SURVEYING II

EAC 2241

By Eng. Baariu Kelvin

 COURSE OUTLINE
Mensuration in surveying: Areas of regular and irregular figures, Areas of
cross-sections, Volumes from cross sections, Volumes from Contours, volume from spot heights.

Theodolite Traversing: Types of Traverse, Methods of Traversing, Computation

and plotting, Corrections on traverse. Bearings and coordinates: Types of bearings, bearing sheet,
Calculations of Bearings and Distances from coordinates, Computation of areas from coordinates,
Adjustment of coordinates. Curves ranging: Types of curves, Application of curves in Engineering,
Geometry of simple circular curves, Methods of setting out, Obstacles in setting out curves.
Integrated Method of Assessment
Written examination, Course work and Assignment
Continuous Assessment Components ~ 40%
Final Examination ~60%
1. Two Assignments
2. Two Tests
3. End Semester Examination
 Course Textbooks

1. Ramsay, J. P. W. (1983). Land Surveying, 3rd Edition, Trans-Atlantic Publications, Inc.ISBN-

13: 978-0-7121-1242-0

2. Bannister, A. (1979). Surveying, 5thEdition, Longman. ISBN-13: 978-0-582-98874

3. Williamson, R. (1985). Land Surveying, 2nd Edition, Pitman Publisher Ltd. ISBN-13: 978-1-231-
28680-7
Reference Textbooks
1. Bannister, A. and Raymond, S. (1998). Surveying, 7th edition, Pearson education Ltd. ISBN-13: 978-0-582-
07688-4

2. David, M. (2015). Manual of Land Surveying, Forgotten Books, United States, ISBN-13: 978-1-332-02167-3

3. George M. C. (2005). Fundamentals of Surveying, 3rd Edition, Professional Publications (Ca). ISBN-
13: 978-1-59126-046-2
 Course Journals
1. Journal of Surveying Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, ISSN: 07339453

2. Surveying and Land Information Science, Chartered Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors. ISSN:
15381242

3. Applied Geomatics, Springer Verlag .ISSN: 18669298, 1866928X

Reference Journals
1. Surveying and Land Information Science, American Congress on Surveying and Mapping. ISSN:
15381242

2. Journal of the Korean Society of Surveying Geodesy Photogrammetry and Cartography, Korean Society
of Surveying, Geodesy, Photogrammetry and Cartography. ISSN: 15984850

3. Journal of Geomatics, Wuhan University. ISSN: 10073817

 COMPUTATION OF AREA AND VOLUME
Aim:
One of the main objectives of the surveying is to compute the areas and volumes.
Generally, the lands will be of irregular shaped polygons. There are formulae readily
available for regular polygons like, triangle, rectangle, square and other polygons. But
for determining the areas of irregular polygons, different methods are used.
They are:
(1) Graphical method
(2) Co-ordinate method
(3) Planimeter
Out of these three methods, the co-ordinate method is popularly used, in land
surveying for computing catchment area, drainage area, cross section of rivers, channels
etc. Under this method the given area is split into two with a base line run at the centre.
There are two important rules available.
1. Trapezoidal Rule
In this method, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be
straight. Thus the area enclosed between these line and the irregular boundary lines are
considered as trapezoids.
d
A= [O1 + O n + 2(O 2 + O 3 + O 4 + ... + O n −1 )]
2
A = distance between ordinate/ 2*[{first ordinate + last ordinate} + 2{sum of other ordinates)

2. Simpson’s Rule:

A=
d
3
[ ]
O 1 + O n + 4 (O 2 + O 4 + ...) + 2 (O 3 + O 5 + ...)

Common dis tan ce (d) (First ordinate + Last ordinate) + 4 (Sum of even ordinates) 
A= + 2 (Sum of odd ordinates) 
3  

Limitations:
 The rule is applicable only when the number of divisions is even or the number of
ordinates are odd sometimes one or both end ordinates may be zero. However hey must
be taken into account while applying rules.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at an
interval of 10 m. 0, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 0 m. Compute the area between the
chain line, the irregular boundary line and the end offsets by:
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
(b) Simpson’s Rule
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
Here d = 10
10
Area = {0 + 0 + 2 (2.50 + 3.50 + 5.00 + 4.60 + 3.20)} = 5 * 37.60 = 188 m2
2
(b) Simpson’s Rule
D = 10
10
Area = {0 + 0 + 4(2.50 + 5.00 + 3.20) + 2(3.50 + 4.60)}= 10 * 59.00 = 196.66 m2
3 3
2. The following offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary line:
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80
Offset (m) 2.50 3.80 4.60 5.20 6.10 4.70 5.80 3.90 2.20

