Mulugeta D.

Abera  1 

4. DETERMINATION OF STATE OF DAMAGE

The state of damage of machinery or one of its elements is the undesired deviation from the required
state fixed in the design procedures. Knowledge of the state of damage of a component in connection
with the determination of the survival probability is essential for setting the date and kind of
maintenance measures to be taken. For the phase of testing of new components or equipment (means of
production), knowledge of the state of damage provides a collection of data or information about the
states of damage, which in turn can be used for setting meaningful maintenance routines.

The state of damage of equipment depends on

‐ Kind and condition of damage ,and
‐ Duration of operation of equipment

Determination of the state of damage is of technical diagnostics and maintenance technique. Technical
diagnostics is the determination of the technical state or state of damage of equipment, evaluation of the
state and collection for deciding the date and kind of maintenance .this is normally done without
disassembling while the equipment is in operation.

Fig 4.1 schematic representation of technical diagnostics

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Conclusions arrive at about the state of damage of an equipment are probabilistic, and the accuracy of
results obtained on the accuracy of the method of investigation used, sampling techniques and
measuring techniques. As shown in fig 4.1, the means of production itself, the signals production by the
means of production, the measuring device and measured quantities are all influenced by the
environment which is a source of error. Hence, the usefulness of the results has to be weighed carefully
and decisions made have to be supported by experience and good judgment.

4.1 measuring values for the state of damage

The state of damage is denied by using different measuring values taken of kind of damage . the
measuring principles employed are two:
a. Direct measured quantities, and
b. Indirect measured quantities

4.1.1 Direct measured quantities

The direct measuring technique determines the difference between the initial state and the state after
wear process. The measurement taken can be direct linear, volumetric or mass quantities. These
measured quantities can be absolute or to duration of operation.
‐ Absolute measurement give the amount wear as an average worn out thickness
‐ Related measurement gives amount of wear per unit time of operation
Direct measurement gives dimensions of parts. If the wear is not constant over a surface, the
measurement should be done in different planes with different orientations .direct measurement is
usually done after disassembly. But it can also be made without disassembling provided there is easy
access to the measured quantities.

4.1.2 Indirect measuring quantities

During the operation of a machine or parts of it, certain signals are produced which are related to the
state of operation of the machine. These signals, which are known as diagnostic parameters, if properly
analyzed provide some information regarding the state of the machine. It should be noted that influence
from the environment introduces errors in the measured results.

 
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4.2 Methods of Condition Monitoring

Most techniques of condition monitoring amount to the systematic application of commonly accepted
methods of fault diagnosis. This technique is classified as on-load or off-loads monitoring techniques.

4.2.1 On–load monitoring techniques

On-load monitoring techniques are mostly carried out without interruption of operation of the unit .these
techniques include:
‐ Visual, aural and tactile inspection of accessible components;
‐ Temperature monitoring
‐ Lubricant monitoring
‐ Leak detection
‐ Vibration monitoring/sound monitoring
‐ Corrosion monitoring

4.2.2 Off – load monitoring techniques include

Off- load monitoring techniques require shutdown of the unit .these include:
‐ Visual, aural and tactile inspection of normally inaccessible or moving parts
‐ Crack detection
‐ Leak detection
‐ Vibration testing
‐ Corrosion monitoring

4.3 condition monitoring techniques

Most failure gives some warning before they occur. This warning is called potential failure. Potential
failure is defined as an identifiable physical condition which indicates that a functional failure is either
about to occur or it is in the process of occurring; this is indicated as point P on the P-F diagram. A
functional failure is defined as the inability of equipment in meeting a specified performance standard;
this is represented by point F on the P-F diagram. Techniques of detecting potential failures are known
as on–condition maintenance task. This is so because equipment is left in service the condition that they
meet specified performance standards.

 
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4.4 Potential Failures and on–condition maintenance

If evidence can be found that some component/equipment is the final stage of failure, it may be possible
to take action to prevent complete failure and/or its consequences. The P-F curve is employed to show
what happens in the final stages of failures. The P-F curve shows:
‐ Where failure in the equipment starts to occurs
‐ Where equipment condition deteriorates to the point at which the failure can be detected and
finally
‐ Where the equipment has failed indication failure

Fig. 4.2 The P-F diagram

The P-F interval is the interval between the occurrence of a potential failure and its deterioration into
functional failure. The P-F interval is the warning Period, or the lead time to failure, or the failure
development period. Between points P and F it may be possible to take action to prevent functional
failure or to avoid consequences of functional failure. Tasks designed to detect potential failures are
known as on-condition tasks. On-condition tasks entail checking for potential failures so that action can
be taken to prevent functional failure or to avoid the consequences of the functional failure. This is
known as predictive maintenance or condition-based maintenance. On-condition tasks are carried out at
interval less than the P-F interval, usually at a frequency equal to half the P-F interval.
In applying the P-F curve to condition monitoring the sooner a potential failure can be selected the
longer the P-F interval would be. Longer P-F interval would entail that the frequency interval for

 
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inspection would be done less often hence there would be more time to take appropriate actions to avoid
the consequence of failure.

