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WATER QUALITY BASICS

FOR THE LAND USE COMMISSIONER
This text originated as HVCEO Bulletin 47 dated 12/1986

1. INTRODUCTION
This report was originally prepared as an educational project to assist volunteer members of local
planning and zoning commissions. The goal was to provide them with a basic water resource
primer tailored to this part of Connecticut, for use as a technical aid in reviewing applications and
conducting planning activities. While originally prepared in 1986, this text remains relevant in
addressing the vital issue of local water resource protection.   

The water resources of the Housatonic Valley Planning Region are derived from precipitation, both
that which falls locally and that which falls elsewhere and flows in via surface watercourses and
groundwater. Rail or melting snow may run directly over the land into watercourses, or again in a
down slope spring, wetland, stream, or other surface water body.

The quality of the water as it moves through this portion of its natural cycle will depend to a great
extent on the types of materials with which it comes in contact. In addition, man may interrupt the
natural flow patterns of the water, diverting it for residential, industrial or other purposes, and
possibly returning it to the natural system via septic systems or other means.

In addition to the readily observable surface waters, the Region’s waters can also be found in
bedrock fractures, surficial geologic deposits, and soil. An overview of each of these sources of
water is presented herein.
 

2. SURFACE WATER
Much of the Region is characterized by ridges and valleys. These features have given rise to the
creation of a variety of lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams. The most prominent surface water
resource in the Region is Candlewood Lake, a man-made body of water which lies mostly in New
Fairfield but also occupies portions of Danbury, Brookfield, New Milford and Sherman. Other
sizable lakes in the Region include Ball Pond, Squantz Pond, Mamanasco Lake, Taunton Pond,
Lake Kenosia, and Lakes Lillinonah and Zoar.

Three major river systems traverse the Region, the largest one being the Housatonic which flows
southward through New Milford and then adjacent to Bridgewater, Brookfield and Newtown. It is
joined in New Milford by the second largest watercourse, the Still River, which flows easterly
through Danbury and then northerly through Brookfield toward its confluence with the Housatonic.
The third most significant river is the Norwalk which has its headwaters in the Great Swamp of
Ridgefield and flows southerly into Wilton.

The chemical quality of the Region’s surface waters under natural conditions is generally good. In
contrast to groundwater, the surface waters in the Region are subject to good mixing through wave
action and turbulent flow. This factor is significant when considering the dilution potential of surface
water as compared to groundwater. Contaminants will generally become diluted in surface water
much more quickly than in groundwater. In addition, exposure to sunlight and air serves to
dissipate many chemicals from surface waters, whereas groundwater simply stores them.

As a general rule, surface waters are also less mineralized than groundwater. The reason for this is
that the quantities and kinds of dissolved minerals carried by water depend chiefly on the types of
rocks and soils with which the water comes into contact. Because groundwater is in much longer
contact with rocks and soils, it usually contains more dissolved minerals than the water of streams
or lakes. Surface waters can nevertheless be plagued by a variety of natural and man-made
impurities.

 
3. GROUNDWATER
A. GROUNDWATER - WATER IN BEDROCK FRACTURES. The bedrock of the Region consists
primarily of metamorphic and igneous crystalline rocks such as gneiss, schist and granite. In some
areas the bedrock is exposed in natural outcrops or in road cuts. Groundwater is transmitted in
these hard rocks through fracture systems, or interconnected cracks, both horizontal and vertical,
within several hundred feet of the surface.

The size and distribution of these water bearing fractures is irregular, and therefore well water
yields will differ significantly from one site to another, but generally do not exceed 50 gallons per
minute and frequently yield less than 5 gallons per minute.

Bedrock is the principal aquifer underlying more than 90% of the Region. It provides an important
source of water for small individual uses such as private dwellings and also for some larger scale
uses such as commercial, institutional and industrial facilities.

Bedrock in the Region consists of two general types, carbonate and non-carbonate. Carbonate
bedrock, which consists entirely of marble in this Region, is composed predominantly of calcium
and magnesium carbonate minerals. These minerals are more soluble than the minerals in non-
carbonate rocks such as gneisses and schists. Typically, carbonate bedrock is more fractured and
tends to yield more water than the non-carbonate bedrock. However, the water associated with this
rock generally has significantly more dissolved solids and is quite hard due to the calcium and
magnesium carbonates that are dissolved in it.

Carbonate bedrock also weathers more readily than does the more resistant gneiss and schist. As
a result, the marble areas of the Region have over the ages tended to become river valleys, such
as the Still River valley.

Bedrock exposures of marble are not common due to their ease of chemical weathering.
Exposures, where they exist, are of considerable interest. The calcium rich soils resulting from the
chemical weathering of marble outcrops provide restricted habitats for plants and animals which
are not commonly found in other parts of Connecticut. 

Of particular significance is when these calcium rich soils are found in wetlands. Such wetlands are
known as "calcareous" and their alkaline nature provides a unique habitat for a variety of rare and
endangered species of flora and fauna. The Still River valley contains significant areas of
calcareous wetland.

Non-carbonate bedrock, such as gneiss, schist and granite, is more diverse in origin and
composition. It generally consists of compounds of the element silicon which are only slightly
soluble under natural conditions. Outcrops of non carbonate bedrock are more common than the
carbonate type due to slower weathering.

All bedrock types can transmit water through seams or fractures for relatively long distances, and
provide little purification or attenuation of pollutants beyond that which occurred in the soil at the
site of discharge. Cases of well contamination in bedrock aquifers have been discovered at
considerable distances from suspected pollution sources. Control of pollutant sources is the only
certain way to prevent damage to the quality of water in bedrock.

3B. GROUNDWATER - WATER IN TILL AND STRATIFIED DRIFT. The surficial geology of the
Region, which consists of those earth materials above bedrock, consists of two types of deposits:
till and stratified drift.

Till is the predominant surficial geologic material found in Connecticut. It was formed when glacial
ice melted and directly deposited the rocky debris that was trapped on, in, or under the ice on the
surface of the land. Till is composed of various mixtures of boulders, gravel, sand, silt, and clay
particles, none of which are significantly sorted by water according to grain size.

Although thickness can vary from 0 to 200 feet, till in this Region is usually shallow, frequently from
10 to 50 feet deep. Its relatively low hydraulic conductivity limits wells to very modest yields,
typically less than one gallon per minute in a shallow domestic well. Most such wells have long
since been replaced by bedrock wells.

Stratified drift consists of sand and\or gravel that is commonly stratified into distinct layers. These
materials were laid down by water emanating from or flowing within the melting glacier.

Most people can easily envision the appearance of a melting snow bank along a roadside on a
sunny day late in February. As the resulting meltwater meanders through roadside sand, it induces
a natural sorting and stratifying action such that particles of similar size are deposited together.
Melting water from the last glacier accomplished this on a grand scale. The resulting water lain
deposits formed the Region’s stratified drift.

The Region’s most productive aquifers are located in stratified drift. Where stratified drift has
favorable hydraulic characteristics because of its coarse texture and saturated thickness, wells may
yield relatively large volumes of water. Yields of 50 to 2,000 gallons of water per minute are typical.
Because of their highly productive nature, the HVCEO has placed a major emphasis upon the need
for special development regulations over stratified drift aquifers.

3C. GROUNDWATER- MOVEMENT OF CONTAMINANTS. Groundwater is subject to

contamination from a variety of sources. Once a contaminated fluid seeps into the earth, its
movement and concentration is governed by a number of factors. The direction of movement is
controlled by gravity, the permeability of the soil, sediment fabric, bedding structure and the slope
of the water table.

The initial movement of the fluid is generally downward until a layer of low permeability or the water
table is reached. Lateral movement then develops in the shape of a plume. The rate of movement
is controlled by the slope of the water table, permeability of the aquifer material and contaminant-
material interaction. Concentration of the contaminant is also controlled by this interaction.