Find the area between the survey line, the curved boundary line and the first and
last offsets by (a) Trapezoidal Rule and (b) Simpson’s Rule.
Here, the intervals between the offsets are not regular throughout the length.
Soothe section is divided into three compartments.
Let,
∆1 = Area of the 1st section
∆2 = Are of the 2nd section
∆3 = Area of the 3rd section
Here,
d1 = 5 m
 d2 = 10 m
d3 = 20 m
(a) Trapezoidal Rule:
5
∆1 = {2.50 + 6.10 + 2(3.80 + 4.60 + 5.20)} = 89.50 m2
2
10
∆2 = {6.10 + 5.80 + 2(4.70)} = 106.50 m2
2
20
∆3 = {5.80 + 2.20 + 2(3.90)} = 158.00 m2
2
Total Area = 89.50 + 106.50 + 158.00 = 354.00 m2
(b) By Simpson’s Rule
5
∆1 = {2.50 + 6.10 + 4(3.80 + 5.20) + 2(4.60)} = 89.66 m2
3
10
∆2 = {6.10 + 5.80 + 4.70 } = 102.33 m2
3
20
∆3 = {5.80 + 2.20 + 4(3.90)} = 157.33 m2
3
Total area = 89.66 + 102.33 + 157.33 = 349.32 m2
EXERCISE
The following offsets were taken at 15 m intervals from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line. 3.50, 4.30, 6.75, 5.25, 7.50, 8.80, 7.90, 6.40, 4.40, 3.25 m. Calculate the
area enclosed between the survey line, the irregular boundary line and the first and last
offsets by:
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
(b) Simpson’s Rule
 COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES
The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurements done in
the field is required in the design and planning on many engineering works. The volume
of earth work is required for suitable alignment of road works, canal and sewer lines, soil
and water conservation works, farm pond and percolation pond consent.
The computation of volume of various materials such as coal, gravel and is
required to check the stock files, volume computations are also required for estimation of
capacities of bins tanks etc.
For estimation of volume of earth work cross sections are taken at right angles to
a fixed line, which runs continuously through the earth work. The spacing of the cross
sections will depend upon the accuracy required. The volume of earth work is computed
once the various cross-sections are known, adopting Prismoidal rule and trapezoidal rule.
D
Trapezoidal rule : V= [A 1 + A n + 2(A 2 + A 3 + ... + A n −1 )]
2
D
Prismodial rule : V= [A 1 + A n + 4 (A 2 + A 4 + ...) + 2(A 3 + A 5 + ...)]
3
Where,
D - common distance between sections
A1, A2, …An = cross sectional areas
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. Compute the cost of earth work involved in cutting open a trench of following size.
Length 200 m, side slope 2: 1, depth of trench 4 m, bottom, width of trench 1.5 m. Cost
of earth work Rs. 50 per m3.
Cross sectional area of trench, A = (b + sh)*h
A = (1.5 + 2*4)*4
A = 9.5 * 4 = 38 m2
∴ Volume of earth work, V = A*L = 38 * 200 = 7600 m3
∴ Cost of earth work = 7600 * 50 = sh. 3,80,000.00
2. Compute the volume of earth work involved in constructing a farm pond of the
following size: size, at bottom 6 x 4 m. Side slope 2: 1, depth of pond 4 m work out the
cost of earth work also if it costs Rs. 50 per m3.
 Size of pond at bottom =6x4m
Area at bottom = 24 m2 (a1)
Size of pond at ground level:
Length of pond = 6 + 8 + 8 = 22 m
Breadth of pond = 4 + 8 + 8 = 20 m
Cross sectional area of pond at ground level = 20 * 22 = 440 m2 (a3)
(22 + 6) (20 + 4)
Area of pond at mid height = * = 14 *12 = 168 m 2 (a2)
2 2
D
Using prismoidal rule, V= [a 2 + a 3 + 2(a 2 )]
2
D
V= [24 + 440 + 2(168)]
2
2
V= [464 + 336] = 800 m3
2
∴ Cost of earth work = 50 * 800 = sh. 40, 000

EXERCISE
1. The three cross section of embankment at an interval of 30 m. Compute the volume of
earth required to form the embankment?
Midpoint-ordinate rule

The rule states that if the sum of all the ordinates taken at
midpoints of each division multiplied by the length of the base
line having the ordinates (9 divided by number of equal
parts).

Midpoint ordinate rule | Method for calculating area in

Surveying

In this, base line AB is divided into equal parts and the

ordinates are measured in the midpoints of each division.

Area = ([O1 +O2 + O3 + …..+ On]*L)/n

L = length of baseline

n = number of equal parts, the baseline is divided

d = common distance between the ordinates

Example of the area calculation by midpoint ordinate
rule

The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m

interval from a survey line to an irregular boundary line. The
ordinates are measured at midpoint of the division are 10, 13,
17, 16, 19, 21, 20 and 18m. Calculate the are enclosed by the
midpoint ordinate rule.

Given:
Ordinates

O1 = 10

O2 = 13

O3 = 17

O4 = 16

O5 = 19

O6 = 21

O7 = 20

O8 = 18

Common distance, d =10m

Number of equal parts of the baseline, n = 8

Length of baseline, L = n *d = 8*10 = 80m

Area = [(10+13+17+16+19+21+20+18)*80]/8= 1340sqm

Simpson’s Rule

Statement
It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be done. Add
twice the sum of remaining odd ordinates and four times the
sum of remaining even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum by
1/3rd of the common distance between the ordinates which
gives the required area.
Where O1, O2, O3, …. On are the lengths of the ordinates
d = common distance

n = number of divisions

Note:

This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd, i.e. even number of divisions.

If the number of ordinates are even, the area of last division maybe calculated
separated and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson’s rule to two
remaining ordinates.

Even if first or last ordinate happens to be zero, they are not to be omitted from
Simpson’s rule.

The following offsets are taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary
towards right side of the chain line.
 Chainage 0 25 50 75 100 125 150

Offset 3.6 5.0 6.5 5.5 7.3 6.0 4.0

‘m’

Common distance, d = 25m

Area = d/3[(O1+O7) + 2 (O3+O5)+4(O2+O4+O6)]

= 25/3[(3.6+4)+2(6.5+7.3)+4(5+5.5+6)]

Area = 843.33sqm

Average Ordinate Rule

The rule states that (to the average of all the ordinates taken
at each of the division of equal length multiplies by baseline
length divided by number of ordinates).

Average Ordinate Rule

O1, O2, O3, O4….On ordinate taken at each of division.
L = length of baseline
n = number of equal parts (the baseline divided)
d = common distance
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ …. + On)*L]/(n+1)
Here is an example of a numerical problem regarding the
calculation of areas using Average Ordinate Rule
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m interval
from a survey line to an irregular boundary line.
9, 12, 17, 15, 19, 21, 24, 22, 18
Calculate area enclosed between the survey line and irregular
boundary line.
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ …. + O9)*L]/(n+1)
= [(9+12+17+15+19+21+24+22+18)*8*10]/(8+1)
= 139538sqm
 COMPUTATION OF AREA AND VOLUME
Aim:
One of the main objectives of the surveying is to compute the areas and volumes.
Generally, the lands will be of irregular shaped polygons. There are formulae readily
available for regular polygons like, triangle, rectangle, square and other polygons. But
for determining the areas of irregular polygons, different methods are used.
They are:
(1) Graphical method
(2) Co-ordinate method
(3) Planimeter
Out of these three methods, the co-ordinate method is popularly used, in land
surveying for computing catchment area, drainage area, cross section of rivers, channels
etc. Under this method the given area is split into two with a base line run at the centre.
There are two important rules available.
1. Trapezoidal Rule
In this method, boundaries between the ends of ordinates are assumed to be
straight. Thus the area enclosed between these line and the irregular boundary lines are
considered as trapezoids.
d
A= [O1 + O n + 2(O 2 + O 3 + O 4 + ... + O n −1 )]
2
A = distance between ordinate/ 2*[{first ordinate + last ordinate} + 2{sum of other ordinates)

2. Simpson’s Rule:

A=
d
3
[ ]
O 1 + O n + 4 (O 2 + O 4 + ...) + 2 (O 3 + O 5 + ...)