Fig. 4.3 Deviation of equipment condition from normal

As can be observed from the P-F intervals shown in the figure, the derivation for P1 from the normal is
smaller and this requires sensitive monitoring techniques and equipment, but gives a longer P1-F
interval. The larger deviation for P2 from normal results in a shorter P2-F interval. But the monitoring
equipment/techniques need not be as sensitive as in the P1 case.
From the above discussion it can be concluded that the P-F curve is an important tool in determining the
condition monitoring techniques and setting the equipment for conducting the monitoring task.

4.5 Categories of Condition Monitoring Techniques

Condition monitoring techniques are designed to detect specific symptoms which are related to the state
of damage of the equipment. The monitoring techniques are classified according to the symptoms
monitored. These can be classified as follows.

 
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4.5.1 Dynamic monitoring

Dynamic monitoring detects potential which cause emission of abnormal energy in the form of wave
such as vibration and noise. Equipment which contains parts that vibrate are monitored dynamically.
This is done by measuring how much the system vibrates.
There are various techniques that belong to this category, examples of which are;
-broad band vibration analysis
(Change in vibration characteristics are monitored)
-constant bandwidth analysis
(Change in vibration characteristics are monitored by using accelerometers)
‐ Real time analysis
‐ (measurement of vibration signals: shock analysis}
‐ Ultrasonic analysis
‐ (change in sound pattern are monitored)

4.5.2 Particle Monitoring

‐ Particle monitoring detects potential failures which cause particles of different size and shapes
to be released into the environment in which the component is operating .these include wear
particles and corrosion particles. Among the various particle monitoring techniques the following
are some examples.
‐ Ferrography
‐ (wear and corrosion particles are monitored by taking a representative sample of oil)
‐ Real time ferromagnetic sensors
‐ Graded filtration
‐ Sedimentation

4.5.3 Chemical Monitoring

Chemical monitoring detects potential failures which cause traceable quantities of chemical elements to
be released in to the environment. This technique is used to detect elements in the lubricating which
indicate occurrence of potential elsewhere in the lubricating oil which indicate occurrence of potential
failure elsewhere in the system. They are employed to detect wear, corrosion, leakage. Some of the
techniques are listed below.

 
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‐ Atomic emission spectroscopy

‐ X- ray fluorescence spectroscopy
‐ Infrared spectroscopy
‐ Electro –chemical corrosion monitoring
‐ Exhaust emission analyzers
‐ Color indicator titration

4.5.4 Physical effects monitoring

Physical effects monitoring includes changes in the physical appearance or structure of equipment which
can be detected directly. The monitoring techniques involve detect potential failures in the form of
cracks, wear, corrosion etc. some of the techniques employed are :
‐ Liquid dye penetrants
‐ Magnetic particle inspection
‐ Ultrasonic techniques
‐ X-ray-radiography
‐ Light probes
‐ Deep –probe endoscope
‐ Oil odor
‐ Strain gauge
‐ Viscosity monitoring

4.5.5 Temperature monitoring

These techniques look for potential failures which cause rise in temperature of an equipment itself.
Monitoring techniques included in here, among others, are
‐ Infrared scanning
‐ Temperature indicating painting

4.5.6 Electrical Effects Monitoring

These techniques look for changes-in resistance, conductivity, etc. electrical effects monitoring
techniques includes the following.
‐ Electrical resistance monitoring

 
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‐ Potential monitoring
‐ Power factor testing
‐ Breaker timing testing

4.6 General Purpose Monitoring Techniques

Thermal, lubricant and vibration monitoring techniques are considered to be general purpose monitoring
techniques .in each of these three techniques, the parameter being monitored contains information that
has been transmitted through the machine.

4.6.1 Lubricant Monitoring

The oil which circulate through a machine carries with it evidence of the condition of parts encountered.
Examination of the oil and any particles it has carried with it allows monitoring of the machine on-load
or at shut- down.
Lubricant examination can cover debris deposited, debris in suspension or condition of oil.
Debris deposited are the larger particles carried along by the lubricant which can be collected by filters
or magnetic collectors. Examination of the debris under the microscope to establish size and shape
provides good information regarding the state of damage of the machine.
Debris in suspension are the smaller particles collected by the lubricant which remain in suspension. The
examination of the debris in suspension gives the earliest warning of component damage.
A change in the rate of debris collection indicates the change in the condition of the machine as related
to wearing out. Shape of debris collected caries information as to the wear mechanism taking place.
‐ Normal shape of wear particles tends to be flat;
‐ Cutting or abrasive wear results in spiral shaped debris;
‐ Surface fatigue failures produce larger angular particles.