The interactions between the contaminant and geologic materials are complex and depend on the
type of subsurface material present and the type of contaminant. For example, metals can be
adsorbed on fine soil particles. Their movement through the soil can therefore be slower than the
mass groundwater movement and concentrations may be lower than in the original contaminated
fluid.

In the case of movement through fractured bedrock, however, little adsorption of metals occurs and
movement may occur at the same rate as the groundwater mass. In addition to adsorption, other
natural mechanisms which may help to prevent or retard the movement of contaminants below the
soil layer include chemical precipitation, chemical degradation, volatization, and biological
degradation.
Contaminants entering and moving through the groundwater system become a problem when they
discharge into surface water bodies or water supply wells at concentrations and volumes sufficient
to significantly degrade the existing water quality. In areas of changing land use, contaminated
groundwater can become a problem when wells are drilled in or near the contaminated plumes,
thus shifting the flow of the contaminated water to wells.

Such problems are compounded by the relatively slow movement of groundwater which implies
very slow natural flushing or prolonged periods of cleanup. More on this below.

4. SOIL MOISTURE
Mineral soil particles are classified by size into sand, the largest, silt, and clay, the smallest. The
size of a soil particle is directly related to its chemical reactivity. As the particle size decreases, the
surface area per unit mass increases. The more surface area, the greater the number of negatively
charged locations on the particle surface.

These negatively charged sites are called cation exchange sites. Cation exchange sites can hold
positively charged elements or compounds to the soil particle surface. All things being equal, the
more cation exchange sites available in the soil the greater is the soil’s ability to filter out
contaminants.

The largest soil particles are sand which are composed dominantly of the mineral quartz. Sand
sizes range from 0.2 to 0.05 mm in diameter. Water flows quickly through these soils due to the
large pore spaces between the sand grains. The quicker water flows through the soil, the less time
there is for contaminants to be filtered out. Furthermore, the sand grains do not possess many
cation exchange sites.

Silt ranges in size from 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter. Clay particles, along with organic matter, are
the primary source of the soil’s cation exchange sites. Not only do the exchange sites help to
capture water borne contaminants, but the small pore spaces associated with the clay sized
particles slow the flow of water through the soil. These are just two of the factors that are of prime
importance in cleansing the water entering the soil.
Clay particles are less than 0.002 mm in diameter. Clay particles, along with organic matter, are the
primary source of the soil’s cation exchange sites. Not only do the exchange sites help to capture
water borne contaminants, but the small pore spaces associated with the clay sized particles slow
the flow of water through the soil. These are just two of the factors that are of prime importance in
cleansing the water entering the soil.

Different soils can hold varying amounts of water depending on the dominant size of the soil. Some
soils may store as much as 54,000 gallons of water per acre for each foot of soil depth. Soils of fine
texture and high in organic matter will hold the most water. Sandy soils low in organic matter may
store only one-half to one-third of this amount.

5. WATER QUALITY
5A. WATER QUALITY - INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this section is to identify the major
physical characteristics of water and to highlight the major chemical and biological substances of
concern with regard to water quality. To begin with, a brief review of some simple chemical
terminology is in order.

The matter on earth consists of a limited number of basic substances called elements. Elements
are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions. There
are 96 naturally occurring elements and some additional synthetic or man-made elements.

The 15 most abundant elements on land include, in order of abundance, oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, titanium, hydrogen, phosphorus, manganese,
fluorine, sulfur and carbon. 

The first nine of these elements make up 99% of the earth’s crust. The elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen constitute all but one percent of the world’s living creatures. Not surprisingly,
discussion of water quality frequently makes mention of these abundant elements.

Elements consist of sub-units called atoms, which in turn consist of special combinations of
protons, neutrons, and electrons. Electrons are negatively charged particles and principally
responsible for chemical reactivity. Protons are positively charged particles and neutrons are
neutral. Protons and neutrons are located in the center of the atom called its nucleus. Electrons
reside in a designated space around the nucleus.

Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that carry a positive or negative electric charge as a result of
having lost or gained one or more electrons. Many substances readily lose electrons in water and
thus become ions.

Combinations of the earth’s elements produce a wide variety of compounds. The fundamental unit
of a compound is known as a molecule. Chemists traditionally refer to compounds containing the
element carbon as organic compounds. All other compounds are called inorganic compounds. 

Organic compounds consist of naturally occurring plant and animal matter and synthetic organic
chemicals manufactured in the laboratory. Organic chemicals outnumber all others by at least 12 to
1 due to the unique ability of carbon to unite with itself and other elements.

Crystalline inorganic compounds and elements are also known as minerals. Minerals may be
metallic, such as iron or aluminum, or non-metallic, such as quartz and feldspar. Most of the earth’s
minerals are clustered into different types of rocks. Bedrock in the HVCEO area is usually
composed of a combination of minerals. For example, the bedrock granite is commonly composed
of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Water is commonly referred to as the universal solvent. As such, it nearly always contains a variety
of elements and compounds in solution. The amount of these constituents in any particular water
sample is known as the total dissolved solid content. Common constituents of the water in the
Region include silicon, iron, manganese, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and sulfate,
accurately reflecting the earth’s more abundant elements.

Most of the constituents found in water are measured in milligrams per liter (mg/1). This is also
expressed, not quite so precisely, as parts per million (ppm). 

For comparison, one ppm is equivalent to one minute in the space of two years or one inch in 16
miles. Certain contaminants, such as mercury, require the even smaller measurement of
micrograms per liter or ug/1. There are one thousand micrograms in one milligram. One microgram
per liter is roughly equivalent to one part per billion or ppb. One ppb is equivalent to four drops of
water in an Olympic sized swimming pool.

With this basic understanding of chemical terminology and measurement the major physical,
chemical, and biological parameters of water quality can be explored.

Much of the discussion on the next three sections of the report was adapted from a report entitled
"Water Resources Inventory of Connecticut, part 6, Upper Housatonic River Basin," by the U.S.
Geological Survey, 1972; and "The Water Test User’s Manual," by the water Test Corporation, 5 th
Edition, 1985.

5B. WATER QUALITY - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Hardness: Hardness is a property of

water and generally refers to the capacity of water to precipitate soap from solution.

Hardness is primarily caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium ions in water. Iron and
manganese also contribute to the hardness of water. Many people consider hardness to be a
nuisance because larger amounts of soap are required to form washing suds. In addition, hardness
causes soap to deposit an insoluble precipitate or scum on bathtubs. Hardness can also form scale
in boilers, water heaters, radiators and pipes.

In the Housatonic Valley Region, hardness ranges widely. Water from the carbonate bedrock and
stratified drift aquifers is hard to very hard. Most water from the non-carbonate bedrock aquifers is
soft to moderately hard. Water having a hardness of more than 120mg/1 is commonly softened for
domestic use.

Water is usually softened by an ion exchange water softener device. The water softener works by
exchanging sodium ions for the magnesium and calcium ions as the water passes through it. By
extracting the hardness ions from the water, softeners make the water more desirable for bathing,
laundering, and other uses.

Color: Color in water may be of natural origin (mineral or organic) such as iron and manganese
compounds, algae, weeds, and humus material. It may also be caused by inorganic or organic
wastes from industry. The true color of water is considered to be only that attributable to
substances in solution after the suspended material has been removed.

Water for domestic and some industrial uses should be free of perceptible color. Color in water is
objectionable in food and beverage processing and many manufacturing processes. Results are
usually expressed as units of color and not as mg/1.

Temperature: Temperature fluctuates widely in streams and shallow wells following seasonal
climatic changes, but wells at depths of 30 to 60 feet remain within 2 or 3 degrees of mean annual
air temperature which is 49.3F for the Greater Danbury Area. Disposal of water used for cooling or
industrial processing causes local temperature abnormalities.

