PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Properties of matter include trait observable by the senses and can be measured, such
as an objects density, color, mass, volume, length, malleability, melting point,
hardness, odor and temperature.

Properties are characteristics that can be used to describe or identify a particular

substance.

Physical properties are characteristics of a substance that can be observed or

determined without changing the identity or composition of the substance.

COMMON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

 Color
 Odor
 Density
 Mass
 Volume
 State
 Boiling point
 Texture

Differences in physical properties can be used to separate mixtures. The following are
some separation techniques:

 Filtration
 Evaporation
 Chromatography
 Simple distillation

Chemical properties are those characteristics of a substance that cannot be

determined without altering its composition. The following are some examples of
chemical properties:

 Taste
 Toxicity
 Oxidizability
 Flammability
 Reactivity with other substances

Intensive properties are characteristics that do not depend on the amount of the
substance.
  Color
 Odor
 Taste
 Boiling point
 Density

Extensive properties are those that change when the amount of the substance is
changed

 Mass
 Volume

Formulas of common chemical substances

Reminder:

Subscripts which are found at the lower right-hand corner of a

symbol of an element represents the number of atoms. If there is
no subscript, it means one atom is present in the compound

Inorganic compounds are divided into four categories:

 Ionic compounds
 Molecular compounds
 Acids and bases
 Hydrates

Naming binary compounds

Contains only 2 different elements. Their names have 2 parts: the name of the more
positive element followed by the name of the more negative element modified to end
in IDE. Some of the non-binary compounds or ternary compounds have name ends IDE,
but they are exception to the rule.

Chemical formula: KCI

Elements: potassium (metal)

Chlorine (non-metal)- name modified CHLOR + IDE

Chemical name: potassium chloride

Binary compounds containing metals with fixed oxidation numbers

Usually consist of representative elements and are ionic compounds. The chemical
name is composed of the name of the metal followed by the name of the nonmetal,
which has been modified to an identifying stem plus the suffix IDE. May contain 1 atom
each of the metal and nonmetal or may contain more than 1 atom of the same
element as long as they contain two different elements, the name follows the rule for
binary compounds.

Compounds may contain more than 1 atom of the element, but as long as they contain
only 2 different elements and if 1 compound of these 2 elements exists, the name
follows the rule for binary compounds.

Examples:

 MgBr2 – magnesium bromide

 Ca3N2- calcium nitride
 Li2S- lithium sulfide

Some common metals with fixed oxidation number

Metal ions Metal ions

Aluminum Al3+ Magnesium Mg2+
Barium Ba 2+
Potassium K+
Cadmium Cd 2+
Silver Ag+
Calcium Ca2+ Sodium Na+
Cesium Cs 2+
Strontium Sr2+
Lithium Li +
Zinc Zn2+
Stems of the more negative-ion forming elements

Symbol Element Stem Name

Br- Bromine Brom Bromide
C4- Carbon Carb Carbide
Cl- Chlorine Chlor Chloride
F- Fluorine Fluor fluoride
H- Hydrogen Hydr Hydride
I- Iodine Iod Iodide
N3- Nitrogen Nitr Nitride
O2- Oxygen Ox Oxide
P3- Phosphorus Phosp Phosphide
S2- Sulfur Sulf Sulfide
Se2- Selenium Selen Selenide
Si4- Silicon Silic Silicide
Te2- Tellurium Tellur Telluride

Binary compounds containing metals with variable positive oxidation state

These compounds usually transition metals and are ionic compounds. Their chemical
name uses two commonly used systems. STOCK SYSTEM- designated by the
International Union Of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUAPC), in this method the name
of the metal is given by the English name followed by the roman numeral placed in the
parenthesis denoting the oxidation state of the metal.

CLASSICAL SYSTEM- older method of naming binary compound used the name of
metal (usually in Latin) modified with the suffixes OUS and IC to distinguish between
metals of 2 variable oxidation states. Given to compounds with lower and higher
oxidation states respectively. The negative element is treated in the usual manner of
binary compounds.

Metal ions Stock system name Classical name

Cu1+ Copper (I) Cuprous

Cu2+ Copper (II) Cupric
Hg2+ Mercury(I) Mercurous
Hg2+ Mercury (II) Mercuric
Fe2+ Iron (II) Ferrous
Fe3+ Iron (III) ferric
Sn2+ Tin (II) Stannous
Sn4+ Tin (IV) Stannic
Pb2+ Lead (II) Plumbous
Pb4+ Lead (IV) Plumbic
As3+ Arsenic (III) Arsenous
As5+ Arsenic (V) Arsenic
Sb Antimony (III) Antimonious
Sb Antimony (V) Antimonic

Binary compounds containing two nonmetals

These compounds are usually molecular compounds. As in naming ionic compound,

nonmetal that is less electronegative are written first followed the other nonmental
with modified binary ending -IDE. Greek prefix is attached to the name of each
element to indicate the number of atoms pf that element in the molecule.

Common nonmetals arranged in order of increasing electronegativity:

 Si- silicon
 Bi- bismuth
 P- phosphorus
 H- hydrogen
 C- carbon
 S- sulfur
  I- iodine
 Br- bromine
 N- nitrogen
 Cl- chlorine
 O- oxygen
 F – fluorine

Prefix Numerical Prefix Numerical

equivalence equivalence
Mono- 1 Hexa- 6
Di- 2 Hepta- 7
Tri- 3 Octa- 8
Tetra- 4 Nona- 9
Penta- 5 Deca- 10

Reminder:

For oxides, the ending “A” in the prefix is sometimes omitted.

Example: P2O5- diphosphorus pentoxide instead of diphosphorus

pentaoxide

Other examples:

CCl4- carbon tetrachloride

S2Cl2- disulfur dichloride

N2O4- dinitrogen tetroxide

BINARY ACIDS- composed of hydrogen written first followed by nonmetal. Acids use
the prefix hydro and the suffix IC attached to the name of the acid-forming element
followed by the word acid.

Binary compound In gaseous or pure In ionic form

liquid state
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid
H2S Hydrogen sulfide Hydrosulfuric acid
 Naming ternary compounds

Ternary compounds contain 3 or more elements consisting of cations of hydrogen,

metal or ammonium ion combined with the negative ion or polyatomic ions. In
general, they are named using CATION followed by the name ANION.

To name ternary compounds it is necessary to know the name such polyatomic ions
present. These ions are positively or negatively charged group of atoms.

Reminder:

Each polyatomic ion is a complete unit. Never break it up or change

the number.

Polyatomic ions contain oxygen and have a suffix ATE or ITE. Some polyatomic ions
contain more than 2 oxygen atoms and are named using the prefixes in addition to the
suffixes. To indicate less oxygen atom than the ITE form, the prefix HYPO is used. The
prefix PER is used for the ion that contain more oxygen atom than the ATE form.

List of common polyatomic ions

Oxidation table for polyatomic ions

Acetate C2H3O2 Cyanide CN- Perchlorate ClO4-

Ammonium NH4+ Dichromate Cr2O72 Periodate IO4-

Arsenate AsO43- Dihydrogen H2PO4- Permanganat MnO4-

phosphate e
Bicarbonate/ HCO3- Hydroxide OH- Peroxide O22-
hydrogen carbonate
Bisulfate/hydrogen HSO4− Hypobromit BrO- Phosphate PO43-
sulfate e
Borate BO33- Hypochlorite ClO− Silicate SiO32-

Carbonate CO32− Iodate IO3- Sulfate SO42−

Chlorite ClO2− Nitrate NO3− Sulfite SO32−

Chromate CrO42− Oxalate C2O42- Thiosulfate S2O32-

 Ternary acids or oxyacid’s

Oxyacids are acids consisting of hydrogen, oxygen and another central element. The
formulas are usually written with HYDROGEN first followed by the negative polyatomic
ions.