Common dis tan ce (d) (First ordinate + Last ordinate) + 4 (Sum of even ordinates) 
A= + 2 (Sum of odd ordinates) 
3  

Limitations:
SWC 211 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering

The rule is applicable only when the number of divisions is even or the number of
ordinates are odd sometimes one or both end ordinates may be zero. However hey must
be taken into account while applying rules.
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. The following offsets were taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary line at an
interval of 10 m. 0, 2.50, 3.50, 5.00, 4.60, 3.20, 0 m. Compute the area between the
chain line, the irregular boundary line and the end offsets by:
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
(b) Simpson’s Rule
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
Here d = 10
10
Area = {0 + 0 + 2 (2.50 + 3.50 + 5.00 + 4.60 + 3.20)} = 5 * 37.60 = 188 m2
2
(b) Simpson’s Rule
D = 10
10
Area = {0 + 0 + 4(2.50 + 5.00 + 3.20) + 2(3.50 + 4.60)}= 10 * 59.00 = 196.66 m2
3 3
2. The following offsets were taken from a survey line to a curved boundary line:
Distance (m) 0 5 10 15 20 30 40 60 80
Offset (m) 2.50 3.80 4.60 5.20 6.10 4.70 5.80 3.90 2.20

Find the area between the survey line, the curved boundary line and the first and
last offsets by (a) Trapezoidal Rule and (b) Simpson’s Rule.
Here, the intervals between the offsets are not regular throughout the length.
Soothe section is divided into three compartments.
Let,
∆1 = Area of the 1st section
∆2 = Are of the 2nd section
∆3 = Area of the 3rd section
Here,
d1 = 5 m
 d2 = 10 m
d3 = 20 m
(a) Trapezoidal Rule:
5
∆1 = {2.50 + 6.10 + 2(3.80 + 4.60 + 5.20)} = 89.50 m2
2
10
∆2 = {6.10 + 5.80 + 2(4.70)} = 106.50 m2
2
20
∆3 = {5.80 + 2.20 + 2(3.90)} = 158.00 m2
2
Total Area = 89.50 + 106.50 + 158.00 = 354.00 m2
(b) By Simpson’s Rule
5
∆1 = {2.50 + 6.10 + 4(3.80 + 5.20) + 2(4.60)} = 89.66 m2
3
10
∆2 = {6.10 + 5.80 + 4.70 } = 102.33 m2
3
20
∆3 = {5.80 + 2.20 + 4(3.90)} = 157.33 m2
3
Total area = 89.66 + 102.33 + 157.33 = 349.32 m2
EXERCISE
The following offsets were taken at 15 m intervals from a survey line to an irregular
boundary line. 3.50, 4.30, 6.75, 5.25, 7.50, 8.80, 7.90, 6.40, 4.40, 3.25 m. Calculate the
area enclosed between the survey line, the irregular boundary line and the first and last
offsets by:
(a) Trapezoidal Rule
(b) Simpson’s Rule
 COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES
The computation of volumes of various quantities from the measurements done in
the field is required in the design and planning on many engineering works. The volume
of earth work is required for suitable alignment of road works, canal and sewer lines, soil
and water conservation works, farm pond and percolation pond consent.
The computation of volume of various materials such as coal, gravel and is
required to check the stock files, volume computations are also required for estimation of
capacities of bins tanks etc.
For estimation of volume of earth work cross sections are taken at right angles to
a fixed line, which runs continuously through the earth work. The spacing of the cross
sections will depend upon the accuracy required. The volume of earth work is computed
once the various cross-sections are known, adopting Prismoidal rule and trapezoidal rule.
D
Trapezoidal rule : V= [A 1 + A n + 2(A 2 + A 3 + ... + A n −1 )]
2
D
Prismodial rule : V= [A 1 + A n + 4 (A 2 + A 4 + ...) + 2(A 3 + A 5 + ...)]
3
Where,
D - common distance between sections
A1, A2, …An = cross sectional areas
WORKOUT PROBLEMS
1. Compute the cost of earth work involved in cutting open a trench of following size.
Length 200 m, side slope 2: 1, depth of trench 4 m, bottom, width of trench 1.5 m. Cost
of earth work Rs. 50 per m3.
Cross sectional area of trench, A = (b + sh)*h
A = (1.5 + 2*4)*4
A = 9.5 * 4 = 38 m2
∴ Volume of earth work, V = A*L = 38 * 200 = 7600 m3
∴ Cost of earth work = 7600 * 50 = sh. 3,80,000.00
2. Compute the volume of earth work involved in constructing a farm pond of the
following size: size, at bottom 6 x 4 m. Side slope 2: 1, depth of pond 4 m work out the
cost of earth work also if it costs Rs. 50 per m3.
SWC 211 Soil and Water Conservation Engineering

Size of pond at bottom =6x4m

Area at bottom = 24 m2 (a1)
Size of pond at ground level:
Length of pond = 6 + 8 + 8 = 22 m
Breadth of pond = 4 + 8 + 8 = 20 m
Cross sectional area of pond at ground level = 20 * 22 = 440 m2 (a3)
(22 + 6) (20 + 4)
Area of pond at mid height = * = 14 *12 = 168 m 2 (a2)
2 2
D
Using prismoidal rule, V= [a 2 + a 3 + 2(a 2 )]
2
D
V= [24 + 440 + 2(168)]
2
2
V= [464 + 336] = 800 m3
2
∴ Cost of earth work = 50 * 800 = sh. 40, 000

EXERCISE
1. The three cross section of embankment at an interval of 30 m. Compute the volume of
earth required to form the embankment?
Midpoint-ordinate rule

The rule states that if the sum of all the ordinates taken at
midpoints of each division multiplied by the length of the base
line having the ordinates (9 divided by number of equal
parts).

Midpoint ordinate rule | Method for calculating area in

Surveying

In this, base line AB is divided into equal parts and the

ordinates are measured in the midpoints of each division.

Area = ([O1 +O2 + O3 + …..+ On]*L)/n

L = length of baseline

n = number of equal parts, the baseline is divided

d = common distance between the ordinates

Example of the area calculation by midpoint ordinate
rule

The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m

interval from a survey line to an irregular boundary line. The
ordinates are measured at midpoint of the division are 10, 13,
17, 16, 19, 21, 20 and 18m. Calculate the are enclosed by the
midpoint ordinate rule.

