Data Mining

Supervised Learning
Classification & Prediction
PART 5- EXTRA

Dr. Ahmed Sultan Al-Hegami

Associate Professor of AI & Intelligent Systems
Sana’a University 1
Classification:
Decision Trees
Outline

▪ Top-Down Decision Tree Construction

▪ Choosing the Splitting Attribute
▪ Information Gain and Gain Ratio

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DECISION TREE
▪ An internal node is a test on an attribute.
▪ A branch represents an outcome of the test, e.g.,
Color=red.
▪ A leaf node represents a class label or class label
distribution.
▪ At each node, one attribute is chosen to split
training examples into distinct classes as much
as possible
▪ A new case is classified by following a matching
path to a leaf node.
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Weather Data: Play or not Play?
Outlook Temperature Humidity Windy Play?
sunny hot high false No
sunny hot high true No
overcast hot high false Yes
rain mild high false Yes
rain cool normal false Yes
rain cool normal true No
overcast cool normal true Yes
sunny mild high false No
sunny cool normal false Yes
rain mild normal false Yes
sunny mild normal true Yes
overcast mild high true Yes
overcast hot normal false Yes
rain mild high true No

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Example Tree for “Play?”

Outlook

sunny
overcast rain

Humidity Yes
Windy

high normal true false

No Yes No Yes

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Building Decision Tree [Q93]

▪ Top-down tree construction

▪ At start, all training examples are at the root.
▪ Partition the examples recursively by choosing one
attribute each time.

▪ Bottom-up tree pruning

▪ Remove subtrees or branches, in a bottom-up
manner, to improve the estimated accuracy on new
cases.

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Choosing the Splitting Attribute

▪ At each node, available attributes are evaluated

on the basis of separating the classes of the
training examples. A Goodness function is used
for this purpose.
▪ Typical goodness functions:
▪ information gain (ID3/C4.5)
▪ information gain ratio
▪ gini index

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Which attribute to select?

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A criterion for attribute selection

▪ Which is the best attribute?

▪ The one which will result in the smallest tree
▪ Heuristic: choose the attribute that produces the
“purest” nodes

▪ Popular impurity criterion: information gain

▪ Information gain increases with the average purity of
the subsets that an attribute produces

▪ Strategy: choose attribute that results in greatest

information gain
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Computing information

▪ Information is measured in bits

▪ Given a probability distribution, the info required to
predict an event is the distribution’s entropy
▪ Entropy gives the information required in bits (this can
involve fractions of bits!)

▪ Formula for computing the entropy:

entropy( p1 , p2 , , pn ) = − p1logp1 − p2 logp2  − pn logpn

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*Claude Shannon “Father of
information theory”
Born: 30 April 1916
Died: 23 February 2001
Claude Shannon, who has died aged 84, perhaps
more than anyone laid the groundwork for today’s
digital revolution. His exposition of information
theory, stating that all information could be
represented mathematically as a succession of
noughts and ones, facilitated the digital
manipulation of data without which today’s
information society would be unthinkable.
Shannon’s master’s thesis, obtained in 1940 at MIT,
demonstrated that problem solving could be
achieved by manipulating the symbols 0 and 1 in a
process that could be carried out automatically with
electrical circuitry. That dissertation has been
hailed as one of the most significant master’s
theses of the 20th century. Eight years later,
Shannon published another landmark paper, A
Mathematical Theory of Communication, generally
taken as his most important scientific contribution.
Shannon applied the same radical approach to cryptography research, in which he later
became a consultant to the US government.
Many of Shannon’s pioneering insights were developed before they could be applied in
practical form. He was truly a remarkable man, yet unknown to most of the world.
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Example: attribute “Outlook”, 1
Outlook Temperature Humidity Windy Play?
sunny hot high false No
sunny hot high true No
overcast hot high false Yes
rain mild high false Yes
rain cool normal false Yes
rain cool normal true No
overcast cool normal true Yes
sunny mild high false No
sunny cool normal false Yes
rain mild normal false Yes
sunny mild normal true Yes
overcast mild high true Yes
overcast hot normal false Yes
rain mild high true No

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 Example: attribute “Outlook”, 2

▪ “Outlook” = “Sunny”:
info([2,3]) = entropy(2/5,3/5) = −2 / 5 log( 2 / 5) − 3 / 5 log(3 / 5) = 0.971 bits

Note: log(0) is
▪ “Outlook” = “Overcast”: not defined, but
info([4,0]) = entropy(1,0) = −1log(1) − 0 log(0) = 0 bits we evaluate
0*log(0) as zero
▪ “Outlook” = “Rainy”:
info([3,2]) = entropy(3/5,2/5) = −3 / 5 log(3 / 5) − 2 / 5 log( 2 / 5) = 0.971 bits