The ITE ending of the polyatomic ions is changed to OUS and the ATE ending to IC.

Example:

 Phosphoric acid
 Phosphorus acid
 Acetic acid
 Sulfurous acid
 Permanganic acid
 Nitrous acid

Ternary salt

A salt formed when hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion.

The name of the cation (metal or ammonium) then followed by the polyatomic ion
with ITE or ATE ending.

Examples:

 Potassium hypoiodite
 Potassium iodite
 Potassium iodate
 Potassium periodate
 Iron (II) sulfate or ferrous sulfate
 Iron (III) sulfate or ferric sulfate
 Iron (II) sulfate or ferrous sulfite
 Iron (III) sulfate or ferric sulfite

Bases

Inorganic bases consist of metal and the hydroxide ion, OH-. For the name it uses the
STOCK SYSTEM or the ROMAN NUMERAL SYSTEM followed by the word HYDROXIDE.

Examples:

 Sodium hydroxide
 Iron (III) hydroxide or ferric hydroxide
 Hydrates

Are compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to them.
GREEK PREFIXES are used.

Examples:

 Barium chloride dihydrate

 Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate

COMPARING CONSUMER PRODUCTS

Consumer products are items often bought for day-to-day consumption.

Types of convenience products

Use Property Active Safety

component
Bleach Cleans and -Destabilizes the 1. Chlorine Mostly made
chemical bonds in
whitens bleach are aqueous to
stain molecules
surfaces. and effect made of reduce the
reduces the NaOCl. chance of
likelihood of 2. Oxygen chemical bum
these molecules
bleach are when in
to be colored
because of the made up of contact with
reduced radiation hydrogen skin and soft
absorption in the peroxide. tissues.
visible region.
-highly corrosive
when
concentrated
-generally, works
by releasing
oxygen
Soap and Each has Contains -Surface Mostly not
surfactants which
detergent specific use active agents harmful and
lowers the
for a specific surface tension of or surfactants nontoxic but
need. water allowing it -water watch out for
to penetrate the softener skin allergies
regions which
-stain and
needs to be
cleaned. remover respiratory
Essentially Enzymes complication
loosens and perfumes, when inhaled
disperse water
etc.. at excessive
insoulable dirt
such as grease amount.
and oil, allowing it
 to be washed
away.

Common examples of consumer products

Consumer Use Property Active Safety

products components
Makeup Applied Foundations Talc- natural -some low-grade
talc may contain
externally to to give mineral which
ASBESTOS.
the face to flawless skin controls the - use paraben
conceal spots appearance. caking of the which are proven
or bumps. product. to have adverse
effect on the
Lipsticks to -may contain
productive organ
color the lips. parabens and increase the
which serves risk potential of
as developing
cancer.
antibacterial
-lip cracking lead
agent and may cause death
preservative. when ingested

As consumers it is important to know the substances/ingredients present in the

product that you are using.

Active ingredients are substances added to a product which is scientifically proven to

produce a desired effect.

Special ingredients are substances added to the product which do not directly
contributes to its function, but may increase consumer satisfaction such as adding
fragrances to bleach.

SIMPLE SEPERATION TECHNIQUES

Mixtures are combination of pure substances in which the substances have retained
their chemical properties, thus has not undergone chemical change. Can be uniformly
and non-uniformly combined. Can be isolated by means of physical separation.

Ways of separating mixtures

Extraction- this technique uses a solvent to selectively dissolve one component of solid
mixture. Can be separate a soluble solid from an insoluble one.

Decantation- separates liquid from insoluble and heavy solid sediment by carefully
pouring the liquid into another container without disturbing the solids.
Sublimation- process by which a solid change directly to gaseous state without
forming into a liquid. Separation of solids which sublimes from other solids that do not.
The vapor can be cooled and be deposited again as solid.

Distillation- works under the difference of boiling points. The liquid with lower boiling
point changes to gaseous state first. Can be collected and converted back to the liquid
state.

Centrifugation- involves the setting of tiny suspended particles using a centrifuge (a

device spinning up to 30,000 rpm [rotates per minute]). Force pushes heavier materials
to the outside of the vessel.

Crystallization- involves the lowering of temperature of solutions so that the solids

that are dissolved in liquid crystallizes out.

Chromatography- separation of solution by using a solvent to breakdown its

components and allowing it to floe along a stationary material.

 Liquid chromatography- used to analyze metal ions and organic compounds

in solutions.
 Gas chromatography- analytical technique used to separate the chemical
components of a sample mixture and the detect them to determine their
presence or absence and/or how much is present
 Thin layer chromatography- uses an absorbent material to flat glass or plastic
plates. Simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic compound.
 Paper chromatography- one of the most common types of chromatography.
Uses a strip of paper as the stationary phase. Capillary action is used to pull
the solvents up through the paper and separate the solutes.

Filtration- separates a fine and light solid through the use of porous material as filter.

Evaporation- methods of heating a homogenous mixture in order to drive off in the

form of vapor, a volatile liquid to make the dissolved solid dry.

COMMON ISOTOPES AND THEIR USES

Isotopes are said to be either stable or radioactive.

Stable isotopes/Stable nuclide- do not decay radioactively

Radioactive isotopes- have an unstable nucleus that decays or emits excess energy or
radiation until it becomes stable.

Isotopes are elements that have the same atomic number but different atomic mass.

Atomic number- number of protons present in an atom

Atomic mass- depends on how many neutrons through the proton count is the same.

Most atoms have several naturally occurring isotopes but there some
elements but there some elements that don’t have isotopes.

Two main types of isotopes:

 Radioactive Widely use in several industries and fields of study

 Stable

Stable isotopes are non-radioactive forms of atoms. Although they do not emit
radiation, their unique properties enable them to be used in a wide variety of
applications, including water and soil management, environmental studies, nutrition
assessment studies, and forensics.

Radioactive isotopes have unstable nucleus that decays or emits excess energy or
radiation until it becomes more stable. Can be naturally occurring or artificial isotopes
of an element. Very beneficial in the field of medical applications such as locating brain
tumors.

Long-live isotopes emerged during the creation of the solar system.

Cosmogenic radioactive isotopes occur as a reaction of the atmosphere to comic rays

emitted by stars.

Anthropogenic isotopes come from human-need nuclear activities, such as weapon

testing and nuclear fuel production.

Radiogenic isotopes- result of radioactive decay

Uses of stable isotopes

Used by measuring their amounts and proportions in samples like water. To trace the
origin, history, source links, and interaction in water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles they
used naturally occurring stable isotopes of water and other substances. Nitrogen-15 is
the most common stable isotope used in agriculture. Scientists used stable isotopes of
oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon in performing environmental and
ecological experiments. In geochemistry, to determine many facts about geological
materials, such as where they came from and their age.

Uses of radioactive isotopes

Useful in agriculture, food industry, pest control, archeology, and medicine. Useful in
nuclear medicine for nuclear medicine for nuclear cardiology, tumor detection, study
bone formation and metabolism. Carbon-14 is a radioactive used in radiocarbon dating
which measures carbon-bearing items.
 Radioactive Application in medicine
isotopes
Cobalt-60 Radiation therapy
Sodium-24 Study blood circulation
Technetium- Locate brain tumors and damage heart cells, radiotracer in
99m medical diagnostics, imaging of organs and blood flow
Carbon 11 Tagged into glucose to monitor organs during pet scan
Iodine-131 Locate brain tumors, monitor cardiac, liver and thyroid activity
Thallium-201 Determine damage in heart tissue, detection of tumors

Radioactive Application in research

isotopes
Hydrogen-3 or Study life science and during metabolism
tritium
Phosphuros-32 Research involving biology and genetics
Phosphuros-33
Selenium-75 Protein studies in life sciences
Carbon-14 Carbon dating of organisms and substances (archeology),
research to determine steps involved in plant photosynthesis

Radioactive Industrial application

isotopes
Californium-252 Determine moisture content of soil important for road
construction and building industries.
Iridium- 192 Test integrity of boiler and aircraft parts
Uranium- 235 Nuclear power plant, and naval propulsion system fuel,
production of fluorescent glassware and colored wall tiles.
Sodium- 14 Oil well studies and to locate leaks in pipelines.
Americium- 241 For uniform thickness when rolling steel and paper, determine
location of oil wells.