Given:
Ordinates

O1 = 10

O2 = 13

O3 = 17

O4 = 16

O5 = 19

O6 = 21

O7 = 20

O8 = 18

Common distance, d =10m

Number of equal parts of the baseline, n = 8

Length of baseline, L = n *d = 8*10 = 80m

Area = [(10+13+17+16+19+21+20+18)*80]/8= 1340sqm

Simpson’s Rule

Statement
It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be done. Add
twice the sum of remaining odd ordinates and four times the
sum of remaining even ordinates. Multiply to this total sum by
1/3rd of the common distance between the ordinates which
gives the required area.
Where O1, O2, O3, …. On are the lengths of the ordinates
d = common distance

n = number of divisions

Note:

This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd, i.e. even number of divisions.

If the number of ordinates are even, the area of last division maybe calculated
separated and added to the result obtained by applying Simpson’s rule to two
remaining ordinates.

Even if first or last ordinate happens to be zero, they are not to be omitted from
Simpson’s rule.

The following offsets are taken from a chain line to an irregular boundary
towards right side of the chain line.
 Chainage 0 25 50 75 100 125 150

Offset 3.6 5.0 6.5 5.5 7.3 6.0 4.0

‘m’

Common distance, d = 25m

Area = d/3[(O1+O7) + 2 (O3+O5)+4(O2+O4+O6)]

= 25/3[(3.6+4)+2(6.5+7.3)+4(5+5.5+6)]

Area = 843.33sqm

Average Ordinate Rule

The rule states that (to the average of all the ordinates taken
at each of the division of equal length multiplies by baseline
length divided by number of ordinates).

Average Ordinate Rule

O1, O2, O3, O4….On ordinate taken at each of division.
L = length of baseline
n = number of equal parts (the baseline divided)
d = common distance
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ …. + On)*L]/(n+1)
Here is an example of a numerical problem regarding the
calculation of areas using Average Ordinate Rule
The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 10m interval
from a survey line to an irregular boundary line.
9, 12, 17, 15, 19, 21, 24, 22, 18
Calculate area enclosed between the survey line and irregular
boundary line.
Area = [(O1+ O2+ O3+ …. + O9)*L]/(n+1)
= [(9+12+17+15+19+21+24+22+18)*8*10]/(8+1)
= 139538sqm
 Contours
Contours are lines drawn on a map or a plan that connect points of equal elevation. They
provide a 2-dimensional representation of the 3-dimensional shape of a surface, such as
a topographic map or a plan of a land development site. The characteristics of contours
are as follows:
1. Shape: The shape of a contour line is circular or irregular and depends on the slope and
curvature of the surface being represented.
2. Spacing: The spacing between contour lines depends on the degree of slope and the
intended use of the map. On a topographic map, for example, the contour lines may be
closer together on a steep slope and further apart on a gentle slope.
3. Elevation: Contour lines represent the elevation of the surface being represented. The
elevation is typically shown by a number, or contour interval, at the bottom of the map.
Three uses of contours are:
1. Topographic mapping: Contours are used to create topographic maps, which are used
for planning and design of various projects, including roads, buildings, and land
development.
2. Volume calculations: Contours can be used to calculate the volume of a surface, such
as a cut or fill, by subtracting the volume of the original surface from the volume of the
new surface.
3. Drainage analysis: Contours can be used to analyse the drainage patterns of a surface
and to determine the flow of water, which is useful in the design of drainage systems
and erosion control.
Transverse Surveying: Types and Methods
A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions
are to be measured and the process of surveying to find such
measurements is known as traversing. In general, chains are used to
measure length and compass or theodolite are used to measure the
direction of traverse lines. The types of traverse and methods of
traversing are discussed in this article.

Types of Traverses
A Traverse may be of two types. Namely,

1. Open Traverse

2. Closed Traverse
1. Open Traverse
A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at
one point and terminates at another point as shown in the figure.
Open traverse is also called as unclosed traverse. It is suitable for
surveying of roads, coastal lines, etc.

Fig 1: Open Traverse

2. Closed Traverse
Methods of Traversing
The traversing is performed by four different methods and these
methods are classified according to the survey instrument used. The
methods are as follows.

1. Chain Traversing
2. Compass Traversing
3. Theodolite Traversing
4. Plane Table Traversing
1. Chain Traversing
Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only.
Hence, chain or tape is enough for chain traversing. The angle
between the adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain
angles concept. Chain traversing is performed in areas such as
ponds etc. where it is difficult to adopt triangulation.

The chain angles concept is nothing but finding the angle between
two adjacent sides by establishing the third side using tie stations.
This angle between the sides can also be fixed by establishing a
chord of known length between the sides.
 Fig 3: Survey Chain

2. Compass Traversing
In the case of compass traversing, both linear and angular
measurements of traverse lines are taken by using chain and
prismatic compass respectively. Both fore bearing and back bearings
are measured and required corrections for local attraction are
applied. If any closing error is obtained while plotting of traverse,
then Bowditch rule is applied for the adjustment of error.

Fig 4: Survey Compass

3. Theodolite Traversing
In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements are
done by using chain or stadia method and angular measurements
are done by theodolite. Using theodolite, the magnetic bearing of
the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic bearing
of other sides are calculated. This method is very accurate
compared to other methods.

Fig 5: Theodolite Traversing

4. Plane Table Traversing

In the case of plane table traversing, the measuring and plotting of
the traverse on the paper are done simultaneously. The plane table
equipment is set up at every traverse station one by one in a
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The sides of each traverse
station are drawn on paper to a suitable scale. If there is any closing
error, graphical methods are used for its adjustment.
 Fig 6: Plane Table Traversing

A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and

directions are to be measured and the process of surveying to find
such measurements is known as traversing. In general, chains are
used to measure length and compass or theodolite are used to
measure the direction of traverse lines. The types of traverse and
methods of traversing are discussed in this article.
1

THEODOLITE SURVEY
 Theodolite Surveying
2

The system of surveying in which the angles (both horizontal & vertical) are measured with
the help of a theodolite, is called Theodolite surveying

Compass Surveying vs. Theodolite Surveying

➢Horizontal angles are measured by using a Compass with respect to meridian, which is less
accurate and also it is not possible to measure vertical angles with a Compass.
➢So when the objects are at a considerable distance orsituated at a considerable
elevation or depression ,it becomes necessary to measure horizontal and vertical angles
more precisely. So these measurements are taken by an instrument known as a theodolite.

