CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
FIRE AND COMBUSTION

FIRE PROTECTION AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

 Fire- is a rapid oxidation of combustible materials accompanied by the relaxed of
energy in the form of heat and light.

ELEMENTS OF FIRE AND THE TRIANGLE THEORY

 Fuel
 Heat
 oxygen

Using the same theory, there are 3 ways to extinguish fire:

1. Reduce the temperature(cooling)
2. Cut-off the oxygen supply
3. Remove the fuel

ELEMENTS OF FIRE
1. HEAT- is a form of energy measured in degree of temperature the product of
combustion that caused the spread of fire.
For a fire to start there must be a source of ignition, usually heat or spark.
Examples of the heat sources include open flame(fire), hot surface, sparks and arcs
friction, chemical action, electrical energy and compression of gasses.
2. OXYGEN- a colorless and odorless gas and one of the compositions of air that
supports fire which is approximately 21% by volume in the air.
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OXYGEN SOURCES: OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS:

1. 21% normal oxygen 1. 12% no fire
2. 78% nitrogen 2. 14% flash point
3. 1% other gasses 3. 21% fire point
3. FUEL- any substance/combustible which reacts chemically with oxygen and
produces flames for a fire to start there must be something to burn.
The physical state of the fuel; may be gasses (natural gas, propane, butane, hydrogen, and
etc.), liquids (gasoline, kerosene, turpentine, alcohol, paint, varnish, lacquer) or solid (coal,
wood, paper, cloth, grease)
FUEL SOURCES
1. Solid- molecules are closely packed together.
2. Liquid-molecules are loosely packed.
3. Gas-molecules are free to move.
FIRE TETRAHEDRON THEORY – it is a new theory that explains combustion and
extinguishment.

The combustion reaction can be characterized by four components:

1. Fuel
2. The oxidizing agent
3. Heat
4. Uninhibited chemical chain reaction.
These four components have been classically symbolized by a four-sided solid geometric
form called tetrahedron. Fires can be prevented or suppressed by controlling or removing
one of the sides of the tetrahedron. The four elements of the tetrahedron explanation are
known as chemical reactivity or chemical reaction. Both theories are used to explain what
causes a fire.
Each element of tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to occur. (This theory is
extremely important to students of fire suppression, prevention and investigation.) If ignition
is already started the fire is extinguished if one of the elements is removed from the reaction.
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ELEMENT OF FIRE TETRAHEDRON

1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent) – material/ substance that yield oxygen or oxidizing gasses
during the process of a chemical reaction.
Oxidizers are not combustible themselves but they support combustion when
combined with fuel.
The oxygen in the surrounding area is considered primary oxidizing agent
2. Fuel (reducing agent) – material or substances being burned in the combustion
process. The fuel in the combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent. Most
common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen.
3. Heat (Temperature) – the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat
comes in contact with a fuel, the energy supports the combustion process.
A form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in
combustion or burning.
4. Self-sustained Chemical Reaction (the fourth element) – a series of events that
occur in sequence with the results of each individual reaction being added to the rest.
Once flaming starts, it can only continue when enough heat or energy is produced to
cause the continued chain reaction.
The 5 Different Classes of Fires
The 5 main classes of fires are categorized by what caused the fire or what the fire uses as
fuel, and are as follows:
Class A: solid materials such as wood or paper, fabric, and some plastics
Class B: liquids or gas such as alcohol, ether, gasoline, or grease
Class C: electrical failure from appliances, electronic equipment, and wiring
Class D: metallic substances such as sodium, titanium, zirconium, or magnesium
Class K: grease or oil fires specifically from cooking

Understanding the 5 different classes of fires can help you determine the biggest fire risks at
your facility, depending on the fuels and fire hazards present as well as how best to prepare in
case of a fire emergency.

 Class A Fires: “Ordinary” Fires

Class A fires are the most common of the 5 different classes of fires. They occur
when common combustible materials like wood, paper, fabric, trash, and light plastics
catch fire. These accidental fires are ubiquitous across a variety of industries, so it’s
recommended to have adequate protection against “ordinary” fires in addition to other
condition-specific fires.
Despite being “ordinary”, don’t rule this class of fire as low-risk. If there’s an
abundance of fuel present, these fires can intensify quickly. It’s best to put out a Class
A fire quickly before it spreads using water or monoammonium phosphate.