Artificial isotopes are man-made or created in the laboratory by bombarding

an element with a particle. The neutron is the most efficient.

Artificially-
produced Uses
radioisotopes
Americium- 241 Used in back setter gauges, smoke detectors, fill height
detectors, and in measuring ash content of coal.
Caesium- 137 Use as radiotracer technique to detect sources of soil erosion
and deposition, density and fill height level switches, and for
low-intensity gamma sterilization.
Chromium- 51 Use to label sand to study coastal erosion, also a tracer in the
 study of blood.
Cobalt- 60, Use together in blast furnaces to determine resident times and
lanthanum- to quantify yield to measure the furnace performance.
140, scandium-
46, silver-
100m, gold- 198
Cobalt- 16 Used for gamma sterilization, industrial radiography, density,
and fill height switches
Gold- 198, To trace factory waste causing ocean pollution and sand
technetium- movement in river beds and ocean floors.
99m
Gold- 198 To label sand to study coastal erosion
Hydrogen- 3 Tracer to study sewage and liquid waste
Iridium- 192 Gamma radiography to locate flaws in metal components
Krypton- 85 For industrial gauging
Manganese-54 Prediction of the behaviors of heavy metal components in
effluents from mining wastewater
Nickel- 63 Light sensors in cameras and plasma display, electronics
discharge prevention, electron capture detectors for thickness
gauges, long-life beta-voltaic batteries.

Natural-
occurring Uses
radioisotopes
Carbon- 14 Measure the age of the wood, other carbon containing materials
(u to 20,000 years) and subterranean water (up to 50,000 years).
Chlorine- 36 Measure sources of chlorine and the age of water
Lead- 210 Date layers of sand and soil
Tritium, H-3 Measure ‘young’ groundwater

CHEMICAL FORMULAS, STRUCTURAL FORMULAS

AND MODELS OF COMPOUNDS
Compounds are represented by chemical formulas. Elements in a compound are
represented by chemical symbols, and the ratio of different elements is represented by
subscripts. There are two types of inorganic compounds: ionic compounds and
covalent compounds.

lonic compounds are compounds in which positive metal ions and negative nonmetal
ions are joined by ionic bonds. In these compounds, the chemical symbol for the
positive metal ion is written first, followed by the symbol for the negative nonmetal
ion.
Example:

1. The ionic compound lithium fluoride consists of a ratio of one lithium ion (Li) to one
fluoride ion (F). What is the chemical formula for this compound? Answer: The
chemical formula is LiF.

Covalent compounds are compounds in which nonmetals are joined by covalent

bonds. In these compounds, the element that is farther to the left in the periodic table
is written first, followed by the element that is farther to the right. If both elements are
in the same group of the periodic table, the one with the higher period number is
written first.

Example:

1. A molecule of the covalent compound nitrogen dioxide consists of one nitrogen

atom (N) and two oxygen atoms (0). What is the chemical formula for this compound?
Answer: The chemical formula is NO2.

Chemical formula provide information about how many atoms of a particular element
are in a molecule. It is use to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbol. By composition, it means not only the
elements present but also the ratios in which the atoms are combined. For example,
CO2 is the formula for carbon dioxide that consists of 1 atom of C and 2 atoms of O. In
a formula, a subscript is a number written slightly below and to the right of the symbol.
It represents the number of atoms of the element it follows. A coefficient is the
number written before the formula or symbol that represents the number of moles or
molecules. Example, 4CO2 means there are 4 moles or molecules of carbon dioxide.

Name of Type of Ratio of ions or atoms of each Chemical

compound compound element formula
Sodium Ionic 1 sodium ion (Na+) 1 bromine ion (Br) NaBr
bromide
Calcium Ionic 1 calcium ion (Ca2+) 2 fluoride ion (F+) CaF2
fluoride
Hydrogen Covalent 2 hydrogen atoms (H) 2 oxygen H2O2
peroxide atoms (O)
Carbon Covalent 1 carbon atom (C) 4chlorine atom CCl4
tetrachloride (Cl)

The structure of a molecule is represented by a structural formula that shows the

arrangement of atoms and bonds. Structural formulas identify the location of chemical
bonds between the atoms of a molecule. A structural formula consists of symbols for
the atoms connected by short lines that represent chemical
bonds-one, two, or three lines representing single, double, or
triple bonds, respectively.

Example: Structural formula of ethane (CH3CH3)

Molecular model is a scale model showing the arrangement of atoms in a molecule.

Molecular models fall into three basic categories: ball-and-stick, skeletal, and space
filling. There are two standard types of molecular models which are currently in use,
the ball-and-stick model and the space-filling model.

The ball-and-stick model is a molecular model of a chemical substance which is to

display both the three-dimensional position of the atoms and the bonds between
them. The atoms are typically represented by spheres, connected by rods which
represent the bonds. The “sticks” represent a pair of valence electrons shared between
two atoms. The number of holes in each ball represents the number of shared electron
pairs that the atom normally requires to become stable.

Space filling model is a graphic or physical

representation of a molecule in which the atoms
are partial spheres that have diameters
proportional to those of the real atoms and that
are joined directly to one another.

NAMING AND WRITING

FORMULA OF COMPOUNDS
Formulas are a convenient way to represent
compounds, but compounds have names as well. There are millions of compounds, so
it is impossible to memorize all their names. Learning the rules for naming compound
will help you figure out their names. Hence, you will probably encounter chemical
names other than those you are already familiar with.

Binary compounds consist of two elements. The binary compounds formed by metals
and nonmetals are usually ionic in nature. To write the correct formula of ionic
compounds, you must know the ionic charges of the cations and anions.

In writing the formula, the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula
unit must be zero for ionic compounds to be electrically neutral. The following rules
are applied to make the formula electrically neutral if the charges on the cation and
anion are numerically different:

 The subscript of the cation is numerically equal to the charge of the anion,
and the subscript of the anion is numerically equal to the charge of the cation.
  If the charges are numerically equal, then no subscripts are necessary. These
rules follow because the formulas of ionic compounds are usually empirical
formulas, the subscripts must be reduced to the smallest ratios.

Crisscross method is the shortcut method in writing formula. Simply crisscross the ionic
charges.

Example:

Naming compounds

In naming compounds, the metal is named first, followed by the nonmetal with ending
-ide.

Example:

Formula Name
NaCl Sodium chloride
MgF2 Magnesium fluoride
Al2O3 Aluminum oxide
Li2O Lithium oxide
Some metals especially the transition metals, can form more than one type of cation.
An example is the element iron. It can form two cations: Fe2+ and Fe³+. There are two
methods of specifying oxidation numbers

 The older nomenclature system that is the classical -ous or -ic system. The
suffix -ous is used to the cation with lower oxidation states and -ic to the
cation with higher oxidation states.
 In the stock system, the oxidation number of the metal is indicated by a
roman numeral in parenthesis.
Common Cations with Variable Oxidation Numbers

Pb2+= plumbus or lead (II) Hg1+= mercurous or mercury (I)

Pb4+= plumbric or lead (IV) Hg2+= mercuric or mercury (II)
Cu1+= cuprous or copper (I) Sn2+= stannous or tin (II)
Cu2+= cupric or copper (II) Sn4+= stannic or tin (IV)

Binary compounds containing two nonmetals

Naming of covalent compounds containing only two elements is similar to naming ionic
compounds except prefixes are used. The following guidelines are helpful in naming
compounds with prefixes (Chang and Goldsby, 2019).