Temperature affects the usefulness of water for many purposes. For most uses, especially cooling,
water of uniformly low temperatures is desired. A rise of a few degrees in the temperature of a
stream may limit its capacity to support aquatic life. Warm water will carry less oxygen in solution
than water at low temperatures, and a corrosive water will become more corrosive with increased
temperatures. Temperature also influences the solubility of most minerals.

Dissolved Oxygen: This is the oxygen dissolved as a gas in water or other liquid and is usually
expressed in mg/1, ppm or percent saturation. Adequate dissolved oxygen levels are necessary in
waters to protect fish and other aquatic life and to prevent offensive odors. Low dissolved oxygen
concentrations are generally due to excessive organic solids discharged as a result of inadequately
treated waste. Excessive algal growths may cause vastly fluctuating dissolved oxygen levels.

Other factors such as temperature and water movement also have an impact on dissolved oxygen
levels. Other factors such as temperature and water movement also have an impact on dissolved
oxygen levels.

Sources of dissolved oxygen are natural aeration and photosynthesis by aquatic vegetation. In
unpolluted waters, oxygen is usually present in amounts of 10 ppm or less. About 3 to 5 ppm is
accepted as the lowest limit for support of fish life over a long period of time. According to DEP
criteria, the dissolved oxygen in class AA, A and B surface waters should not be less than 5mg/1 at
any time.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to remove
waste organic matter from water through the process of decomposition by bacteria. The waste
organic matter is stabilized or made unobjectionable through its decomposition by living bacterial
organisms which need the oxygen in water to do their work. BOD therefore provides an index of the
degree of organic pollution of water.

The effect of wastewater with a high BOD is to reduce the dissolved oxygen level in the receiving
stream. DEP has established BOD limits for point sources of waste discharges to maintain an
adequate level of dissolved oxygen to support aquatic life.

Turbidity: This is an optical property of water attributed to suspended or colloidal matter which
inhibits light penetration. It may be caused by microorganisms or algae, suspended mineral
substances including iron and manganese compounds, clay or silt, or fibers and other materials. It
may result from natural processes or erosion or from the addition of domestic sewage or wastes
from various industries.

Excessive turbidity is harmful or lethal to fish and other aquatic life. It is also very undesirable in
water used by most industries, especially in process water. Turbidity can also produce undesirable
recreational waters and modify water temperature. Results are expressed in standard units, not
mg/1.

Ph: The pH of water is a measure of its acid or alkaline nature. Specially, it is an expression of the
hydrogen ion concentration of the solution.

To determine if water is acidic or alkaline, a scale known as the pH scale is generally used. At pH 7
the solution is neutral. When there are more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl ions (OH-), the pH is
less than 7 and the solution is acidic. When there are more hydroxyl ions, the pH is greater than 7
and the solution is alkaline. Thus, on the pH scale, lower numbers indicate a higher concentration
of acid. The pH of most natural water ranges between 6 and 8.

Acidic water and excessively alkaline water corrode metals and can adversely affect aquatic life.
PH can also affect the degree of toxicity of many chemicals by altering their solubility and hence
their association with the hydrogen ions or other elements in water. For example, low pH conditions
may cause the release of metals from sediment deposits into the water of a lake.

Acid rain, the common term describing the deposition of acidic compounds via rain, snow or fog, is
characterized by water with a low pH. These acids are formed when nitrogen oxide or sulfur dioxide
emissions, primarily from the combustion of fossil fuels, mix with moisture in the air and are
converted to sulfuric and nitric acids. Natural rain has a pH range of 5 to 5.6, therefore, it is
somewhat acidic. However, acid rain has a pH range of 4 to 4.6 which is ten times as acidic as
natural rainfall. At the present time, rainfall in the Danbury Area has an average pH of 4.5
according to the Danbury Water Department.

According to the 14th Annual Report (1983) of the National Council on Environmental Quality, "a pH
of 5.5 has been shown to be stressful to certain sensitive cold-water game fish, and in a laboratory
environment these fish cannot survive in water with a pH lower than 5.0. Fortunately, low pH
rainfall does not automatically mean that the water in lakes and streams will become acidic. Most
U.S. watersheds have a natural ability to buffer acidity. As the acid rainfall moves through the
watershed, alkaline soils can neutralize the acidity. However, some watersheds particularly those
at high altitudes with thin soil, have less ability to buffer deposited acids."

The ability of water to neutralize added acids or bases is called its buffering capacity. This buffering
capacity is critical to the maintenance of health conditions in aquatic systems, particularly where
they are stressed by pollution such as acid rain.

It should be noted that watersheds which are currently buffered by alkaline soils do not have an
unlimited capacity to neutralize acid rain. It such watersheds continue to receive acid precipitation,
the soils may eventually lose their buffering capacity, resulting in water quality impacts upon
surface water and aquatic life. Such an occurrence could be sudden and irreversible.

Much certainty and disagreement exists in both the scientific and political communities as to the
best approach for controlling acid rain. One thing is clear, its effect is being felt in the Housatonic
Valley Region. According to the Danbury Water Department, after major storms the acidity of water
in the City’s reservoirs may increase from a neutral pH of 7 to a pH of between 5 and 6 - 100 to 200
times more acidic. Water Department staff readjust the acidity of the water by adding sodium
hydroxide (an alkali) before it leaves the water treatment system.

Several states in the northeast are now attempting to neutralize the damage from acid rain to
selected lakes by pouring tons of a powdered limestone slurry into the lakes. This technique has
been used successfully for years in Scandinavia.

5C. WATER QUALITY - BIOLOGICAL IMPURITIES. In order to deal with water quality it is
important to understand simplified definitions of "bacteria" and "virus". Bacteria are microscopic,
unicellular plant cells which may occur as individual cells or in clumps. In size, bacteria are on the
order of 1/25,000 of an inch. For reference, 250,000 bacteria could easily fit into the dot of this "i".
Bacteria are also prolific - under the right conditions, one bacterium could produce a colony large
enough to cover a football field in 24 hours.

Bacteria may be classified on the basis of their requirements for free atmospheric oxygen. Some
bacteria require free oxygen and are termed aerobic (air living). Other bacteria cannot live in the
presence of atmospheric oxygen and are called anaerobic. Bacteria are useful in the
decomposition of dead plants and animals, and may also play a beneficial role in the
decomposition of some types of contaminating agents.

Bacteria are dependent upon the proper temperature for life and reproduction. High temperature
quickly kills bacteria. Bacteria may also be killed by the action of chemicals called disinfectants,
such as chlorine.

Viruses are considered to be the smallest infectious agents capable of replicating themselves in
living cells. They have a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses are usually far
smaller than bacteria and survive by invading other living cells including bacteria. They use the
host cell and cause it to manufacture more viruses and eventually cause the death of the host cell. 

When viruses are not inhabiting living cells, they show none of the usual signs of life. Also, they
have no ability to reproduce outside of a living host cell. The majority of these extremely small
infectious particles fall within a size range of .02-.25 micrometer and can only be visualized directly
with the aid of an electron microscope.
Although bacteria may serve positive functions as stated above, problems in water quality may
arise from the introduction of disease producing bacteria and viruses through disposal of treated
and untreated sewage or animal wastes. These pathogens may live for periods of days to months
below the water table. In highly permeable materials, they may be transported hundreds of feet
along groundwater flow paths. Such biological contamination may render the use of water unfit for
human consumption or other domestic purposes.

The coliform group of bacteria has, as one of its prime habitats, the intestinal tract of humans.
Therefore, the presence in water of members of this group is considered an indication of potential
contamination.

