are concerned that there are too many unknowns surrounding GMOs, and that approvals
have been premature and ahead of solid safety evidence.

Lesson 6

Metabolism - allows organisms to survive and maintain the functioning of their organ systems.It
enables organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain structures, and respond to their environment.
Nutrients - substance that the animal’s body uses for growth, maintenance, and repair.
Stomach - a mascular organ that has a saclike shape.
Respiration - the process of inhalation and exhalation of gases.

The Role of the Digestive System

Ingestion - The process by which an animal takes in food is called

However, the animal’s body cannot use the energy in food until this has gone through digestion
and absorption.

The body’s digestive system is responsible for these functions. Digestion takes place in two
phases: mechanical and chemical.

In mechanical digestion, the food that has been ingested is physically broken down into smaller
pieces. This starts in mouth, when the organisms ingest the food. Chewing starts the breaking
down of food. Digestion begins as the ingested food mixes with the saliva, which contains
enzyme called ptyalin. This enzymes breaks down the food as it acts on carbohydrates in it.

In chemical digestion, the process the food in such a way that the nutrients it contains can be
absorbed in the small intestines. Catalytic proteins called enzymes are the chemical in the
animals that breaks down the food into nutrients . The nutrients are then distributed to the
different parts of the body through the blood.

Gas Exchange

The physical process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide is known as breathing.
An animal uses the oxygen that it has taken in while releasing the carbon dioxide that it does
not need. This exchange (inhalation and exhalation) of gases is called
respiration.

Types of Gas Exchange System

Skin System

The skin or body surface is also known as the integumentary

system. Animals that live in moist environments, such as amphibians
and worms, breathe in oxygen through their moist body surface. On
the bottom layer of the skin of worms are capillaries, or tiny blood
vessels, that absorb the oxygen from their surroundings and release
carbon dioxide.

Gills System

Aquatic animals use body parts called gills to promote the gas
exchange of gases. These are extensions of the outside membrane in
most aquatic animals; although in some, these may also be found
inside the body. Because the gills of an aquatic animals have a very
thin membranes, these are able to get oxygen that has been dissolved
 in water into the animal’s bloodstream. The carbon dioxide in the
animal’s bloodstream also goes out through its gills.

Tracheal System

Gas exchange in some animals like insects takes place in their

tracheae, which are several air tubes that from a network in their
bodies. These tubes have holes called spiracle that open to the
outside surface of animals’ bodies.

Lung System

Inside the body of land animals including humans are the lungs, a
pair of organs divided into small chambers filled with capillaries.. At the tip
of each bronchiole is an alveolus, or air sac. It is the air sacs where actual
gas exchange occurs.
Under the lungs is a dome-shaped muscles called diaphragm. The
lungs are enclosed in the rib cage, which serves to protect the respiratory
organs and the heart.