 The prefix "mono" may be omitted for the first element. For example, CO: is
named carbon dioxide, not monocarbon dioxide, not monocarbon dioxide.
Thus, the absence of a prefix for the first element usually means there is only
one atom of that element present in the molecule.
 For oxides, the ending "a" in the prefix is sometimes omitted. For examples,
N2O4 may be called dinitrogen tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide.

Number Prefix Exception to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular

1 Mono compounds containing hydrogen. Many of these
2 Di compounds are called either by their common names or
3 Tri by names that do not specifically indicate the number of
4 Tetra H atoms present.
5 Penta
6 Hexa Metals with Polyatomic Ions
7 Hepta Polyatomic compounds are formed in the same way as
8 Octa
binary compounds. A polyatomic ion is a stable group of
9 Nona
atoms that carry an overall electrical charge. The atoms
10 deca
in a polyatomic are bonded together by covalent bonds.
One or more atoms in the group carry a positive or negative ionic charge.

These polyatomic
ions form ionic
bonds in the same
manner as the
simple ions.
Parentheses are
placed around the
polyatomic ion
and the subscript is
written just after the parentheses whenever multiple of the polyatomic ion is
necessary.

Example:

Al+3 and OH-1 the total positive and negative charges must be equal to zero Al +3 3OH-1.
Using parentheses around the hydroxide ion, OH", the correct formula is Al(OH) 3

The parentheses are not essential when a single polyatomic ion is present as in
potassium chlorate and calcium carbonate. KClO3 CaCO3

Naming Acids

Binary acids are compounds in which H is bonded to a group VIA element other than O
or to a group VIIA element; they act as acids when dissolved in water. The pure
compounds are named as typical binary compounds. Their aqueous solutions are
named by modifying the characteristic stem of the nonmetal with the prefix "bydro"
and the suffix "ic" followed by the word "acid". The stem for sulfur in this instance is
"sulfur" rather than "sulf".

Formula Name of compound Name of aqueous solution

H2S Hydrogen sulfide Hydro sulfuric acid, H2S(aq)
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
HF Hydrogen flouride Hydrofluoric acid,HF(aq)

Oxyacids and Oxyanions

There are acids containing three or more elements. Oxygen is always present in this
kind of acids. This group is referred to as tertiary acids, or more particularly, oxyacids.
Below is the table that gives list of common acids and oxyanions.
 THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF A COMPOUND
Percent composition is the percent by mass of each element in a compound.
Mathematically, the percent composition of an element in a compound is calculated as
follows:
(number of atoms of that element) (atomic weight of the element)
% element= Formula weight of the compound
For example, water, H₂O, contains 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen.
Hydrogen has molar mass of 1.008 grams and oxygen is 16.00 grams. Recall that the
formula weight of a compound can determined by adding the molar masses of the
element present in the compound. Therefore, H₂O has a formula weight of 18.016
grams. The percent composition of H₂O can be calculated as:

Notice that the sum of the two percentages is equivalent to 100%

Chemical formulas tell you the exact number of atoms of an element present in a
compound. There are three basic types of chemical formula: the empirical formula,
molecular formula, and structural formula.

Empirical Formula

The empirical chemical formula represents the relative number of atoms of each
element in the compound. It gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a given
compound. The empirical formula of a compound can be determined using its
percentage composition.

You may consider mercury and chlorine as an example. Mercury and chlorine combine
to form a compound that is 73.9% mercury and 26.1% chlorine by mass. Notice that
you are dealing with percentages, and the sum of the percentages is 100% Therefore,
it is safe to assume that you started with 100 grams of the compound, 76.9 grams of
mercury, and 26.1 grams of chlorine, respectively. Using the atomic mass or atomic
weight of the element, you can calculate how many moles of each element are present
in the sample.

Now that you have determined the number of moles present in the sample, you divide
the larger number of moles by the smaller number to obtain the mole ratio of mercury
to chlorine. Since chlorine has the larger mole value, you will divide it to the mole
value of mercury:
The chlorine-mercury ratio is therefore, 1.99:1. The value 1.99 can be rounded off to
two (2) as experimental errors may have caused the discrepancy. You can now
conclude that the empirical formula of the compound contains 1 atom of mercury and
2 atoms of chlorine, thus, empirical formula is HgCl 2.

With the example given, you can now determine the empirical formula of ascorbic acid
which contains 40.92% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.50% O by mass. You first
assume that the sample is 100g. therefore, it contains 40.92 g of carbon, 4.58 g of
hydrogen and 54.50 g of oxygen. Then, calculate the number of moles present in each
of the component element.

The simplest whole-number ratio of moles can now be determined by dividing each
moles to the smallest number of moles, 3.406.

Since the ratio for hydrogen is not a whole number and cannot be attributed to
experimental errors, you have to multiply the ratio by a certain number to make the
ratio a whole number. In this example, you will multiply the ratio by three (3) to get
the simplest whole-number ratio.

Now you can round off 3.99 to 4, making the ratio 3:4:3. The empirical formula for
ascorbic acid is therefore C3H4O3.

MOLECULAR FORMULA OF A COMPOUND

Molecular formula of a compound shows the actual number of atoms in a compound.
You can obtain the molecular formula from the empirical formula if the molar mass of
the compound is known. The subscripts in the molecular formula of a given compound
are always a whole-number multiple of the corresponding subscripts in its empirical
formula. The multiple can be found using this formula:
You may use ascorbic acid as an example. You have determined that the empirical
formula of ascorbic acid is C3H4Os. The experimentally-determined molar mass of
ascorbic acid is 176 atomic mass unit (amu). The empirical formula weight can be
calculated as follows:

FW of C₂H4O3= 3(12.0 amu)+ 4(1.008 amu) + 3(16.0 amu)

FW of C3H4o3= 88 amu

Thus, the whole-number multiple is 176 amu divided by 88 amu, which is equal to 2.
The molecular formula must therefore have twice as many atoms of each element as
its empirical formula, making the molecular formula to ascorbic acid C 6H3O6 as shown
in the process:

Try to determine the molecular formula of the compound with an empirical formula of
CH and a molar mass of 78.110 g/mol. You are given the empirical formula and the
molar mass, and asked to determine the molecular formula. First step is to determine
the formula weight of the empirical formula, CH.

FW of CH=12 amu+ 1.008 amu= 13.008 amu

Next, you divide the molar mass given (78.110 g/mol) to the empirical formula weight
to obtain the whole-number multiple.

You therefore multiply each subscript to in the empirical formula by 6 to get the
molecular formula: C6H6

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances are changed into new
substance with different physical and chemical properties. Chemical reaction has
occurred when there is a change in color b. formation of a solid (a precipitate) c.
evolution of gas (bubble formation) d. change in temperature (heat is released or
absorbed) and e) change in properties. Chemical reactions are sometimes presented in
a word equation which describes a chemical change using the names of the reactants
and products.

Chemical equations are also used to describe chemical reactions, and they show (1)
the substances that react, called reactants, (2) the substances formed, called products;
and (3) the relative amounts of the substances involved. The numbers placed in front
of compounds in a chemical equation are called coefficients and represent the number
of molecules (or formula units) of each reactant or product needed to balance the
equation.
In writing and balancing the chemical equations, important symbols must be
remembered. Below are the common symbols used in writing and balancing chemical
equations.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (1743-1794) was one of the early chemists who

performed quantitative analysis on different reactions. His works led him to deduce
the Law of Conservation of Mass, which states that, in every chemical transformation,
the amount of the reacting substances must be equal to the amount of the new
substance(s) produced. A simpler way of stating it, is that the number of each type of
atom in the reactant side is equal to that of the atoms in the product side. This law is
well represented in a balanced chemical equation.