The coliform bacteria themselves do not represent a significant health hazard, but because
diseases such as infectious hepatitis, cholera, dysentery, and assorted other infections are
transmitted by fecal contamination, the presence of coliform indicates the possibility of the
presence of these disease - causing organisms. Due to this relationship, coliform bacteria have
long been used as indicators of the sanitary quality of water. Results of coliform counts in local
water bodies used for swimming are often reported in local newspapers.

Not all waterborne diseases come from bacteria and viruses. Larger organisms, such as amoebas
and protozoans, can also cause water quality problems. The parasite Giardia is one example of a
protozoan which can degrade water quality and foster the need for additional water treatment.
Protozoans such as Giardia are resistant to the usual water treatment chemicals such as chlorine,
and generally heating, distillation, or microfiltration are required for effective control.

5D. WATER QUALITY - INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. Discussed below are several of the more
common inorganic constituents found in the surface and groundwaters of the Housatonic Valley
Region.

Silicon: This element is dissolved from practically all rocks and soils. It is usually found in small
amounts ranging from 1 to 25 mg/1. Surface water usually has a smaller concentration than
groundwater.

Because of its chemical reactivity, silicon does not occur in elemental forms in nature. In surface
water, it is usually present as silica (Si02) or a silicate (silicon, oxygen, plus a metal). Silica can
form hard scale in boilers, water heaters, and pipes but is of no particular health significance.

Iron: Iron occurs naturally in several materials, mainly in the form of oxides, carbonates, silicates,
and sulfides. Decaying vegetation and iron objects in contact with water, sewage, landfill leachate
and industrial waste are also major sources. Surface water in its natural state usually has less than
0.5 mg/1. Ground water generally has higher concentrations than surface water.

Iron in drinking water is a very common problem in the Housatonic Valley Region. Iron is soluble in
groundwater due to the absence of oxygen and is not visible. However, on exposure to air, iron in
water oxidizes to a reddish-brown precipitate and settles out as rust-like material. More than about
0.3 mg/1 iron stains laundry and bathroom fixtures, causes unpleasant odors and a metallic taste to
the water, and favors the growth of iron bacteria.

Iron in water is also objectionable for food and textile processing and recent research has shown
that high iron levels in food and beverages may present a health hazard. Most iron bearing waters
can be satisfactorily treated for domestic use by aeration and/or filtration system.

Manganese: This silver-white metal is dissolved from many rocks and soils. It is often found
associated with iron in natural waters but is not as common as iron. Surface water usually has less
than 0.1 mg/. Ground water generally has higher concentrations than surface water. More than 0.2
mg/1 precipitates upon oxidation. Manganese has the same undesirable characteristics as iron but
is more difficult to remove.

Calcium and Magnesium: These silver white metals are dissolved primarily from carbonate rocks.
Groundwater in carbonate rocks may contain as much as 100 mg/1 calcium and 40 mg/1
magnesium. Surface water normally contains lower concentrations than groundwater.

Hardness and scale forming properties of water are caused by dissolved bicarbonates and sulfates
of these elements. These are objectionable for bathing, laundering, electroplating and dyeing.
Scale formation can present problems in steam boilers, water heaters, and pipes.

High levels of calcium and magnesium in drinking water are also considered to be of some concern
from a public health standpoint. Water softeners can be employed to remove calcium and
magnesium ions.

Sodium and Potassium: These silver white metals are also dissolved from practically all rocks
and soils. Due to their great chemical reactivity, neither sodium or potassium occur in nature in
their free state. Sewage, industrial wastes, and road salt are also major sources. Most home water
softeners replace soluble, hardness-producing minerals with sodium and thus increase the amount
of sodium present.

Since the concentration of potassium in water is usually low, sodium and potassium are often
calculated together and reported as sodium. High levels of sodium and potassium in drinking
waters are a concern with regard to public health.

Several health officials in the Region have recently expressed concern that sodium contamination
of groundwater from water softeners and road salt could eventually render the water undrinkable.
The concentration of sodium in class AA surface waters (existing or proposed drinking water
supplies) should not exceed 20 mg/1 according to DEP’s surface water classifications.

Fluoride: This chemical is dissolved from naturally occurring minerals. Concentrations as high as
6/1 mg/1 have been measured in Connecticut from naturally mineralized water. About 1.0 mg/1 of
fluoride reduces the incidence of tooth decay in young children and is added to public water
supplies by fluoridation. Larger amounts, above 2.4 mg/1, may however cause mottling of tooth
enamel. Levels of fluoride above 6 to 8 mb/1 can cause skeletal fluorosis in humans, a disease
which makes bones brittle. According to the U.S. Public Health Service, approximately 61% of the
U.S. population is drinking fluoridated water.

Sulfur: This chemical is also dissolved from naturally occurring minerals in rocks and soils. It is
generally present as sulfate (SO4) or sulfide (SO2) in surface waters. Sulfur compounds may also
be dissolved in precipitation, and in sewage and industrial wastes.

Sulfates of calcium and magnesium cause permanent hardness and form hard scale in boilers and
hot water pipes. Hydrogen sulfide is responsible for the "rotten egg" odor which may emanate from
stagnant ponds or exposed mud during the summer months, or from under the ice in winter.

Most people can taste unpleasant sulfate concentrations at 300-400 mg/1. Chlorination, aeration,
or filtration can be used to eliminate hydrogen sulfide from drinking water source.

Nitrogen: Like many elements, the compounds of nitrogen by far exceed the abundance of
elemental nitrogen. Three common molecular forms of nitrogen are ammonia (NH3), nitrate
nitrogen (NO3) and nitrite nitrogen (NO2). Ammonia in most waters is caused by the natural
breakdown of animal and vegetable protein material by bacteria. When dissolved in water,
ammonia will react with the water to form ammonium ions.

Nitrate is formed from the complete oxidation of ammonium by certain micro organisms in which
nitrite is an intermediate product. In well oxygenated waters, nitrite is readily oxidized to nitrate. In
addition to naturally decaying animal and vegetable matter, other major sources of nitrogen include
sewage, industrial wastes, fertilizers, and the atmosphere.

While nitrogen is essential to practically all forms of life, all three forms of nitrogen are toxic to
aquatic life when specific concentrations are reached in a waterbody. Nitrate nitrogen encourages
the growth of algae and other organisms which produce undesirable tastes and odors in water. A
concentration of 10 mg/1 of nitrate nitrogen has been shown to be dangerous to the health of
infants. Generally, a concentration greater than 10 mg/1 of nitrate indicates pollution.

Ammonia exerts a negative impact upon surface waters in two ways. First, if the levels are high
enough, ammonia can cause a direct toxicity to fish and aquatic life. Also, ammonia exerts an
oxygen demand upon a receiving water consuming oxygen in the conversion of ammonia to nitrites
and nitrates.

Methods available for the control of nitrogen in drinking waters include steam distillation and
reverse osmosis. Activated carbon is not an effective medium for nitrogen removal.

Phosphorus: Phosphorus usually enters a waterbody from land runoff, domestic sewage, animal
excreta, decaying vegetation, fertilizers, industrial processes, and detergents. Most phosphorus in
surface waters is present as phosphate (PO4). Concentrations of phosphate in natural streams are
generally low; in larger streams they occasionally exceed 1.0 mg/1.

Phosphate is an essential nutrient for free floating aquatic vegetation such as algae. Excess
phosphate may encourage algal blooms and cause problems of odor, taste, and aesthetics.

Connecticut prohibits point source discharges of phosphorus which will raise the phosphorus
concentration of the receiving surface waters to an amount in excess of 0,.03 mg/1.

Other: A wide variety of other inorganic chemicals exist which may have a significant impact on
water quality. A few of the better known examples include asbestos, arsenic, and the heavy metals
cadmium, chromium, lead, copper, zinc, and mercury. Even small quantities of these inorganic
chemicals can contaminate drinking water and present a threat to public health. Methods available
to remove trace amounts of many of these chemicals include distillation, ion exchange, reverse
osmosis, and carbon filtration.