How Does a Theodolite Work?

A theodolite works by combining optical plummets (or plumb bobs), a spirit (bubble level),
and graduated circles to find vertical and horizontal angles in surveying. An optical
plummet ensures the theodolite is placed as close to exactly vertical above the survey
point. The internal spirit level makes sure the device is level to to the horizon. The
graduated circles, one vertical and one horizontal, allow the user to actually survey for
angles.
 APPLICATIONS
3

• Measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

• Locating points on a line.
• Prolonging survey lines.
• Finding difference of level.
• Setting out grades
• Ranging curves
• Tacheometric Survey
• Mesurement of Bearings
 CLASSIFICATION OF THEODOLITES
4

Theodolites may be classified as ;

A. Primary
i) Transit Theodolite.
ii) Non Transit Theodolite.

B. Secondary
i) Vernier Theodolites.
ii) Micrometer Theodolites.
iii) Modern Theodolite
 CLASSIFICATION OF THEODOLITES
5

A. Transit Theodolite: A theodolite is called a transit

theodolite when its telescope can be transited i.e
revolved through a complete revolution about its
horizontal axis in the vertical plane.

B. Non-Transit type- In this type the telescope is

cannot be transited. They are inferior in utility and
have now become obsolete.

Vernier Theodolite: For reading the graduated circle if verniers are used ,the theodolite is
called as a Vernier Theodolite.

Micrometer Theodolite - If a micrometer is provided to read the graduated circle the

same is called as a Micrometer Theodolite.
Vernier type theodolites are commonly used
 COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR
VERNIER THEODOLITE
6
 COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
7

Transit vernier theodolite essentially consist of the following

1. Levelling Head.
2. Lower Circular Plate
3. Upper Plate.
4. Plate level.
5. Compass
6. Diaphragm.
7. T- Frame.
.8. Plumb –bob.
9. Tripod Stand.
10. Telescope

Size of Theodolite:
This is defined by the diameter of the graduated circle of the lower plate.
Common sizes are 8 cm to 12 cm while 14 cm to 25 cm are used for triangulation work or
more precise works.
 COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
8

Levelling Head.
•It is the lowermost part of a theodolite. It consists of two parallel horizontal plates
separated by three leveling screws.
•The lower plate with a large threaded hole in its centre is called trivet or foot plate. It
provides a means to place the instrument on (tripod) stand and get it screwed. Its central
aperture provides a way for suspending a plumb bob.
•The upper plate of the leveling head is called the tribrach . It contains a tapered
bearing at the centre. It has three arms each carrying a leveling screw. It provides a
support for the upper part of the instrument.
•The principal use of levelling head is to provide a means for levelling the instrument.

Shifting Head
•It consists of a pair of horizontal plates and an annular treaded ring. One of the plates
is placed below the lower plate but above the tribrach and the other below the tribrach.
•The annular treaded ring is placed in between lower plate and the tribrach which is used
to tighten/untighten the whole of the instrument.
•The shifting head is used for exact centring of the instrument after leveling has been
completed.
COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
9
Lower Plate
It is a horizontal circular plate monolithically constructed
with the outer spindle. A scale is engraved at its bevelled
edge with divisions in degrees and minutes increasing in
clockwise direction. It provides the main scale reading of
a horizontal angle and a means to fix / unfix the whole
of the instrument.

Upper Plate
It is a horizontal circular plate monolithically constructed
with the inner spindle. It is fitted with two diametrically
opposite vernier scales designated as A and B. Functions
of upper plates are to support a pair of magnifiers for
the verniers, a pair of plate levels, a pair of support
frames for telescope and a means to fix / unfix the upper
plate of the instrument with its lower plate.
Plate Levels
A pair of level tubes are placed at right angles on the upper plate. These are used to make the
vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical i.e., for leveling of the instrument.
COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
10

Standard (or A Frame)

Two standards resembling the letter A are attached on the upper plate. These provides the
bearings of the pivots of the telescope allowing it to rotate on its trunion axis in vertical plane.
The vernier frame and arm of vertical circle clamp are also attached to it.

Vernier Frame
Also called T -frame or index frame,
consists of a vertical leg known as
clipping arm and a horizontal bar
called the index arm engraved with
verniers C and D at its ends. Each of the
verniers at C and D are having two
scales which increases in opposite
directions.
It is used as seat for altitude bubble and
also provides vernier reading for
vertical angle measurement
COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
11

Telescope
The telescope of a theodolite is identical in structure and uses, as in case of a dumpy level.
But, in theodolite, the telescope is mounted on a horizontal spindle called the horizontal axis
or the trunnion axis to rotate it also in vertical plane.

Vertical Circle
The vertical circle is attached with the trunnion axis. It is engraved with a scale reading
vertical angle in degrees and minutes. The vertical circle is divided into four quadrants each
reading 0° to 90° with 0° - 0° either along vertical or in horizontal. It provides the main
scale reading for vertical angle.

Altitude Bubble
A sensitive level tube placed on vernier frame is called altitude bubble. It is used to make
horizontal axis truly horizontal.

Tripod Stand
The theodolite is mounted on a strong tripod when being used in the field. The legs of the
tripod are solid or framed. At the lower ends of the legs, pointed steel shoes are provided to
get them pushed into ground
 COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
12

ScrewsA theodolite instrument has number of screws as its component parts. These are classified
into different types depending on their functions.

Leveling ScrewsThese are present in the leveling head of a theodolite in between trivet and
tribrach. These work in threaded holes in the tribrach arms and their lower ends rest in recesses
in the trivet. These screws are used for leveling the instrument i.e., to make plate level axis truly
horizontal.