 Class B Fires: Liquids & Gases

Class B fires involve flammable liquids and gases, especially fuels like petroleum or
petroleum-based products such as gasoline, paint, and kerosene. Other gases that are
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highly flammable are propane and butane, which are common causes of Class B fires.
The best way to deal with these types of fires is by smothering them or removing
oxygen using foam or CO2 fire suppression equipment.
Be aware that Class B fires do not include grease fires or cooking fires, which belong
to their own class, Class K.

 Class C Fires: Electrical Fires

Electrical fires fall under Class C and are common in facilities that make heavy use of
electrical equipment, but they can occur in a wide range of industries. For
example, data centers might be an obvious risk area for Class C fires. They must have
safeguards in place to deal with electrical fires.
Construction sites are another common Class C fire risk: electrical power tools or
appliances used for cooking can cause sparks to ignite combustible materials and
intensify rapidly. Old buildings with bad wiring or space heaters present more
concerns.
Electrical fires require non-conductive materials to extinguish the flame, so water
alone is not a good solution. Facilities with sensitive equipment may prefer clean
agent suppression because it won’t leave residue or damage electrical equipment.

 Class D Fires: Metallic Fires

Class D fires are not as common as the other classes, but they do require special
attention because they can be especially difficult to extinguish. Metallic fires involve
flammable materials like titanium, aluminum, magnesium, and potassium — all
commonly occurring in laboratories.
Class D fires cannot be addressed with water, as this can exacerbate the fire and be
potentially dangerous. Dry powder agents are the best solution for smothering the
flames and limiting damage to property or people.

 Class K Fires: Grease Fires or Cooking Fires

Class K fires involve flammable liquids, similar to Class B fires, but are specifically
related to food service and the restaurant industry. These common fires start from the
combustion of liquid cooking materials including grease, oils, and vegetable and
animal fats.
Because they can spread quickly and be difficult to manage, Class K fires are some of
the most dangerous. Water can make the situation worse, but smothering the flames or
using a wet agent fire extinguisher is effective.
Now that we understand how each fire starts, we can prepare for how to fight them —
or better yet, prevent them from happening in the first place.
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The 4 Stages of Fire

A. Ignition
At its simplest, fires begin when combining oxygen with combustible or flammable
materials. If not oxygen itself, oxygen compounds or oxygenated gas can be used in its
place. When a fire ignites, it’s in the first stage of four. This stage is also known as the
incipient stage. Incipience refers to the starting stages of something, so it’s the perfect name
for this first fire phase. 

The fire has just started, but it will spread as it finds more oxygen sources to consume.
If you see an ignition fire on your premises or in another building, you should still evacuate
immediately, even if the fire doesn’t yet look large. After all, it’s only a matter of time before
the fire will move onto the second stage, which is growth. During the ignition or incipient
phase, the flames will be below ceiling height. They will usually only stay in the area in
which the fire occurs, but as we just touched on, the flames can and will spread. 

The heat of the fire is considered close to ambient temperatures. If a firefighter used a
thermal imaging camera on an ignition fire, the camera might not even be able to generate a
heat signature. There’s some smoke present during an ignition fire, but it’s not very buoyant
or thick. The color of the smoke would be light gray or white instead of dark gray to black. 

After evacuating due to an ignition fire, call emergency services. The fire department
will be deployed to your location right away. Since ignition fires are still in the incipient
stage, extinguishing them is easier for firefighters. Combatting the fire now can prevent it
from spreading elsewhere and possibly getting out of control. The fire department can also
minimize the rate of property damage. 

B. Growth

If you don’t spot a fire in its ignition stage or if

you do but you don’t do anything about it quickly
enough, then as we said, that ignition fire will
soon become a growth fire. This is the second of
the four stages of fire.

Some household fire detectors only go off once a

fire reaches the growth stage, which is
problematic. By now, the fire has increased by a
sizable degree. It hasn’t reached its full form yet,
but it’s steadily getting there. 
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The flames of a growth fire can easily touch the ceiling. In some instances, the flames
will even bend and move horizontally across a ceiling, which is scary to witness, especially
as a civilian. Temperatures will have increased beyond the ambient range, but only in the
areas of the home or building in which the fire is currently burning. Hot smoke will have
accumulated as well and can reach nearby compartments. 

The fire is harder to control than it was in its ignition stage since it’s started to
consume oxygen or other flammable materials and has spread. While you might have been
able to toss a fire blanket on a small ignition fire and then leave, by the time the fire reaches
the growth stage, your best plan of action is to just evacuate yourself, your family or loved
ones, and your pets if you can.