5E. WATER QUALITY - ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS. Of primary concern in water quality

protection today are the synthetic organic chemicals and hydrocarbons. The Connecticut DEP
recently released a report entitled "Protecting Connecticut’s Groundwater" wherein these
contaminants are described. Most of the text below represents excerpts from that report.

The term synthetic organic chemicals (SOC’s) includes a large number of chemicals. Among these
are the toxic and hazardous substances used as solvents in industries, homes and businesses, as
well as pesticides used on lawns and agricultural fields. Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain
atoms of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons of concern are primarily liquid fuels, including
gasoline, oil, and petroleum distillates used in manufacturing. Some components of these fuels,
such as benzene, are extremely hazardous.

Some of the more common organic contaminants in addition to benzene are carbon tetrachloride,
chloroform, dichlorobenzene, dichloroethane, dichloroethylene, dioxin, polychlorinated biphenyls,
tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, and vinyl chloride.

Many industries and businesses use SOC’s and hydrocarbons as part of their normal operation.
Furniture strippers and dry cleaners depend heavily on chemical solvents as cleaning agents.
Automobile repair shops, metal-working industries, and many small industries use solvents
regularly to clean parts. Hospitals, laboratories, and even schools use these chemicals in their
routine laboratory procedures. Problems can occur during the storage, use, transport and disposal
of these chemicals.

Because of the recent ability to detect and measure even very low concentrations of these varied
chemicals in water, synthetic organics and hydrocarbons are being found in a number of
groundwater supplies across the state. These chemicals are often persistent, or slow to degrade.

Once discharged to the ground surface through spillage or purposeful dumping, some will
evaporate, but most will enter the ground either by percolating through the soil down to the water
table, or as dissolved contaminants carried to the water table by percolating rain and snow. Some
contaminants will remain in the soil, where they will continue to leach into the groundwater, often
for many years.

Precise health effects of long-term exposure to low levels of these numerous and highly-varied
compounds are not known. Many, however, are suspected carcinogens. Drinking water standards
have been established for only a handful of SOC’s, but where they exist, maximum permissible
health levels are often very low (less than 50 parts per billion, the equivalent of about one drop in a
swimming pool). Because the "safe" concentrations are so low, spillage of even minute amounts
can cause contamination problems. While health effects are largely unknown, the social and
economic impacts that result from finding SOC’s in a water supply are severe.

Many public and private wells have been contaminated in Connecticut due to SOC's and
hydrocarbons. Several examples include cases in which a residential well was contaminated due to
the use of a degreasing solvent in the owner's own septic tank. In other examples, industrial
dumping caused contamination of public water supply wells serving thousands of users in
Southington, and a gasoline leak in Brookfield polluted several private wells.

Treatment to remove most SOC's from contaminated supplies, either by aeration or filtration with
carbon, is feasible although expensive. Units are available to treat individual faucets or household
supplies and large systems are available to treat major public supplies. Professional advice should
be sought in purchasing any system, since treatment effectiveness varies widely and since any
treatment mechanism requires continuous maintenance.

It should also be noted that activated carbon is not effective in filtering out all organic molecules.
Some varieties of volatile organics in particular are not well removed by carbon. For example,
benzene, a component of gasoline, is a relatively small molecule not easily filtered by carbon.

6. SEPTIC SYSTEMS
The impact of septic disposal systems on water quality is a question raised with great frequency by
members of local commissions. Septic systems can fail in the conventional sense which result in
the surfacing of effluent in the immediate system area. Such failure can create serious public health
and environmental problems. Septic systems can also fail when the amount of discharge overloads
the soil/groundwater treatment system and causes degradation of water quality entirely below the
surface of the ground.

The DEP has released an excellent document entitled "Septic System Manual" which can guide
local land use officials on the technical aspects of the design and installation of on-site subsurface
sense disposal systems. This section, largely adopted from that DEP report, is limited to a
discussion of pollutants and their renovation potential.

 It should be noted that it is possible to perform pollutant-specific calculations for such parameters
as nutrients and bacteria and these calculations are routinely part of the DEP permit process for
large septic systems (i.e., receiving more that, 5,000 gallons per day). In truly critical situations,
such calculations can also be performed f or smaller household systems.

Several basic generalizations about septic systems can be made:

1) Septic tank leach field systems typically provide a high degree of treatment for wastewater; 2)
Current large lot, low population-density zoning serves to minimize pollution of ground or surface
waters; 3) All septic systems will pollute the groundwater directly beneath it and down gradient from
it to a certain extent, thus septic systems create a "zone of influence" where groundwater is not
drinkable. As effluent travels through soil, various purification processes take place, and the
effluent will generally be rapidly retained to a quality suitable for drinking or discharge to a fishable-
swimmable stream; 4) Many of us are safely drinking some amount of wastewater that has been
treated by these natural processes.

There are a variety of pollutants that are contained in domestic sewage which merit some
consideration in this discussion.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and suspended solids are two pollutants in wastewater which
are of prime concern in the degradation of surface water bodies. The average BOD in septic tank
wastewater is 150 mg/l; the average concentration of total suspended solids is 140 mg/I according
to the National Water Well Association. Much of the equipment at a large municipal sewage
treatment plant is there to remove these two wastewater components.

The combination of the septic tank, leaching system biocrust, and soil material is so effective in
treating these components that within four feet of the system, the BOD and suspended solids will
be reduced by 90-98%. Therefore, these pollutants are generally not a concern when considering
groundwater impacts from a septic system.

Knowledge of toxic substances and their effect on humans is still very limited, as is specific
information about their removal in a soil system. The best information available at this time
indicates that roughly 50 hydrocarbon compounds may be contained in a typical domestic sewage
sample, and five or six of these may be considered "toxics" under current standards. Numerous
instances of groundwater contamination from hazardous organic compounds disposed of via septic
tanks, particularly trichloroethylene's, have been recently documented.

Toxic chemicals are treated in the soil by sorption, biodegradation, dilution, and being passed off
as vapor, but they may also react chemically to form additional compounds. Heavy use of certain
products such as degreasers, photochemicals, or septic additives have been known to create
contamination problems.

Domestic sewage also contains large numbers of bacteria. For example, the average concentration
of fecal coliform bacteria in septic tank effluent is 1,200,000/100 ml according to the National Water
Well Association. Most of these bacteria are not harmful.
However, in certain cases, disease causing bacteria may be produced and survive the rather
hostile environment of the septic tank. When the septic tank effluent passes through the biocrust
layer of the leaching field, a great many bacteria will be removed by filtering through the crust layer.
This biologically active crust layer forms at the interface of the crushed stone in the leaching field
and the surrounding soil. The extent of this interface must be very carefully sized for effluent to
enter the soil on a long-term basis or the system will fail.

Studies have shown that 99% of the bacteria discharged in septic effluent is removed within
several feet of the leaching system. The balance of bacteria, and those discharged when a crust
section breaks through, have a limited survival time in soil, with 3 to 6 weeks being a reasonable
figure. Since the velocity of groundwater and effluent is generally very slow, 25 feet per day or less
in most of Connecticut's soils, pathogens generally do not survive long enough to migrate from lots
of substantial size.

Many of the same renovation principles for bacteria apply to viral organisms, with one distinct
difference. Viral organisms can survive for extended periods of time in the zone of saturation, and
therefore may travel greater distances if they reach the groundwater table. The critical safeguard in
virus removal is the preservation of an adequate depth of unsaturated soil between the leaching
system biocrust and the water table.