Clamp screwsThese are used to fix the parts of a theodolite with which these are attached.
Lower plate Clamp ScrewThe clamp screw attached to the lower plate of a theodolite is called
lower plate clamp screw. When it is tightened, the outer spindle gets fixed with the tribrach,
and, thus, the lower plate gets fixed in position.
Upper plate Clamp ScrewThe clamp screw attached with the upper plate of a theodolite is
called upper plate clamp screw. When it is tightened, the inner spindle gets fixed with the outer
spindle and, thus, the upper plate gets fixed in position.
Vertical plate Clamp ScrewIt is present on a frame fixed with standard and above the shaft of
trunnion axis. It is used to clamp the telescope in any plane and hence at any desired vertical
angle.
 COMPONENTS OF TRANSIT OR VERNIER THEODOLITE
13

The manipulation of the upper plate and lower plate clamp screws provide three conditions:
1. When both the upper plate clamp screw and the lower plate clamp screw are tightened,
the instrument gets fully fixed.
2. When the upper plate clamp screw is tightened and the lower plate clamp screw is
opened, the instrument rotates on its outer axis, There is no relative motion between the two
plate and the readings in the horizontal vernier scales do not change.
3. When the lower plate clamp screw is tightened, and the upper plate is opened, the
instrument rotates on the inner axis with outer axis fixed. The readings in the horizontal
vernier scales change

Tangent Screws With each clamping screw, there is a tangent screw present in the instrument
to provide fine movement. The tangent screws work only after its clamping screws get
tightened.
▪ Thus when the upper clamp screw has been tightened, small movement of the upper
plate can be made by the upper tangent screw
▪ when the lower clamp screw has been tightened, small movement of the lower plate
can be made by the lower tangent screw and similarly for vertical clamp screw.
 TERMS USED IN TRANSIT VERNIER
THEODOLITE OPERATION
14

Centering :
Centering means setting the theodolite exactly over an instrument. It can be done by means
of plumb bob suspended from a small hook attached to the
vertical axis of the theodolite.

Transiting :
Transiting is also known as plunging or reversing. It is the process of turning the telescope
about its horizontal axis through 1800 in the vertical plane.

Face Left :
If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the left side of the observer while taking a
reading ,the position is called the face left.

Face Right:
If the vertical circle of the instrument is on the right side of the observer while taking a
reading ,the position is called the face right
 TERMS USED IN TRANSIT VERNIER
THEODOLITE OPERATION
15

Changing Face :
It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle to the right of the observer ,if
originally it is to the left , and vice – versa.

Leveling :
Leveling of an instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical.
Generally, there are three leveling screws and two plate levels are present in a
theodolite instrument.

Line of Collimation :
It is also known as the line of sight .It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the
cross- hairs of the diaphragm to the optical centre of the object- glass and its
continuation.

Axis of the telescope:

It is also known an imaginary line joining the optical centre of the object- glass to the
centre of eye piece.
 FUNDAMENTAL LINES IN TRANSIT THEODOLITE
16

The fundamental lines are imagined in a theodolite

instrument are
▪Vertical Axis
▪Horizontal axis
▪Line of collimation
▪Axis of the altitude level tube
▪Axis of the plate level
In a perfectly adjusted instrument, the fundamental
lines bear relations
1. The vertical cross hair should lie in a plane
perpendicular to the horizontal axis .
2. The axis of each plate level should lie in a plane
perpendicular to the vertical axis
3. The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to
the vertical axis .
4. The axis of the telescope level should be parallel
to the line of sight
.5. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis at its intersection with the vertical
axis . Also, the optical axis , the axis of the objective slide & the line of sight should coincide
 Temporary Adjustment of Transit Theodolite
17

At each station point, before taking any observation, it is required to carry out some
operations in sequence. The set of operations those are required to be done on an instrument in
order to make it ready for taking observation is known as temporary adjustment.

It consists of following operations:

➢Setting
➢Centring
➢Leveling
➢Focussing.

.
 Temporary Adjustment of Transit Theodolite
18

Setting
The setting operation consists of fixing the theodolite with the tripod stand along with
approximate leveling and centring over the station.
For setting up the instrument, the tripod is placed over the station with its legs widely
spread so that the centre of the tripod head lies above the station point and its head
approximately level (by eye estimation). The instrument is then fixed with the tripod by
screwing through trivet. The height of the instrument should be such that observer can see
through telescope conveniently. After this, a plumb bob is suspended from the bottom of
the instrument and it should be such that plumb bob should point near to the station mark

Centring
The operation involved in placing the vertical axis of the instrument exactly over the station
mark is known as centring.
First, the approximate centring of the instrument is done by moving the tripod legs radially
or circumferentially as per need of the circumstances.
Finally, exact centring is done by using the shifting head of the instrument. During this, first
the screw-clamping ring of the shifting head is loosened and the upper plate of the shifting
head is slid over the lower one until the plumb bob is exactly over the station mark. After
the exact centring, the screw clamping ring gets tightened.
 Temporary Adjustment of Transit Theodolite
19
Leveling
Leveling of an instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical.
Generally, there are three leveling screws and two plate levels are present in a theodolite
instrument. Thus, leveling is being achieved by carrying out the following steps
Step 1: Bring one of the level tube parallel to any two of the
foot screws, by rotating the upper part of the instrument.
Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by
rotating both the foot screws either inward or outward. The
bubble moves in the same direction as the left thumb
Step 3: The bubble of the other level tube is then brought to the
centre of the level tube by rotating the third foot screw either
inward or outward
Step 4: Repeat Step 2 and step 3 in the same quadrant till both
the bubble remain central.
Step 5: By rotating the upper part of the instrument through
180°, the level tube is brought parallel to first two foot screws in
reverse order
The bubble will remain in the centre if the instrument is in permanent adjustment.
Otherwise, repeat the whole process starting from step1 to step5.
 Temporary Adjustment of Transit Theodolite
20
Focusing
To obtain the clear reading, the image formed by the objective lens should fall in the plane of
diaphragm and the focus of eye-piece should also be at the plane of diaphragm. This is being
carried out by removing parallax by proper focusing of objective and eye-piece. Thus, focusing
operation involves two steps

Focusing of Eye-piece
The eye-piece is focused to make the appearence of cross hairs distinct and clear. This is being
carried out in steps: First, point the telescope towards the sky or hold a sheet of white paper in
front of the objective; Next, move the eye-piece in or out by rotating it gradually until the cross
hairs appear quite sharp and clear. Focusing of eye-piece depends on the eye-sight of observer
and so for each observer it needs to adjusted accordingly

Focusing of Objective
It is done for each independent observation to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross
hairs. It includes following steps of operation: First, direct the telescope towards the object for
observation. Next, turn the focusing screw until the image of the object appears clear and sharp
as the observer looks through properly focused eye-piece. If focusing has been done properly,
there will be no parallax
 Permanent Adjustment of Transit Theodolite
21

An instrument is said to in permanent adjustment if it satisfies all the relations among

its fundamental lines. The permanent adjustments are made to establish the relationship
between the fundamental lines of the theodolite.