Once again, call emergency services and wait for the firefighters to arrive on the
scene. Although it’s harder for the fire department to put out a fire in the growth stage, it’s
not impossible by any means. Depending on how far the fire has spread, damage to
surrounding buildings and structures could be likely. Your property might be destroyed as
well if the growth fire is severe enough. 

C. Full Development
The third stage of a fire is known as full development. This is by far the most severe of
the four stages. As the name full development tells you, the fire is not going to get any larger
than it is at this point. The temperature of the flames is at its max, so the fire is likely burning
closer to 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit.

The size of the flames is also large. Between the heat damage from the excessively high
temperatures and the fire damage as the flames grow larger and higher, full development fires
can be absolutely catastrophic. The flames are isolated during a full development fire and can
easily cross the ceiling, much as is the case with a growth fire. Smoke can be thick and dark
in colors such as black, brown, and dark gray. The volume of the smoke will also increase,
which will further reduce visibility. 

Immediate evacuation if it’s possible must be mandated for your survival. Growth fires
are dangerous, but full development fires are the most likely to cause loss of life. Property
damage can leave you with a burnt husk rather than a happy family home. This highly
oxygenated fire will keep going and going, seeking out more flammable surfaces to engulf.
An uncontrolled full development fire can easily spread to adjacent properties and continue
burning, seemingly endlessly.

You should still contact your local fire department even if the fire on your property has
advanced to a full development fire. Standing by and allowing the building to burn is within
no one’s best interest. Although it might be too late to save your home, by allowing the fire to
do its thing, you’re feeding it more flammable materials so it continues burning stronger. The
firefighters will be able to tamp down the blaze, but a full development fire is the hardest to
combat, so it can take a while. 
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D. Decay
That brings us to the fourth stage of a fire, which is decay. As a fire burns, it will eventually
run out of oxygen or flammable materials to ingest so it can keep burning. How long that
takes depends on where the fire originates from.

For example, if a fire is burning through a forest or a city,

then there are plenty of materials to continue stoking the
flames. When there’s nothing left because the fire
engulfed it all, then the fire would become a mere
smolder before petering out entirely.

Heat Transfer
The physical methods by which energy in the form of heat can be transferred between
bodies are conduction and radiation. A third method, which also involves the motion of
matter, is called convection.
1. Conduction – it is the transfer of heats by molecular activity with in a material or
medium, usually a solid. Direct contact is the underlying factor in conduction.
Example, if you touch a hot stove, the pain you feel is a first result of conducted heat
passing from the stove directly to your hand. In a structural fire, superheated pipes,
steel girders, and other structural members such as walls and floors may conduct
enough heat to initiate fires in other areas of the structure.
2. Convection – it is the transfer of heat through a circulating medium, usually, air or
liquid. Heat transfer by convection is chiefly responsible for the spread of fire in
structures. The super-heated gases evolved from a fire are lighter than air, and
consequently rise; they can and do initiate additional damage. In large fires, the high
fireball that accompanies the incident is referred to as a firestorm and is an example of
convected heat.
3. Radiation – radiated heat moves in wave and rays much like sunlight. Radiated heat
travels the speed, as does visible light: 186, 000 miles per second. It is primarily
responsible for the exposure hazards that develop and exist during a fire. Heat waves
travel in a direct or straight line from their source until they strike an object. The heat
that collects on the surface of the object or building in the path of the heat waves is
subsequently absorbed into its mass through conduction.
Combustion or Burning – it is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions
between a fuel and an oxidant; accompanied by the production of heat or both heat and light
in the form of either a glow or flames, appearance of light flickering.
In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, such as
oxygen or fluorine, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the
oxidizing elements.
Fire and Combustion – are terms that are often used interchangeably. Technically speaking,
fire is a form of combustion. Combustion is a self-sustaining chemical reaction producing
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energy or products that cause more reaction of the same kind. Combustion is an exothermic
reaction.
Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the release of heat and light
of different intensities. The time it takes a reaction to occur determines the type of reaction
that is observed.
Principles of Combustion

 Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of

heat, or heat and light.
 Complete combustion (complex oxidation) of a fuel is possible only in the presence of
an adequate supply of oxygen.
 Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat.
 Solid or liquid fuels must be change to a gas before they will burn.
 Fuel gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
 Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing diluter.
 Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of
fuels and diluting the flue gases.
 Nitrogen reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchanger surfaces.
 It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to travel
through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of
additional fuel-air mixture.
 Nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperature) to
produce oxides of Nitrogen, which are toxic pollutants.
 Carbon may also combine with oxygen to form carbon monoxide, which results in the
release of a smaller quantity of heat.
 The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel which is
accomplished by controlling a.) Temperature which should be high enough to ignite
and maintain ignition of the fuel, b.) Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and
oxygen, c.) Time should be sufficient for complete combustion.
 Commonly used fuels like natural gas and propane generally consist of carbon and
hydrogen so the flue gases mainly consist of carbon dioxide and water.
 Water vapor formed removes heat from the flue gases, which would otherwise be
available for more heat transfer.
Combustion Reaction/Process
– Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of
ignitable vapors or gasses.
– Provides the energy necessary for ignition.
–Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gasses to continue
the combustion reaction.
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SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION
Spontaneous combustion or spontaneous ignition, as it is often called, is the
occurrence of fire without the application of an external heat source. Due to chemical,
biological, or physical processes, combustible materials self-heat to a temperature high
enough for ignition to occur.
FLASHOVER
- is the sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is
incomplete combustion of fuels. Flashover occurs when a room or other area is heated
enough that flames sweep over the entire surface. Firefighters originally believe that
combustible gases released during the early stages of the fire cause flashover by collecting at
the ceiling and mixing with air until they burst into flames.
The point in a fire at which other combustibles within the area ignite, changing the
fire from one object to many objects on fire. Flashover occurs with the initial ignition of the
fire in the original object, but on a much larger scale. Combustible gases coming from the
materials in a room rise and collect at the ceiling, thus, these gases ignite, bringing sheet of
flame across the ceiling and raising the overall temperature of the room as the gases are
consumed.
When flashover occurs, firefighters have only two seconds to escape the room before
the temperature rise up drastically that they will suffer heat-related injury or death.

BACKDRAFT
An explosion that occurs when oxygen is rapidly introduced into a superheated, but
oxygen-poor, confined space, or it occurs in the form of explosion because of improper
ventilation. For example, if a fire occurs in a well-sealed room, it will burn until it uses up the
oxygen in the room. This burning can intensely heat the atmosphere in the room, and its
contents. As the fire starves for oxygen, it leaves fuels incompletely burned and superheated.
If oxygen is rapidly introduced into this environment, such as by opening the door, the
superheated pyrolysis products can explode in rapid combustion.
BITE BACK
A fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists Extinguishment operation and
becomes stronger and bigger instead.

FLASHFIRE is better known as dust

explosion. This may happen when a
metal post that is completely covered
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with dust is going to be hit by

lightning. The dust particles covering
the metal burn simultaneously thus
creating a
violent chemical reaction that
produces a very bright flash followed
by an explosion.
FLASHFIRE is better known as dust
explosion. This may happen when a
metal post that is completely covered
with dust is going to be hit by
lightning. The dust particles covering
the metal burn simultaneously thus
creating a
violent chemical reaction that
produces a very bright flash followed
by an explosion
FLASHFIRE
-is better known as dust explosion. This may happen when a metal post that is
completely covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the
metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces a very
bright flash followed by an explosion
Types of Energy
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1. Chemical Energy
2. Electrical Energy
3. Mechanical Energy
4. Heat
5. Lights

Chemical Energy – the most common source of heat in combustion reactions. An energy
released as a result of a chemical reaction such as combustion. When any combustible is in
contact with oxygen then oxidation occurs.
Ex: a. Heat generated from a burning match
b. Self-heating (spontaneous heating)
Electrical Energy – an energy developed when electrons flow through a conductor.
Electrical energy can generate temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible materials
near the heated gasses.

Factors involving electrical heating:

a. Current flow through a resistance
b. Arcing
c. Sparking
d. Static
e. Lightning

Nuclear Energy – An energy generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine
(fusion). Nuclear power plants generate power as a result of the fission of URANIUM235.
Ex: a. fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produces electricity
b. the solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction (a form of nuclear energy)
Mechanical Energy – An energy created by friction and compression.
Heat of Friction – the movement of two surfaces against each other. This movement
produces sparks and energy is generated.
Heat of Compression – heat is generated when a gas is compressed on cylinder.
Two types of Energy
a. Potential Energy – an energy possessed by an object that can be released in the
future.
b. Kinetic energy – an energy possessed by a moving object.