Balancing a Chemical Equation

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1: Tarnish, a black stain you see in silver spoons, is produced when
silver reacts with the sulfur present in the air producing silver sulfide. To balance this
reaction, follow the step below.

Step 1: Write the unbalanced chemical equation. Make sure that you have checked the
correct chemical formulas and symbols.

Ag(s)+ H2S(g) Ag2S(s)+H2(g)

When no coefficient is written in front of a formula or after the atom or element it is

assumed to be 1. Numbers appearing in the formulas are known as subscripts. These
can never be changed when balancing the equation or you will change the identity of
the substance.

MASS RELATIONSHIPS IN CHEMICAL REACTIONS

A balanced chemical equation provides the basis for chemical calculations called
stoichiometry. In performing stoichiometric calculations, always begin with a balanced
chemical equation. Take for example the combustion of methane.

CH4(g)+2O2(g) CO2(g)+ 2H2O(I)

On a quantitative basis, at the molecular level, the equation tells you that one mole of
CH₁ reacts with two moles of O2 to produce one mole of CO₂ and two moles of H₂O.
Likewise, the balanced chemical equation tells you the following stoichiometric
relationships involving the reaction:

1 mol CH4: 2 mol O₂

1 mol CH4: 1 mol CO₂

1 mol CH4: 2 mol H₂O

2 mol O₂: 1 mol CO₂

2 mol O2: 2 mol H₂O

1 mol CO₂: 2 mol H₂O

Any of these relationships can be used as a conversion factor. Moreover, notice that
the Law of Conservation of Mass is obeyed as the masses of the reactants and the
products are calculated. The total mass on the left side of the equation is equal to that
on the right side.

Stoichiometry can be expressed as mole to mole, mess to mass, and mole to mass.
 CALCULATE PERCENT YIELD AND THEORITICAL
YIELD OF THE REACTION
Theoretical yield and percent yield are two concepts in chemistry of big importance in
pharmaceutical industry. The discovery, development, production of drugs and
medicines is a costly endeavor. A detailed steps and procedures are to be followed to
guarantee efficient, effective and better ways of manufacturing safe and potent drugs
for consumers. Rigid research is done on the analysis of the amount of compound yield
in a given chemical reaction and is an essential part of controlling cost of production.

It is the limiting reagent that allows the smallest yield of product considered from the
reagents involved in the chemical reaction. Now, the maximum amount of product
that is anticipated to be produced using the balance chemical reaction after all the
limiting reagent is used up is what you call as theoretical yield. The quantity of product
actually produced in a reaction is the actual yield. Please do take note that the actual
yield is almost always in less amount (and will never be in excess of) than the
theoretical yield. Several reasons behind this difference are: 1.) some reactants in the
reaction may not react or may react in the way not expected of them to react and 2.)
not all the time the products can be recovered from the reaction mixture.
Percent Yield

In reality, chemical reactions do not always happen the way it is predicted on paper.
Along the way, in the midst of an experiment, a lot of factors will give to the
production of less product than would be expected. Experimental errors, spillage,
imperfect and unpleasant reactions can be some factors that would make the yield of
the reaction be less as predicted. In order for chemists to easily measure how
successful is the chemical reaction, the percent yield, which is a comparison or ratio of
the actual yield and theoretical yield is calculated and is expressed as:

Percent yield has its significance in the manufacture of products. Considerable time is
invested to come up with upgrading the percent yield for production. As complicated
procedures are done to come up with various chemical reactions, chemists need to
avoid steps with low percent yield to keep away from waste of reactants and useless
expenses.

Basically, percent yields are reasonably less than 100% because of the reasons
mentioned earlier, but then percent yield greater than 100% can be attainable if
impurities are part of the measured product in the reaction, resulting to a higher mass
than it actually would be if the product was pure.

Calculating Percent Yield and Theoretical Yield

Theoretical yield is the amount or quantity of a substance that can be obtained f a

chemical reaction is 100 percent efficient. Actual yield is the exact amount of
substance obtained in a chemical reaction; it is usually less than the theoretical yield.
Use the formula for Percent yield which is the ratio of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield as shown below:

Sample Problem:

A 30 grams C3H3 (propane) burns in air to produce 70 grams of CO₂ (carbon dioxide).
Calculate the theoretical and percent yield of CO₂ given the chemical equation:

In this problem, first you need to make sure that the equation is balanced. In this
equation, there are 3 Carbon atoms in the reactant side as well as in the product side,
8 Hydrogen atoms in the reactant and product side and 10 Oxygen atoms in both
reactant and product side, therefore the equation is already balanced.

Then, you will calculate the theoretical yield of carbon dioxide, wherein, you will start
in the reactant of the reaction. The limiting reactant or the reactant with a limited
amount is the propane, while the oxygen molecules is the excess reactent. Use the
limiting reactant to solve for the percent yield in this problem. It is 30 grams of
propane and you will see how many grams of carbon dioxide can be produced from
this reaction.

First, you will convert 30 grams of C3H8 to moles using molar ratio, the molar mass of
C3H3 that you can get from the periodic table is about 44 grams per one mole of C 3H8.

Carbon atomic mass= 12 grams/mole x 3 (the number of C atoms in C 3H8)=36

grams/mole

Hydrogen atomic mass= 1 grams/mole x 8 (the number of H atoms in C 3H8)= 8

grams/mole

Molar mass of propane= 36 grams/mole+ 8 grams/ mole = 44 grams/mole

Then, based on the chemical equation:

For every one mole of C3H8 that burns, there are 3 moles of carbon dioxide that are
produced and that gives a ratio of:

Then, you will calculate the number of moles of CO; that can be produced in the
reaction:

Converting the number moles of CO₂ to grams:

Carbon atomic mass= 12 grams/mol x 1 (number of atoms of C in CO₂)= 12 grams/mol

Oxygen atomic mass= 16 grams/mol x 2 (number of atoms O in CO₂)= 32 grams /mol

Molar mass of CO₂= 12 + 32 grams/mol = 44 grams/mol

Theoretical Yield of CO₂= 90 grams

Using the equation of percent yield:

 LIMITING REAGENTS
A chemical reaction can stop instantaneously if one reactant in that reaction is
insufficient. It is therefore important to determine the reactant that limits the chemical
reaction called the limiting reagent, and the reactant that can be in excess called the
excess reagent to be able to calculate the amount of the product. To better
understand these concepts, use a common Filipino sandwich recipe as an example.

Imagine that you are working in a famous fast-food chain and is assigned to make the
cheesy eggdesal. Each cheesy eggdesal must have these components: 1 pandesal bun,
1 scrambled egg, and 1 slice of quick-melt cheese. Expressed in equation:

However, you found out that there are only 8 pandesal buns, 10 eggs, and 12 slices of
cheese left. How many cheesy eggdesal can you make? What is the limiting ingredient
(limiting reagent)? What is/are the excess ingredient/s (excess reagent/s)?

To determine the limiting ingredient, find out the ingredient that I will give the least
amount of product using the ratio of one ingredient and product as conversion factor.
For example, the ratio of pandesal bun and cheesy eggdesal is 1:1, eggs and cheesy
eggdesal is 1:1, cheese and cheesy eggdesal is also 1:1. Determine how many cheesy
eggdesals can you make with 8 pandesal buns, 10 eggs, and 12 slices of cheese.

Therefore, the limiting ingredient (limiting reagent) is the pandesal bun as it will
produce the least number of eggdesals. The excess ingredients (excess reagents) are
eggs (excess by 2) and cheese (excess by 4 slices). You cannot make more than 8
cheesy eggdesals because all the pandesal buns have already been used up.

a. Consider the reaction below:

If 6.60 moles H₂ are made to react with 4.42 moles Na, what is the limiting reagent?
How many moles NHs will be produced? What reagent is in excess and by how much?