The permanent adjustment of an instrument usually gets disturbed after long or

prolonged use. So, the state of relationship among different fundamental lines should
be checked occasionally and corrections are required to be done, if necessary.

The operations are based on the geometry of the fundamental line and thus, may
get upset one relation while rectifying other. In order to avoid such possibility, the
permanent adjustment should be made in the order.
1. Adjustment of Vertical cross hair;
2. Adjustment of plate level axes;
3. Adjustment of line of sight;
4. Adjustment of horizontal axis;
5. Adjustment of the axis of the telescope;
6. Adjustment of vertical circle index.
 READING VERNIER TRANSIT THEODOLITE
22

Least Count of the vernier

This is the difference between the value of the smallest division of the main scale and that
of the smallest division of the vernier scale. It is the smallest value that can be measured
by a theodolite.

METHOD OF READING VERNIER

 READING VERNIER TRANSIT THEODOLITE
23
 Measurement of Horizontal Angle
24

There are three methods of measuring

horizontal angles:-
i) Ordinary Method.
ii) Repetition Method.
iii) Reiteration Method

Method of Repetition
When the precision of measurement of a horizontal angle is desired to be more
than the least count of the instrument, repetition method is used.

In this method, the desired angle is measured several times, and average of the
observed values is considered as the value of the angle. The precision thus attained
is to a much finer degree than the least count of the vernier
 Measurement of Horizontal Angle
25

To represent the direction of a line, the horizontal angle of the line from a reference line is to be
measured. The steps required to be adopted are as follows:
▪Two points one on each of the lines, say P and Q, are to be marked.
▪A transit theodolite is to be set at the point of intersection of the lines, say at O. Initially, the
instrument is in the face left condition and its temporary adjustment is to be done over the point O.
▪Both the lower and upper plate main screws are to released and get the vernier A set to 0° (or
360°) mark on the main scale. After clamping the upper main screw, index of vernier A is to be
brought exactly to the zero of the main scale using the upper plate tangent screw.
▪At this stage the reading of the vernier B should be 180°.
▪Swing the telescope in horizontal plane and point it to the left station, say P. Tighten lower plate
clamp screw & bisect the signal at P exactly using the lower plate tangent screw. Record readings
▪Loosen the upper plate main screw and turn the telescope the signal at Q is sighted. Tighten the
upper clamp screw and bisect the ranging pole at Q exactly using the upper plate tangent screw.
▪Read both the verniers A and B and record the readings. The reading of the vernier A is the angle
POQ. The vernier B gives the value of angle POQ after deducting from it 180°. The mean of two
values of the angles obtained from the verniers A and B is the required angle P'O'Q'.
▪Change the face of the instrument to the face right by transiting telescope and swinging it by 180°
▪Repeat steps 3 to 8 and determine another value of the angle P'O'Q'.
▪The mean of the face left and face right observations is the final required angle P'O'Q'.
 Measurement of Horizontal Angle
26

The method of repetition eliminates different errors present in measurement of horizontal

angle.
1. The errors due to eccentricity of verniers and centres get eliminated as readings from both
the verniers are taken.
2. The errors due to inaccurate graduations get eliminated as the readings are observed at
different parts of the circle.
3. The errors due to lack in adjustment of line of collimation and the horizontal axis of the
instrument get eliminated for considering both faces readings.
4. Errors due to inaccurate bisection of the object, eccentric centering etc are eliminated
partially as these get counter-balanced in different observations.

However, the errors due to slip, due to displacement of station or its signal do not get
eliminated and moreover, these errors are of cumulative in nature.
 Measurement of Horizontal Angle
27

Method of Reiteration
Method of reiteration for measurement of horizontal
angle is usually adopted in case several angles of
well distributed points/ objects are to be measured
from the same instrument station with high precision.

In this method, angles are measured successively

starting from a point termed as initial station. The
angle between the terminating station and the initial
station is the last observation during a set of
measurement of horizontal angle by method of
reiteration.
This process of measuring the angles at an instrument
station round the point is to obtain a check on their
sum being equal to 360° and is called closing the
horizon. Figure shows a instrument station O
When the horizon is closed, the final reading of the where the angles POQ, QOR and ROS
vernier should be the same as its initial reading if have to be measured by method of
there is no discrepancy. reiteration.
 Measurement Of Vertical Angle
28

A vertical angle is the angle between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal plane
through the trunnion axis of the instrument. Prior to the measurement of vertical angle,
instrument is required to be leveled with reference to the altitude level.

It may be an angle of elevation or depression according as the object is

above or below the horizontal plane.
 Measurement Of Vertical Angle
29

Procedure :
1. The temporary adjustment of the instrument is to be done on the station.
2. Then, leveling of theodolite is to be done using altitude level (the operations involved
are same as leveling using plate level).
3. Loosen the vertical circle clamp, and direct the telescope towards the object whose
vertical angle is required to be measured. Clamp the vertical circle, and bisect the
point by turning the vertical tangent screw.
4. Read and record the scale with vernier C and D in table
5. Change the face of the instrument and read the vertical angle again.
6. The required vertical angle is the average of the values in steps 4 and 5.
 TRAVERSE SURVEYING
30
Traverse
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connected successively at established points,
along the route of a survey. The points defining the ends of the traverse line are called
traverse stations or traverse points. Distances between traverse stations are known as
traverse side
Fundamentally, there are two types of traverses:
Open Traverse
An open traverse originates from a point whose position
may be known or unknown but terminates to a point
whose position is not known. In this type of traverse,
computational check is not possible to detect error or
blunder in distances or directions.
Closed Traverse
When a traverse originates from a known position and
also terminates to known position then it is called a closed
traverse. (If the origin and terminating points are the
same then it is called closed-loop traverse This type of
traverse permits an internal check on the accuracy of
angular measurements
 TRAVERSE SURVEYING
31

Traverse Surveying
Surveying for establishment of control points of a traverse consists of different steps of
operation. These are
1. Reconnaissance
2. Selection of stations sites
3. Marking of stations
4. Field measurements
5. Computations

Chain Traversing
The method in which the whole work is done with chain and tape is called chain
traversing. No angle measurement is used and the directions of the lines are fixed
entirely by linear measurements.