▪ Expected information for attribute:

info([3,2],[4,0],[3,2]) = (5 / 14)  0.971 + (4 / 14)  0 + (5 / 14)  0.971
= 0.693 bits
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 Computing the information gain
▪ Information gain:
(information before split) – (information after split)
gain(" Outlook" ) = info([9,5] ) - info([2,3] , [4,0], [3,2]) = 0.940 - 0.693
= 0.247 bits

▪ Compute for attribute “Humidity”

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 Example: attribute “Humidity”

▪ “Humidity” = “High”:
info([3,4] ) = entropy(3/ 7,4/7) = −3 / 7 log( 3 / 7) − 4 / 7 log( 4 / 7) = 0.985 bits

▪ “Humidity” = “Normal”:
info([6,1] ) = entropy(6/ 7,1/7) = −6 / 7 log( 6 / 7) − 1 / 7 log(1 / 7) = 0.592 bits

▪ Expected information for attribute:

info([3,4] , [6,1]) = (7 / 14 )  0.985 + (7 / 14 )  0.592 = 0.79 bits

▪ Information Gain:
info([9,5] ) - info([3,4] , [6,1]) = 0.940 - 0.788 = 0.152
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 Computing the information gain
▪ Information gain:
(information before split) – (information after split)
gain(" Outlook" ) = info([9,5] ) - info([2,3] , [4,0], [3,2]) = 0.940 - 0.693
= 0.247 bits

▪ Information gain for attributes from weather

data: gain(" Outlook" ) = 0.247 bits
gain(" Temperature") = 0.029 bits
gain(" Humidity" ) = 0.152 bits
gain(" Windy" ) = 0.048 bits
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 Continuing to split

gain(" Humidity" ) = 0.971 bits

gain(" Temperature") = 0.571 bits

gain(" Windy" ) = 0.020 bits

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The final decision tree

▪ Note: not all leaves need to be pure; sometimes

identical instances have different classes
 Splitting stops when data can’t be split any further

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Highly-branching attributes

▪ Problematic: attributes with a large number of

values (extreme case: ID code)
▪ Subsets are more likely to be pure if there is a
large number of values
Information gain is biased towards choosing attributes
with a large number of values
This may result in overfitting (selection of an attribute
that is non-optimal for prediction)

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Weather Data with ID code
ID Outlook Temperature Humidity Windy Play?
A sunny hot high false No
B sunny hot high true No
C overcast hot high false Yes
D rain mild high false Yes
E rain cool normal false Yes
F rain cool normal true No
G overcast cool normal true Yes
H sunny mild high false No
I sunny cool normal false Yes
J rain mild normal false Yes
K sunny mild normal true Yes
L overcast mild high true Yes
M overcast hot normal false Yes
N rain mild high true No
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Gain ratio

▪ Gain ratio: a modification of the information gain

that reduces its bias on high-branch attributes
▪ Gain ratio should be
▪ Large when data is evenly spread
▪ Small when all data belong to one branch
▪ Gain ratio takes number and size of branches
into account when choosing an attribute
▪ It corrects the information gain by taking the intrinsic
‫ جوهري‬information of a split into account (i.e. how
much info do we need to tell which branch an instance
belongs to)
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Gain Ratio and Intrinsic Info.
▪ Intrinsic information: entropy of distribution of
instances into branches
|S | |S |
IntrinsicInfo(S , A)  − i log i .
|S| 2 | S |

▪ Gain ratio (Quinlan’86) normalizes info gain by:

GainRatio(S , A) = Gain(S , A) .
IntrinsicInfo(S , A)

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Computing the gain ratio
▪ Example: intrinsic information for ID code
info([1,1,  ,1) = 14  (−1 / 14  log 1 / 14 ) = 3.807 bits

▪ Importance of attribute decreases as

intrinsic information gets larger
▪ Example of gain ratio:
gain(" Attribute")
gain_ratio (" Attribute") =
intrinsic_ info(" Attribute")

0.940 bits
gain_ratio (" ID_code") = = 0.246
▪ Example: 3.807 bits

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Gain ratios for weather data
Outlook Temperature
Info: 0.693 Info: 0.911
Gain: 0.940-0.693 0.247 Gain: 0.940-0.911 0.029
Split info: info([5,4,5]) 1.577 Split info: info([4,6,4]) 1.362
Gain ratio: 0.247/1.577 0.156 Gain ratio: 0.029/1.362 0.021

Humidity Windy
Info: 0.788 Info: 0.892
Gain: 0.940-0.788 0.152 Gain: 0.940-0.892 0.048
Split info: info([7,7]) 1.000 Split info: info([8,6]) 0.985
Gain ratio: 0.152/1 0.152 Gain ratio: 0.048/0.985 0.049

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Summary

▪ Top-Down Decision Tree Construction

▪ Choosing the Splitting Attribute
▪ Information Gain biased towards attributes with a
large number of values
▪ Gain Ratio takes number and size of branches
into account when choosing an attribute

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Discussion

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