Determine first which reagent will produce the smallest amount of product:
Therefore, the limiting reagent is H₂ since it produced the smallest amount of NH3.
Using the limiting reagent, 4.40 moles of NHs will be produced. The excess reagent is
N₂. If you have 6.60 moles H₂ then you will need:

But you have 4.42 moles Na. Therefore, the excess amount of N 2 is moles- 2.20 moles=
2.22 moles N2. Using the same chemical equation, let us try another example given the
mass:

b. If 25.5 g Ha are made to react with 64.2 g Na, what is the limiting reagent and excess
reagent?

1. Get the number of moles of each reactant. (Note: Use the molar mass as a
conversion factor)

2. Calculate the number of moles of product using each reagent. (Note: Use the ratio
of the product and one reactant as conversion factor.)

3. The one that yields the smallest number of moles of product is the limiting reagent.
The reactants present in quantities greater than what is needed by the reaction is the
excess reagent. Therefore, the limiting reagent is N2, while the excess reagent is H2.

GAS PRESSURE
The gaseous phase has always been harder since you generally are unable to see gases,
especially the colorless ones. Gases occupy space and have mass, although a very small
mass compared to its liquid and solid counterparts. But one thing that helps you to
easily identify that a gas is present is the pressure it exerts. Pressure is one of the four
physical properties that help you describe the state of a gas.

Properties of a Gas

1. Mass- The particles of a gas are individual atoms or molecules composed of atoms
covalently bonded to each other.

2. Temperature - The particles of a gas are constantly moving in straight lines in

random directions. In Physics, you understand that particles that are in motion possess
kinetic energy, which is measured as the absolute temperature of the object or
substance. Since gas particles possess kinetic energy, a gas sample will register a
certain absolute temperature at any point in time.

3. Volume - The particles of a gas are too small compared to the spaces between them.
Since these particles are constantly moving in directions, the space in which they move
is the measured volume of a gas.

4. Pressure - The particles of a gas bounce off each other and the walls of their
container. The force with which the particles impact any surface is measured as
pressure. As it is understood in Physics, the pressure of a gas is the force it applies on a
specific area.

Gas Pressure

Pressure is defined as the force applied on a given area. For gases, this force comes
from its impact on any surface as it hits and bounces off it. As you sit on your chair
right now, the gases around you are exerting pressure on your body. You are able to
confirm the presence of gases by the effect they have on the things you see, just like
how a balloon expands as you blow air into it, and especially when you see it pushing
the leaves of trees or causing our windows to rattle during a storm.

The measurement of pressure was made possible by the invention of the first
barometer by Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647). Torricelli's barometer
used a column of mercury (a metal that is liquid at room temperature) in a glass tube
with one sealed end (see Figure 1). The tube was inverted over a basin of mercury with
its open end immersed in the mercury. The pressure was read as the millimeters of
mercury still supported inside the inverted tube, pushed by the air over the mercury in
the basin. It is in honor of him that you use the unit torr interchangeably with mmHg
(millimeters of mercury)

There are other devices, pressure gauges and sensors, developed and are now in use
to measure the pressure exerted by a gas. Other units of pressure have also been
introduced, while you will learn and use in the next sections.
Pressure Units

The table below gives a summary of the common units of pressure. The SI
(International System of Units) unit for pressure is Pascal (Pa) One Pascal (1.0 Pa) is the
pressure exerted by a 1.0 Newton-force on a 1.0 square meter area: (1.0 Pa=1.0 N/m 2)

The value 1.0 atm is read as one standard atmosphere or simply one atmosphere. This
is known as the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level, the pressure exerted by
the atmosphere, which is a mixture of different gases, on all objects at normal or room
temperature (25°C). Changes in altitude result to changes in atmospheric pressure, as
do changes in temperature.

Conversion of Pressure Measurements

The fastest way to convert measurements to other units is to use conversion factors.
See the examples that follow.

See how the values in the conversion factor are arranged to allow you to cancel out
the given unit (torr), while leaving the required unit (atm). You should also note that
the values 1.0 atm and 760 torr are listed as equivalent in the previous section.

Notice in this example that the values in the conversion factor were both listed as
equal to 1.0 atm in the list in the previous part of this learning activity. Recall that if
both are equal to 1.0 atm, they are also equal to each other, which means the factor
used here is still equal to 1.

GAS LAWS

Boyle's Law-pressure and volume relationship

Robert Boyle, someone you got to know when you were in your junior high school,
looked into the relationship of the pressure and volume of a gas. His experiments
showed that at constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas increases
as its volume decreases. This is what happens when you push the piston of the pump.
You reduce the volume of the gas inside the pump, causing its pressure to increase,
hence the resistance. But as you push more, the gas in the pump is forced to enter the
ball or the tire. So, every time you use a pump, you are applying Boyle's Law, which
states that at constant temperature, the pressure of a fixed amount of gas varies
inversely with its volume. In other words, as volume decreases, pressure increases, and
vice versa. This is called an inversely proportional relationship, illustrated by this
expression:

Where:

This means that for a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature, the varying
measurements of pressure and volume will always give the same value, k.

P₁ x V₁ = k = P2 x V2

From this, we derive the working equation for Boyle's Law:

P1V1=P2V2

Where:

P1= initial pressure V1= initial volume P2= final pressure V2= final volume

Charles' Law-volume and temperature relationship

Jacques Charles, a French physicist, demonstrated how gas volume is affected by

temperature change when he took to the sky on the very first solo balloon flight using
hydrogen gas. In Charles' experiments, he saw a directly proportional relationship
between the volume and temperature of a gas held at constant pressure. This means
that when the temperature of a gas is raised or when it is heated, its volume will also
increase. If you can recall, an increase in volume would result to a decrease in the
density of the gas in a balloon. So, when the density of the gas inside the balloon
becomes lower than the density of the air outside the balloon, the balloon will start to
rise and will continue to rise up into the sky until it reaches the point where the density
of the gas inside the balloon and the air outside it is equal.

Charles' Law is summarized in this expression:

VaT

In graphical form:

V
=k
T
Equation for Charles' Law:

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V1= initial volume T1= initial temperature V2= final volume T2=final temperature

Combined Gas Law-pressure, volume & temperature relationships

Boyle's Law and Charles' Law dealt with two properties or variables of a gas while
keeping mass and another property constant. Since the mass is easily maintained by
using a sealed container or vessel. predictions, or calculations to measure the other
properties do not include this. The Combined Gas Law, as the name suggests,
incorporates the two previous laws into one, so that all three properties (pressure,
temperature, and volume) are inter-related. See how this goes:

1
Pa VaT
V

The Combined Gas Law still holds to the relationships from Boyle's and Charles' Laws.
The volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure and
directly proportional to its absolute temperature. The third working equation will allow
you to predict how any one of the three properties will be affected when the others
are changed. The Combined Gas Law can also be used when only two properties are
changing. Simply cancel out the fixed property:
 IDEAL GAS LAWS
Mass and Volume

In his study of ganes, Amedeo Avogadro looked to see how the volume of a gas is
related to the number of moles. Studying various gases under standard conditions of
temperature and pressure, he was able to derive another gas law, aptly named after
him. Avogadro's law which states that at constant temperature and pressure, the
volume of a gas changes in direct proportion to the number of moles. He saw that
volume is directly proportional to the amount of gas present. Furthermore, he found
that one mole of any gas at standard temperature and pressure will occupy exactly
22.4 L. The standard temperature and pressure, or simply referred to as STP, for gases
are the temperature and pressure conditions where a gas behaves ideally. This is at 0°C
or 273 K and 1.0 atm pressure. The closer the conditions are to these, the more
"ideally" the gas behaves. So, in equation form, Avogadro's Law looks like this:
 V
VaN =k and extends to this equation:
N
Combining all these three laws will bring you to the ideal gas constant, designated as R,
the combination of all the constants from the separate laws. Whereas the constants
from the individual laws were not necessary in applying them, for the ideal gas law, the
value of the constant is essential. Below you see how it is derived.

nT
V =k
P
nT
V =R
P
 DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
Mole to mole fraction

The use of all other gas laws is based on the assumption that the gas sample is sealed
and the amount is fixed. The mole concept is a measurement of how much matter is
present. Defined as equivalent to 6.02 x 1023 particles of matter.

m
n=
MW
n= moles m= mass MW= molar mass/ molar weight

Partial pressure and Dalton’s law

n- total number of moles is simply the sum of the number of moles per gas
component.

t- the average kinetic energy would be the same for the individual gases and the entire
mixture would therefore register the same temperature as well.

v- it does not matter if only one gas is in container or a mixture.