Condition of used oil itself can be examined for indication of other malfunctions. To mention an
example:
‐ Foaming of oil- cause is excessive churning or passage under pressure through restriction. Action
to be taking; checking the system.
‐ Darkened color of oil is caused by oxidation of oil, excess temperature, combustion or other
chemical products reacting with the oil used.

 
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‐ Malfunction that can be detected by lubricant monitoring are the following.

‐ Damage of transmission components like gears, shafts, bearings, etc.
‐ Blockage of ducts, pipes, etc.

4.6.2 Thermal Monitoring

Monitoring the temperature of components in a machine is undertaken for one of three purposes:
i. To enable the temp. of a process to be controlled manually ,or to check that it is being controlled
properly;
ii. To detect a change increase in heat generation due to some malfunction such as damage of
bearings;
iii. To detect a change in the heat transmitted through and out of the body of the machine caused by
a change in some component such as failed coolant circulation or ash build up in a boiler.
Temperature monitoring can be carried out at a point within the body of the plant (e.g. Measurement of
water temperature in a boiler) or the surface of a component (e.g. bearing housing). Temperature
monitoring devices are diverse and can be classified as contact sensors, non- contact sensors temperature
points, pellets (pyrometers), etc.
A wide range of malfunction is monitored thermally. Prime function of temperature monitoring is
checking the system that the controls are working properly. In addition, some range of general faults can
also be detected by thermal monitoring .the following are possible areas where thermal monitoring is
applied.
‐ Bearing damage which result in heat generation and heating of the bearing unit and other units
that come in contact with the bearing unit.
‐ Failure of coolant or lubrication can be detected by a temperature rise of appropriate bodies; such
failures could result from pump failure, drive fault, blockage in piping, valves or filter, or
damaged heat exchanger.
‐ Incorrect heat generation like in internal combustion engines.
‐ Build-up of unwanted materials such as sediments is piper, ash in in boiler or ducts, etc.
‐ Damage of insulating materials.
‐ Faults of electric components.

 
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4.6.3 Vibration/noise Monitoring

Changes in noise or vibration characteristics are indicative of trouble. the causes of vibration are
unbalanced rotating and reciprocating parts, looseness in the fit between components, deflection of load
carrying members, misalignment, damages in transmission component, etc.
Vibration monitoring is generally used in preference to noise monitoring .the equipment employed are
vibro-meter and accelerometers of wide variety.
The possible faults that can be detected by vibration monitoring are
‐ Wear or failure of bearings
‐ Presence of unbalance in moving parts;
‐ Change in clearances;
‐ Cracks in shafts and other moving components subjected to cyclic loads.
The table below discusses in brief the general purpose monitoring techniques showing the medium for
transmission, components monitored faults that can be detected and equipment required for monitoring.

 
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Table 4.1 General purpose monitoring techniques

Thermal Lubricant Vibration
Medium for
‐ Any solid par of
transmission of
‐ Solids; casing, shaft, etc. ‐ Oil used for lubrication machine
information
‐ Liquids: lubricant, and /or oil ‐ Depends on elastic
through machine
cooling water or oil ‐ Depends on lubricant a mass
‐ Depends on thermal being pumped round the characteristics of
conductivity machine solids

Components Any component that

Any component which is
monitored Any heat generating device moves
lubricated such as
such as ‐ Surface between
‐ Bearings, pumps
‐ Condition of bearings components with
‐ Transmission
‐ Fluid flow in heat relative motion
components
exchangers ‐ Clearances
‐ Lubricants

Faults detected ‐ Failure of drives ‐ Any form of wear or Change in any moving
‐ Blockage of ducts failure that results in component
‐ Loss of cooling fouling lubricated surface failure ‐ Wear or failure of
of cooler ‐ Leakage of other bearings
‐ Overuse contaminants in to ‐ Unbalance
lubricant ‐ Changes in
clearances
Monitoring ‐ Thermometers On load removable filters ‐ Accelerometer and
equip. ‐ Thermocouples magnetic plugs visual accessories
‐ Temperature scanning examination of debris using ‐ Frequency filters
‐ Infrared scanning microscope and recorders
cameras ‐ Spectroscopes
‐ Ferroscopes
‐ Pressure gages
Frequency ‐ Continuous and periodic ‐ Primarily periodic ‐ Periodic put also
continuous