Most research in the laboratory and field indicates that two feet of unsaturated, porous soil can
adsorb viruses very effectively. This means that the actual flow lines should be at least this long to
ensure good viral removal. This number is somewhat more stringent than the current Health Code
requirement of 18 above a seasonally high water table, making conservative appraisal of seasonal
high groundwater levels important. The current DEP standard is that the system bottom be placed
two feet above the modified high groundwater table, which will occur with the system in operation.

As discussed in the previous chapter, nitrogen is a nutrient which can adversely impact aquatic
habitats. In addition, the nitrate and nitrite forms of nitrogen can play a triggering role in
methemoglobinemia. and are suspected of some involvement in other conditions. Standards for
raw drinking water in Connecticut are established at maximum concentrations of 10 mg/l for the
nitrate and nitrate forms of nitrogen. overly intensive developments utilizing septic tank leach field
systems have contaminated wells above this established standard in a number of instances.

In general, such contamination has occurred with high density, defined here as less than one-half
acre per lot, single-family developments in sandy soils, with shallow wells for water supply. The
average concentration of total nitrogen in septic tank effluent is 50 mg/l according to the National
Water Well Association.

Nitrogen is discharged in human waste and emerges from the septic tank as ammonium and
organic nitrogen. Some nitrogen is removed in the tank and the leaching system, but the balance
will be delivered to the aerobic zone of soil around the leaching system. There will be some
nitrogen uptake and utilization by plants, with the remainder being nitrified or, in other words,
converted to the highly mobile nitrate form. 

From that point the "treatment" available is dilution by infiltrating rainfall and other recharges to the
site, although actual thorough mixing would only take place at a stream outfall or well.

Current DEP practice is to require that the applicant's property have a size and configuration to
allow enough infiltrated average daily rainfall to dilute the nitrogen discharge to the drinking water
standard at the down-gradient property line. For single-family homes, this calculation normally
would require lot sizes at an absolute minimum of 0.6 acres with one acre a suggested minimum.
This does not mean that a higher density cannot be achieved with carefully planned residential
development.

One final point regarding nitrogen is the relationship of nitrogen discharges to wetlands. According
to Section 22a-36 of the Connecticut General Statutes, a stated valuable attribute of wetlands is
their ability to purify groundwater. Nitrate nitrogen in septic tank effluent discharging with
groundwater to a wetland enters an anaerobic soil condition rich in carbon. This condition is ideal
for gentrification, where the nitrogen is released into the atmosphere as a gas, completing the
cycle.

Phosphorus is a component of wastewater which serves as a critical nutrient for plant life. If
phosphorus is discharged to a lake or other impounded waterbody in the right proportion to
nitrogen, the aging process of the water body known as eutrophication can be accelerated. Most
phosphorus in septic system effluent assumes a soluble form. Phosphate is generally adsorbed
readily by soil through the precipitation of iron, aluminum or calcium phosphates. The average
concentration of phosphorus in septic tank effluent is 20 mg/I according to the National Water Well
Association.

There are laboratory techniques which provide a conservative estimate of the capacity for specific
soils to adsorb phosphate. These values can be utilized to calculate the ability of a given
development site to handle the phosphate discharged from a septic system. Soil also has an ability
to regenerate its sorption capability with time. For modern lot sizes, the calculated values seldom
show that phosphate leaching will pose a problem. Indeed, most analyses indicate total removal
within a few feet of a leaching system.

However, this type of analysis does not account for channels in the site which will transmit
phosphorus-bearing wastewater past sorption sites. Under certain conditions, such as very sandy
soils, high water table, shallow fractured bedrock, or a combination of these factors, phosphate
from septic tank effluent may enter and contaminate groundwater or adjacent surface water bodies.
This factor is of prime concern when the leaching system is to be installed proximate to an
impoundment or a close tributary stream.

In summary, under most conditions with good design and installation, septic tank leach field
systems will provide excellent treatment, purifying wastewater to drinking water quality within a
short distance. Certainly, improperly designed, installed or operated systems will not be able to
purify wastewater.

However, even in areas of intensive development or in areas with highly restrictive conditions,
proper engineering analyses of soils. etc. during system design can avoid many of the common
septic system problems. The most desirable location for septic disposal systems are in moderately
well drained loamy soils. These soils contain a well-oxygenated, unsaturated zone which can be
very effective in removing pathogens and phosphorus from wastewater providing flow is not too
rapid.

7. SEWER PLANTS
Sanitary sewers carry the wastewater from residences, commercial buildings, industrial plants and
institutions to a wastewater treatment plant. The treatment plant's basic function is to speed up the
natural processes by which water can be purified and make the wastewater fit for discharge into
streams or for reuse.

Common components of this wastewater include organic wastes and ammonia, disease causing
organisms, plant nutrients, synthetic organic chemicals, and mineral substances. Each of these
components of sewage is discussed below.

Sewage generally contains both organic wastes and ammonia. Ammonia is derived from the
biological degradation of many nitrogen containing compounds, such as urea, the chief component
of urine. These oxygen-demanding wastes are usually destroyed by bacteria if there is sufficient
oxygen present in the water. However, an overload of organic wastewater discharges can result in
oxygen depletion and ammonia toxicity in the receiving surface water body. Too little dissolved
oxygen, or too much ammonia, can have harmful effects on fish and other aquatic life.

A wide variety of disease-causing organisms which can be carried into surface and groundwaters
may also be present in sewage. Modern disinfection techniques, such as chlorination, have
reduced the danger of this type of pollutant. This parameter, however, must be constantly
monitored.

Sewage treatment plant effluents that have large discharge rates relative to stream flow, such as
occurs along the Still River, may adversely impact stream life due to residual chlorine. Where such
problems are suspected, DEP conducts monitoring to identify the extent of the problem.

Plant nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, are typically present in large amounts in
sewage. These nutrients are necessary for aquatic plant life and support and stimulate their
growth. Standard biological waste treatment processes do not remove the phosphorus and
nitrogen to any great extent. In fact, the treatment breaks down the organic form of these elements,
in which form they are part of a large complex molecule, into a smaller and simpler molecule. This
simpler molecule is more readily used by plant life. An excess of these nutrients in water bodies
may result in the prolific growth of aquatic plants. The end result of this process, known as
eutrophication, is the transformation of a water body into a bog or marsh.

High nutrient levels have been implicated as the source of the intense algae blooms in Lakes
Lillinonah and Zoar. One of the major sources of the nutrient phosphorus to these waters has
historically been the sewage treatment plant discharges of Danbury, Bethel, and New Milford. This
nutrient loading is now being controlled however through the seasonal removal of phosphorus from
the treatment plant discharges.

Synthetic organic chemicals may also be present in sewage. These are substances consisting
largely of carbon and hydrogen combined with oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, sodium, chloride, bromide,
or other inorganic chemicals. They are usually large molecules which do not occur naturally but are
mainly manufactured by the chemical industry. Their structure and chemical composition are
tailored by the chemists to serve various uses. Examples include detergents, pesticides, and many
industrial chemicals.

These synthetic organic substances are resistant to biological breakdown since they are
indigestible to the organisms that normally decompose sewage. Many of these substances are
toxic to insects, fish, and other aquatic life. Their possible harm to humans is largely unknown and
still being studied.

Inorganic chemicals and mineral substances can also be found in sewage. These include
numerous compounds of various elements such as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium
combined with other elements or molecules such as chloride, sulfate and phosphate. These
substances may interfere with natural stream purification, but do not represent a threat to aquatic
life unless concentrated to extremely high levels. If the compounds are present as insoluble
suspended solids, they can be removed by letting them settle in the settling tank of the treatment
system.

Treatment of today's wastes in sewage treatment plants is demanding new and more sophisticated
processes in order to effectively control the degree of pollution. In addition to the conventional
primary and secondary treatment of wastes, new methods of advanced waste treatment are being
applied such as specialized biological treatment to remove nitrogen and phosphorus, and chemical
separation techniques such as reverse osmosis, distillation, and adsorption through the use of
activated carbon.