P- pressure of each gas would depend on how often its particles hit the walls of the
container and other gases.

Equation for Dalton’s law:

PT= PA+ PB+ PC+… where PT= total pressure of mixture PA= partial pressure of gas A

Equation for ideal gas:

PAV= nART

GAS STOICHIOMETRY
Gases in chemical reactions

In study of stoichiometry, the mole ratio plays a major role in calculating the amount
of reactant or product used based on any other given quantity.

For every 2 moles NaHCO3 used 2 moles of CO2 is produced

For every 168.00 g NaHCO3 used, 88.00 g CO2 are produced

Applying Avogadro’s law in reactions with gases

Whether a gas is alone in a tank, mixed in the air or added to or produced from a
chemical reaction it is still defined by four properties: mass/mole, volume,
temperature and pressure. 1.0 mole of a gas at standard temperature and pressure
(STP) occupies exactly 22.4L. this is where you get the molar mass. As long as the gas is
collected under 1.0 atm pressure and 273k, every 1.0 mole of any gas will require
22.4L.

GAS EFFUSION
Effusion- dispersion or flow of fluids as gas along a narrow blue

Molar mass and rate of effusion

Indicated equation for kinetic energy:

KEA= KEB ½ mAvA2= ½ mBvB2

Replace v (velocity) with r (rate) to refer to diffusing and effusing gas particles.

To get the ration for rate, get the square root of both sides:

Thomas Graham- person who experimented with the diffusion and effusion of gases,
came up with the exact same relationship for the mass and rate of effusion.

rA= rate of effusion/diffusion of gas A

rB= gas B

MA= molar mass of gas a

MB= gas B

Heavier gases will diffuse or effuse slower than lighter gases under the t (temperature)
and p (pressure).
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION OF
ELECTRONS
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle states that it is not possible to determine both
momentum (angular velocity) and the position of a particle (such as an electron) at the
same time

THE FOUR QUANTUM NUMBERS

-Erwin Schrodinger, the physicist who introduced the Wave Theory, together with
other scientists found out that a set of numbers are needed to describe the three-
dimensional coordinates of an electron in the atomic orbitals of a hydrogen atom.
These numbers are called QUANTUM NUMBERS.

Principal Quantum Number (n)

• This represents the energy level of the electron in questions.

• When n=1, the electron is on 1st energy level, and so on.

• The larger the “n” value, the higher the energy level, the farther in the electron from
nucleus and the bigger is the atom.

Angular Momentum Quantum Number or the Azimuthal QN (l)

• Tells us the Atomic Orbital Shape.

• Each principal number is called a shell which is a collection of orbitals containing

electron of the same energy level.

• Within each shell is a subshell which is a subdivision of orbitals following a specific

electron cloud shape.

• There are four known subshells s, p, d, f.

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

• Tells about the orientation of the atomic orbitals along the xyz plane (a three-
dimensional coordinate plane).

Spin Quantum Number (ms)

• Gilbert Lewis had first proposed that electrons in an orbital come in pairs.

• However, these electrons cannot have the same set of Quantum Numbers as it was
found out that pairs of electrons have different angular momentum as an effect of
magnetic field created by two spinning electrons.
 Number Symbol Possible values
Principal quantum n 1.2.3.4…
number
Angular momentum l 0,1,2,3,…,(n-1)
quantum number
Magnetic quantum ml -l,…, -1,0,1,…, l
number
Spin quantum number ms +1/2, -1/2

QUANTUM MECHANICAL DESCRIPTION OF

ELECTRONS
Electronic configuration- description of how an atom fill up the orbitals.

Valence electrons- are electrons found at the outermost shell of an atom, and the
ones which are directly involved in chemical reaction.

Aufbau Principle- according to this principle, the electrons of ground state atoms
(uncharged atoms) tend to fill first the shell, subshell, and the orbitals that produce the
lowest energy for the atom.

Hund’s rule- states that electrons pair only after the orbitals in the same subshell are
filled with single electrons.

Subshell No. of Max

orbitals numbers of
electrons
S 1 2
P 3 6
D 5 10
F 7 14

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

Orbital diagram is pictorial descriptions of the electrons in an atom. These are The
Aufbau Principle, Pauli’s Exclusion Principle and Hund’s Rule.

1. Aufbau principle
 Electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first
 The last electron that enters an orbital is called the differentiating
electron
 Makes the configuration of an atom different from that of the other
atom.
2. Pauli’s exclusion principle
  States that only 2 electrons can occupy the same orbital and two
electrons must spin
 Electrons said to be paired
 Single electron= unpaired
3. Hund’s rule
 Orbitals are of about the same energy, each orbital is filled with one
electron with parallel spins before any of them is filled with the opposite
spin electrons.

CHEMICAL BONDING
In 1916, Lewis proposed an explanation of bonding in molecular compounds. He
reasoned out that an atom might acquire a noble-gas electron configuration by sharing
its valence electrons with other atoms. A chemical bond formed by sharing a pair of
electrons in called a covalent bond and the molecules formed are called covalent
molecules.

The Lewis structure or electron dot formula of a molecule shows how the valence
electrons are arranged among atom in the molecules. The symbol of each element is
used to represent the nucleus and all inner electrons. The valence electrons are then
shown as dots around the symbol.

The element’s group number indicates the number of dots to be placed on each
symbol. Group IA shows one dot, Group IIA has two, Group IIIA has three, Group IVA
has four, Group VA has five, Group VI has six, Group VIIA has seven, and Group VIIIA
the noble gasses which are the stable elements has eight dost on the element symbol
except for Helium which has only two dots.

FORMATION OF MOLECULAR COVALENT BOND

A covalent is a result of the sharing of an electron pair between two atoms which arise
from the electrostatic attraction of their nuclei. A covalent bond forms when the atoms
have lower total energy that that of widely separated atoms.

The octet rule is significant though by no means accurate, for predicting the formulas
of many covalent compounds, and it allows us to explain the usual valence displayed
by many of the representative elements. Based on Lewis’ theory hydrogen and the
halogens each have a valance of one because the atoms of hydrogen and the halogens
each contain one less electron than a noble-gas atom. To acquire a noble-gas
structure, therefore, they need only to join in the sharing of one pair of electrons.

MOLECULAR FORMULA
Nonmetals are type of elements which lack metallic characteristics and are located at
the far right of the periodic table, on the right side of the “staircase”. Hydrogen is also
nonmetal though it is in the top left of the periodic table. When two metals combine,
they formed a covalent compound.

Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are involved in bonding.
Elements need to have a full valence shell of eight valence electrons. In order to
achieve a full valence shell, atoms will lose, gain or share electrons (Octet Rule).
Hydrogen is an exception to the rule because it only needed two elements to have a
full valence shell.

LEWIS STRUCTURE OF MOLECULAR COVALENT

COMPOUNDS
Atom gain, lose or share electrons to give a stable electron configuration characterized
by 8 valence electrons (The Octet Rule) in forming a compound. Gilbert Lewis
suggested that covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons in atoms. Sharing of
electrons can be illustrated using Lewis electron-dot symbol.

In the Lewis structure, the bond that is formed by shared electron is represented by a
line or a pair of dots. A single bond is represented by a bar (-) which means that there
is one pair of electrons being shared by two atoms. When two pairs electrons are
shared between two atoms, a double bond is formed, and it is represented by a double
bar (=).

How to draw Lewis structure?

1.Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule (indicated by the
position of the element in the periodic table). For polyatomic ions, subtract electron
for each positive charge and add electron for each negative charge.

2.Arrange the atoms to show specific connection. Draw a skeletal structure. Arrange
the atoms around a central atom. Element which are less electronegative should be
placed in the center. With a single bond, connect each atom to the central atom.

3.Distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs around the terminal atoms to give
each atom an octet.

4.Place all remaining electrons on the central atom.

5.To achieve an octet, rearrange the electrons of the terminal atoms to make multiple
bonds (double or triple) with the central.
 GEOMETRY OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS
Molecular geometry “molecular structure” refers to the three-dimensional structure of
atoms in a molecule. Knowing the molecular geometry of a compound can help
determine the reactivity, color, magnetism, polarity, phase of matter, and biological
activity.

Becoming acquainted with Lewis Electron Dot structure is the first step in predicting
the shape of a molecule. Lewis structure identifies the bond pairs and the lone pairs.
Then, the Lewis structure, Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is
applied to determine the molecular geometry of a compound.

How do we apply the VSEPR theory?

VSEPR focuses in electron pairs, as well as electron group such as electron pair, lone
pairs, single unpaired electron, double bond, or triple bond. The number of bond pairs
and lone pairs around the central atom will help predict the molecular shape.

The location of the nuclei and its electron determined the molecular shape. They settle
into the positions that minimize repulsion and maximize attraction. The molecule’s
shape has the lowest possible energy in the system which reflects its equilibrium state.
Although VSEPR predicts electron distribution, take into two categories, electron-
group geometry, and the molecular geometry.

Electron-group geometry is determined by the number of electron groups. Molecular

geometry depends both on the number of electron groups and number of lone pairs.

POLARITY OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS

Molecules are classified as polar and nonpolar depending on the polarity of the
individual bonds and the overall shape or geometry of the molecule. Polarity is the
result of one atom being more electronegative than the other. In a covalent bond, the
resulting molecule is polarized and has positive and negative poles. This happens when
there is electron sharing. However, instead of sharing the electrons equally, the more
electronegative atom attracts the electron towards itself. If the bond were shared
equally, then you have a nonpolar bond. This type of bond is found in diatomic
molecules or compounds that are composed of only one element. If the bond unevenly
distributed, then it is polar bond.

Electronegativity- atom’s tendency to attract electrons during a chemical bond.

FUNCTUONAL GROUP
Many different types of compounds are obtained when hydrocarbons undergo
chemical reactions. Since they are derived from hydrocarbons, they are called
hydrocarbons derivatives and are classified according to the kind of atom or group
atoms they contain, which exhibits a consistent king of reactivity (function).

Hydrocarbon derivatives are classified based on the functional group that they contain.
A functional group is an atom or group of atoms that defines the reactivity of an
organic molecule.
 STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
Isomers are molecules that have the same chemical formula but different structures.
These molecules make sure of the exact same number and kinds of atoms but are
chemically arrange differently.

SIMPLE REACTIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Chemical reactions produce new substance. A reactant or reactant interact, old bonds
are broken, the new bonds are formed with the starting atoms from the reactants
rearranged in different ways.

The following are the three simple reactions that organic compounds undergo and are
used to produce other useful substance. Note that some references use the term
hydration, hydrolysis, condensation or dehydration to refer to these reactions when
they involve or produce water.

1.Substitution – when an atom or a group of atoms is replaced by a new species

2.Elimination – involves the removal of 2 atoms or groups of atoms attached to 2

adjacent C atoms, resulting to the formation of a multiple bond and the release of a
by-product.

3.Addition – when 2 atoms or group of atoms attach to 2 adjacent C atoms, breaking a

multiple bond between them.

Other special reactions of organic compounds:

a. Combustion of organic fuel – reaction of organic substances with oxygen that

decomposes or breaks the substance into carbon dioxide, and water. This very useful
reaction drives engines and most of the industries, since combustion of organic fuel
highly exothermic, generating large amount pf energy that is further converted to
other transferrable and usable forms.
b. Condensation – combination of synthesis of a new, bigger molecule by combining
two organic molecules. The reaction releases water, as by-product.

c. Saponification of fats – breaking up a fat or a triglyceride by the addition of a base,

NaOH. Th process produces soap molecule, a long chain with a hydrophilic head and a
hydrophobic tail. The head is hydrophilic (water-loving) since it is ionic while the tail is
insoluble in water (hydrophobic).

FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF POLYMERS

Polymer- a single chain of interconnected units called monomers.

Formation of polymers

Polymerization- occurs in nature and has also been duplicated in the manufacturing
industry.

1. Initiation stage- monomers are prepared for bonding by the action of a

catalyst.
2. Propagation stage- activated monomers attach to the bonding site of the next
monomer.
3. Termination stage- growing of the chain is stopped by the bonding or the last
monomer.

Major polymerization process

1. Addition polymerization- carbon compounds with multiples bonds between

the C atoms can be added to form a chain.
2. Condensation polymerization- combining individual units is by the removal of
small components such as -H or -OH.

Structure of polymers

1. Average chain length- refers to the number of repeating units present in the
polymer.
2. Degree of branching- refers to hoe “frilly” the chain is due to its branches.
3. Nature of constituent monomers- refers to the inherent characteristics and
structures of the monomers.

STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

Primary structure of a polymer refers to its primary chain

A. Homopolymer- formed from a single type of monomer which is a chain of

ethane molecules linked together.
B. Copolymer- formed from monomers composed of 2 or smaller molecules as
its monomer with their chains formed by repeating units of dimers.
Cross-links- interaction between active sites along the primary chains. Usually dipole-
dipole interactions or H-bonds.

Properties of polymers

1. Heat capacity/ heat conductivity

2. Thermal expansion
3. Crystallinity
4. Permeability
5. Elastic modulus
6. Tensile strengths
7. Resilience
8. Refractive index
9. Resistance to electric current

STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF

BIOMOLECULES
Focus now on the polymers that are literally at your fingertips – the skin that covers
your fingers and the rest of your body! And an even more interesting fact that most
science students should know, is that skin color due to a pigment called melanin which
is another polymer.

Biomolecules are the molecule of life. These chemical substances sustain living
organisms and enable them to grow, develop, and reproduce. They are organic
substances or are Carbo-based, with structures formed by covalent bond. The four
major biomolecules are the carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

1. Carbohydrates – originally from the idea that these substances are derivatives of
carbon, C, bonded to water (hydrates).

a. Function – immediate source of energy.

b. Structure – composed of C, H and O; can be generally classified as monosaccharides,

disaccharides or polysaccharides when seen as polymers; they are molecules made
numerous hydroxyl groups.

i. Monosaccharides
ii. Disaccharides
iii. Polysaccharides

2. Proteins – building blocks of life.

a. Function – basic component of cell, tissues, and organs; structural materials in hair,
nails and connective tissues; enzymes and biological catalysts.
b. Structure – composed of C, H, O, N and S; polymers of amino acids, also referred to
as polypeptides since they are formed through the formation pf peptide bonds.

3. Nucleic Acid – blueprint of life

a. Function – contains the genetic information that codes for the sequences of amino
acids in proteins.

b. Structure – composed of C, H, O, N and P; polymers of nucleotides, nucleotides are

composed of three parts: s five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a
phosphate group; nucleic acids are technically copolymers, as their repeating units are
made up of three combined molecules.

i. DNA
ii. RNA

4. Lipids

a. Function – energy storage/long-term energy source; hormones and cell membrane

components.

b. Structure – composed of C, H, O and are generally water-insoluble

i. Fats and oil

ii. Steroids
iii. Waxes