Finally, it should be noted that the growth potential in a sewer service area is directly related to the
design capacity of the sewage treatment plant and the assimilative capacity of the receiving
stream. When this capacity is reached, growth potential is limited as DEP will not issue discharge
permits to a facility that significantly degrades water quality. Recently, the center area sewer
system in Ridgefield reached its limit and a moratorium on all new hookups to the system was
implemented by the Town. Until this treatment plant is expanded, estimated to take three years or
more, no new hookups to the system will be allowed.

As the discharges to a receiving stream begin to overload its assimilative capacity, more advanced
treatment measures become required and associated costs typically increase exponentially. Thus
in many sewer service areas, there is a need to balance the benefits of growth with the increasing
costs for water quality treatment.

8. RUNOFF
The land area from which water drains to a given point is a drainage basin, also known as a
watershed. The drainage basins of smaller streams when added together make up the drainage
basin of the larger stream into which the smaller streams flow.

The purity of water in a stream to a great extent correlates with the overall level of development
and activity that exists in the drainage basin upstream of it. Another way of saying this is that water
quality is a characteristic of the land which contains and yields it for use, and therefore, different
land use and population density policies should be applied to drainage basins depending upon the
degree of water purity desired.

Activities which contaminate water supplies can be divided into two basic categories, point and
non-point. Point sources of pollution are those which are confined to a single, identifiable and
discrete point of entry. For instance, waste discharge pipes are point sources of pollutants. Non-
point sources are diffuse, indefinite and general sources of pollution and include watershed runoff.

The most intractable class of pollutants is non-point chemical contaminants. In this category fall
many substances which inevitably accompany intense land use, such as pesticides, fertilizers, road
salts, hydrocarbons and heavy metals. These substances pose the most severe challenge to
regulatory systems for two reasons, their relatively unknown physical consequences and their
immunity from traditional legal deterrents.

The water quality effects of stormwater runoff have historically received little attention. Recent
research has underscored the potential significance of this pollution source, however. According to
the "Results of the Nationwide Runoff Program" prepared by the US EPA in 1983:

1) heavy metals (especially copper, lead and zinc) are by far the most prevalent priority pollutant
found in urban runoff; 2) some of these metals may represent a significant threat to aquatic life and
also pose a hazard to human health if water supply intakes are in close proximity to urban
stormwater discharges; 3) the organic priority pollutants, such as various hydrocarbons, were
detected less frequently and at lower concentrations than the heavy metals; and 4) coliform
bacteria are present at high levels in urban runoff and can have a significant negative impact on the
recreational uses of lakes.

Also, 5) nutrients are generally present in urban runoff, but concentrations do not generally appear
to be high in comparison with other possible discharges to receiving water bodies; 6) oxygen
demanding substances are present in urban runoff in concentrations approximating those in
secondary treatment plant discharges; and 7) total suspended solids concentrations in urban runoff
are fairly high in comparison with treatment plant discharges.

It should be noted that the effects of urban runoff on receiving water quality are highly site-specific.
They depend on the type, size, and hydrology of the water body; the urban runoff quantity and
quality characteristics; the designated beneficial use; and the concentration levels of the specific
pollutants that affect that use.

Techniques identified in the EPA report to control urban runoff quality include detention devices,
street sweeping, grass swales and recharge devices. Detention basins, recharge devices, and
grass swales were found to be effective in providing improvements in urban runoff quality. Street
sweeping, however, was found to be generally ineffective in improving the quality of urban runoff.
Due to the potential impact of runoff on water quality, some local communities have begun to
develop and implement stormwater management programs incorporating water quality objectives.

An interesting study of three adjacent watersheds in the town of Fairfield entitled "Detection of Non-
Point Pollution of Small Streams in Southwest Connecticut" by S. Bongiorno et al, 1976,
demonstrates the relationship of land development to water quality. All three areas have similar
geology of crystalline bedrock devoid of any calcium carbonate deposits. The easternmost basin,
the watershed of the Rooster River on the Bridgeport-Fairfield line, is highly urbanized with a high
density of dwellings in multiple family and much quarter-acre lot zoning.

The watershed of the djacent Mill River is moderately urbanized and that of the Sasco River to the
west of the Mill River is semi-rural. Ninety percent of the homes in the Rooster River basin are
connected to sanitary sewer systems which carry waste materials to treatment plants. The other
two watershed areas dispose of wastes in septic tanks.

The study showed that the water quality of the Rooster River in the most highly urbanized
watershed was worse in almost all pollution parameters than that of the other two rivers despite the
fact that the Rooster has had sanitary sewering. The river's water quality was downgraded by
street and surface runoff which was flushed into storm sewers. Such stormwater runoff can contain
many chemicals such as lawn fertilizers, organic herbicides, pesticides, and metallic ions which can
reach surface waters through storm sewers and significantly lower the quality of the water.
Rooftops, paved areas, automobiles, and lawns in a watershed area each makes its contribution to
the receiving waters. Some of the specific conclusions of this study were as follows:

1) Since the future of a stream is determined mainly by what happens in the watershed, the central
question at issue is how can suburban areas be developed with the least possible deterioration of
the riverine system from the pervasive influence of non-point pollution? Ecological principles teach
us that ad hoc treatment of symptoms directed to cleaning water once it has reached a stream is
no substitute for comprehensive planning based on the watershed unit. One of the most important
goals at the watershed level is to maintain the functional integrity of the inland wetlands.

A paramount finding of recent work has been elucidation of the significant role that wetlands play in
pollution filtration. Removal of pollutants such as nitrate occurs in the undisturbed ooze beneath
wetland vegetation. A significant key to stream water quality improvement is therefore the
conservation of inland wetlands.

2) A second goal at the watershed level is the preservation of stream buffer zones. Forest
ecologists have recently discovered that natural strands of vegetation, left along a stream, in
otherwise disturbed watersheds where clear-cutting logging operations are involved, can work to
trap nutrients on the land. If allowed to move into the streams by unimpeded overland flow, these
sue nutrients would become pollutants and lower water quality. It is therefore understandable why
townwide land use plans often emphasize the need to preserve strips of natural vegetation along
streams to minimize water pollution by purifying water as it moves toward the stream as well as
absorbing excess runoff.

3) Watershed level planning essentially calls for managing runoff within watershed boundaries. If
engineering and architectural designs foster the "throwing away" of runoff after it has washed
across parking lots, streets, and the lawns of suburbia, there is little hope in controlling non-point
pollution in local rivers. 

However, the community can work to reverse this trend by encouraging a wide-range plan of water
retention by the individual homeowner, the business or commercial proprietor, as well as the town
itself. An effort can be made to absorb a stipulated portion of roof, driveway, street or parking lot
generated runoff. To this end a number of alternatives have been proposed: underdesigned storm
sewers, the use of porous pavements where feasible, and storm retention ponds.

4) Soil scientists have known for a long time that increasing the percent of organic matter in soils,
as would be accomplished through use of rough covers that trap leaves, substantially improves the
water absorbing and holding capacity of the soil. Yet, modern suburban mores promote the
opposite by the planting of extensive lawns, which also contribute inorganic fertilizer to nearby
streams in runoff, whose soil tends to become compacted and less absorbent as soil aggregates
break down because of loss of organic matter through repeated raking. By carpeting the earth
around homes and commercial establishments with smaller lawns and more rough cover,
significant reduction in suburban surf ace runoff could be realized.

An interesting series of studies, prepared for the HVCEO in 1980, projected the probable impacts
of non-point sources on five subwatersheds of the Still River drainage basin. Generally, these
studies concluded that the BOD concentrations would worsen and become more significant,
coliform standard violations would be frequent, nitrogen concentration is not and will not be a
problem, phosphorus concentrations will increase and significantly exceed the desirable limit of
0.03 ppm, and concentrations of the heavy metals zinc and copper are expected to violate the
aquatic life standard. Recommended practices to curb these adverse impacts included erosion
control, run-off control, improved urban cleanliness, and better agricultural management.

The impact of development in the watersheds of public water supply reservoirs is a particularly
important concern. About one quarter of the Housatonic Valley Region's land area is in existing
public water supply watersheds. A fundamental issue is the determination of what extent public
water supply watersheds should be protected from pollutant sources versus the heavy reliance
upon treatment of the resultant drinking water. 

There are extreme applications of either principle. All public drinking water supply watersheds
cannot be restricted from any other use. Conversely, raw water sources cannot be endlessly
degraded in expectation of effective remedial treatment before consumption.

Typically, water treatment at a municipal facility involves a number of steps to help ensure
potability. The treatment plant fed by West Lake Reservoir in Danbury provides an example. Water
is withdrawn from the Reservoir and treated with alum (aluminum sulfate) to help precipitate
sediment. The mixing of the alum and water takes plate in large flocculation tanks where much of
the sediment settles. The water is then slowly filtered through beds of sand to remove finer grained
sediments and bacteria. Following this step, the water is then treated with chlorine to further control
bacteria, fluoride to reduce tooth decay, and sodium hydroxide to neutralize pH. After testing for
water quality, the water is then ready for distribution.

Additional treatment measures may be desirable or needed at other water treatment plants.
Aeration is one such treatment measure. This bubbling of the water facilitates the diffusing into the
atmosphere of gases in the water which may cause unpleasant odors and taste. Examples of
gases released include volatile organics and hydrogen sulfide, which can cause a rotten egg odor.
Aeration can also cause other chemicals, such as inorganics, to settle to the bottom of the
treatment tank as particulates. Carbon filtration is another treatment measure which may be
necessary in order to control certain contaminants such as synthetic organic chemicals.

Regular monitoring and testing of public water supplies for contamination is required by federal and
state drinking water regulations. It should be noted however, that many contaminants do not fall
within the parameters of the Safe Drinking Water Act and may not be detected in routine testing.
More detailed testing for these other parameters is usually only implemented when a specific threat
to a water supply has been discovered, such as a nearby chemical spill.

Development within a public water supply watershed can lead to erosion and sedimentation and
the degradation of water quality from a variety of chemical compounds such as road salt, pesticides
and herbicides, fertilizers, hydrocarbons, and automotive exhausts. These chemical compounds
generally enter the hydrologic regime as watershed run-off. Authorities are not in agreement as to
the ability of available treatment practices to combat the wide range of potentially hazardous
substances which may affect a public water supply.

Exacerbating this uncertainty is the knowledge that once water resource lands have been
converted to another use, their reclamation is rarely, if ever, possible. Therefore, factors such as
acceptable margins of safety, duration of adverse impacts and the risks of acting with incomplete
information assume critical importance. These intangible components dictate that from the public
health perspective, water supply basins should be developed conservatively wherever possible.

9. EUTROPHICATION
All lakes and ponds are subject to eutrophication. This is an aging process which results in a
decline in the environmental health of a waterbody, and a reduction in its recreational utility and
aesthetic appeal. Eutrophication is a gradual natural process which may be accelerated by man's
use of a lake and its associated watershed. Through considerable effort and commitment, the
eutrophication process is controllable and manageable. Nearly every lake and pond in Connecticut
is in need of "preservation" management to slow down the eutrophication process and prolong its
life. Many lakes and ponds are also in need of "restoration" management to correct or reverse
eutrophic conditions brought about by the lack of prudent resource management in the past.

Eutrophication is caused by the enrichment of the lake with plant nutrients from its surrounding
watershed land. Nutrients are inorganic elements that are necessary for the growth of plants and
animals. Phosphorus has been found to be the limiting nutrient in the eutrophication process in
most Connecticut lakes. The key to controlling the eutrophication process, therefore, is controlling
phosphorus enrichment.
During the eutrophication process, many lake characteristics undergo dramatic changes. To a lake
user, major consequences are that algae blooms increase in frequency, intensity, and duration;
beds of aquatic plants become dense and more extensive in coverage of the lake bottom; sediment
deposits accumulate, shoal areas develop, and the lake becomes shallower; and the oxygen
content of bottom waters declines. As these conditions become pronounced, recreation
opportunities become seriously impaired. During the latter stages of the eutrophication process, the
lake evolves to a wetland such as a swamp, marsh, or bog.

The rate at which eutrophication advances is determined by the rate at which the lake is fertilized
by its watershed. Under natural conditions, nutrient inputs from a forested watershed are minimal
and it may take centuries for a lake to change in appearance. However, man's development and
use of a lakes watershed typically results in greater nutrient generation within the watershed, and
an acceleration in the rate of eutrophication. If man's watershed activities are not controlled, severe
lake eutrophication can be brought about in a matter of decades.

There are three basic stages of eutrophication which are used to describe the ate of a lake. These
stages are termed oligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic. Oligotrophic refers to lakes which are in
the early stages of the eutrophication process. mesotrophic refers to middle aged lakes, and
eutrophic refers to lakes in the latter stages of the eutrophication process.

The DEP recognizes four trophic classifications for lakes in Connecticut. Here is the trophic status
of the major lakes in the Housatonic Valley Region:

1. Loligo-Mesotrophic
Candlewood

2. Mesotrophic
Ball Pond
Squantz Pond

3. Melo-Eutrophic
Mamanasco
Taunton Pond
4. Eutrophic
Kenosia

5. Highly Eutrophic
Lillinonah
Zoar

Source: The Trophic Classification of 70 CT Lakes, by DEP, 1982.

An excellent reference on the process of eutrophication and alternative control techniques is "A
Watershed Management Guide for Connecticut Lakes", by the Connecticut Department of
Environmental Protection.

10. EROSION
Erosion is usually defined as the wearing any of soil material due to the singular or combined
effects of water, wind, ice, and gravity. On undisturbed vegetated land, erosion occurs at a
relatively slow rate and typically poses few environmental problems as a result. Sedimentation, the
deposition of soil at a location away from the site of its erosion, also occurs under natural
conditions at a relatively slow rate and is of little consequence in most instances. 

However, land use activities that remove or destroy ground cover result in exposure of soil to the
erosive forces of wind, water, ice, and gravity. Under exposed conditions, erosion and
sedimentation can occur at accelerated rates many times greater than normal.

The water quality problems associated with sedimentation are numerous. The most obvious of
these is deposition of sediment in lakes and rivers which reduces their water storage capacities.
Other effects are less obvious. Sediments can physically transport herbicides, pesticides and
nutrients.

They may also change the pH of receiving waters, reduce dissolved oxygen by exerting a
biochemical oxygen demand, and increase turbidity, thereby killing aquatic organisms, reducing
 that phosphorus from transport downstream.

Mechanisms by which wetlands retain phosphorus include physical entrapment of particulate

phosphorus, chemical sorption by organic matter and soil particles, uptake by aquatic plants and
attached algae, and utilization by bacteria and other microorganisms. During the fall and winter,
wetlands release phosphorus when decomposition of wetland vegetation takes place. Transport of
this phosphorus to downstream waters subsequently occurs at a time of the year when the
phosphorus is least likely to contribute to nuisance algae blooms and weed growth.

Thus, although little phosphorus is permanently withheld by wetlands on an annual basis, the
spring and summer storage, fall and winter release pattern of phosphorus flux through a wetland
serves to minimize summer algae blooms and weed problems in downstream water.

The perpetuation of a wetland's phosphorus regulatory function involves maintaining the wetland in
a natural state. Alteration or elimination of the wetland reduces or eliminates the effectiveness of
this regulatory role and contributes to a worsening of the trophic conditions in downstream waters.

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