Chain and Compass Traversing

In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are measured
by a compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with a
tape. The direction of the magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station
independently. The method is also known as a tree or loose needle method.
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
32

Theodolite Traversing by Fast Needle Method

The method in which the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a
theodolite fitted with s compass is called traversing by fast needle method. The
direction of the magnetic meridian is not established at each station but instead,
the magnetic bearings of the lines are measured with a reference so that direction
of the magnetic meridian established at the first station.

There are three methods of observing the bearings of lines by fast needle method.
i. Direct method with transiting,
ii. Direct method without transiting,
iii. Back bearing method.
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
33

Interior Angle Traverse

The field operations in the interior angle method of traversing consist of occupation of
the successive stations and a transit or theodolite is being used to measure horizontal
angle.
At each station the vernier is set at zero, and a backsight to the preceding station is
taken. The instrument is then turned on its upper motion until the advance station is
sighted and the interior angle is observed.

All interior angles is generally observed twice, once with telescope direct and other
with the telescope reversed. Immediately after completion of observation, an
arithmetical check on the angular error of closure should be performed to detect any
blunder or excessively large error in angular measurement.

In interior angle adjustment method, the algebraic sum of the interior angles is being
computed and needs to be (2n - 4) X 90° where n is the number of sides in the traverse.
If there is no difference, no error is associated with the observation
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
34
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
35
Deflection Angle Traverse

In this method of traverse surveying, successive stations are occupied and deflection angles are
measured by a transit or theodolite.
At each station, a backsight is taken to the previous station with vernier A set at zero. The
telescope is then reversed by plunging it.
A foresight to the next station is then taken by turning the instrument about the vertical axis on its
upper motion, and the deflection angle is observed. The angle is recorded as right R or left L,
according to whether the upper motion is turned clockwise or counter clockwise.

Usually, deflection angles are observed twice, once with the telescope in face left and the other in
face right condition. Immediately after completion of traverse observation, an arithmetical check
on the angular error of closure should be performed

Deflection angle method of traversing is being generally used for open looped closed traverse. It
is most useful for the location survey of linear engineering works such as highways, railways, canals
and pipelines etc.
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
36
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
37

Fast Needle/ Azimuth Traverse

In this method, at each traverse station the back azimuth of the preceding line and the
azimuth of the forward line are measured using a transit. The reference meridian may be
either true or assumed. In this method, successive stations are occupied, beginning with the
line of known or assumed azimuth.

At each station the transit is "oriented" by setting the A vernier or horizontal circle index to
read the back azimuth (forward azimuth ± 180°) of the preceding line and then back
sighting to the preceding traverse station. The instrument is then turned on the upper
motion, and a foresight on the following traverse station is secured.

The reading indicated by the horizontal circle index on the clockwise circle is the azimuth
of the forward line. Any angular error of closure of a traverse becomes evident by the
difference between initial and final observations taken along the first line.
The method is used extensively for topographic and other surveys where a large number
of details are located by angular and linear measurements from the traverse stations.
 THEODOLITE TRAVERSING
38
 Sources of Error in Theodolite
39

1. Instrument Errors
a)Non-adjustment of plate bubble
b) Line of collimation not being perpendicular to horizontal axis .
c) Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to vertical axis.
d) Eccentricity of Inner and Outer axes
e) Graduation not being Uniform.
2.Personal Errors
3. Natural Errors
 Mistakes during Theodolite Traverse
40

➢Reading the wrong vernier scale

➢Misreading the vernier

There are two sets of vernier scales marked on a single vernier. While taking reading, use
that set of figures which increase in the same direction as the figure in the main direction.
▪Reading the vernier in the wrong direction.
▪Turning the wrong tangent screws
▪Failing to tighten the clamp screw.
▪Reading the numbers on the horizontal scale from the wrong row.
▪Reading angles in the wrong direction.
▪Sighting on the wrong signals or setting up over the wrong station
▪Booking the wrong values
▪Missing the wrong right or left in deflection angle
▪Using haphazard field procedure.
Transverse Surveying: Types and Methods
A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and directions
are to be measured and the process of surveying to find such
measurements is known as traversing. In general, chains are used to
measure length and compass or theodolite are used to measure the
direction of traverse lines. The types of traverse and methods of
traversing are discussed in this article.

Types of Traverses
A Traverse may be of two types. Namely,

1. Open Traverse

2. Closed Traverse
1. Open Traverse
A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at
one point and terminates at another point as shown in the figure.
Open traverse is also called as unclosed traverse. It is suitable for
surveying of roads, coastal lines, etc.

Fig 1: Open Traverse

2. Closed Traverse
Methods of Traversing
The traversing is performed by four different methods and these
methods are classified according to the survey instrument used. The
methods are as follows.

1. Chain Traversing
2. Compass Traversing
3. Theodolite Traversing
4. Plane Table Traversing
1. Chain Traversing
Chain traversing is done by taking linear measurements only.
Hence, chain or tape is enough for chain traversing. The angle
between the adjacent traverse lines is measured using the chain
angles concept. Chain traversing is performed in areas such as
ponds etc. where it is difficult to adopt triangulation.

The chain angles concept is nothing but finding the angle between
two adjacent sides by establishing the third side using tie stations.
This angle between the sides can also be fixed by establishing a
chord of known length between the sides.
 Fig 3: Survey Chain

2. Compass Traversing
In the case of compass traversing, both linear and angular
measurements of traverse lines are taken by using chain and
prismatic compass respectively. Both fore bearing and back bearings
are measured and required corrections for local attraction are
applied. If any closing error is obtained while plotting of traverse,
then Bowditch rule is applied for the adjustment of error.

Fig 4: Survey Compass

3. Theodolite Traversing
In the case of theodolite traversing, the linear measurements are
done by using chain or stadia method and angular measurements
are done by theodolite. Using theodolite, the magnetic bearing of
the first traverse line is measured and from that magnetic bearing
of other sides are calculated. This method is very accurate
compared to other methods.

Fig 5: Theodolite Traversing

4. Plane Table Traversing

In the case of plane table traversing, the measuring and plotting of
the traverse on the paper are done simultaneously. The plane table
equipment is set up at every traverse station one by one in a
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The sides of each traverse
station are drawn on paper to a suitable scale. If there is any closing
error, graphical methods are used for its adjustment.
 Fig 6: Plane Table Traversing

A traverse is a series of connected lines whose lengths and

directions are to be measured and the process of surveying to find
such measurements is known as traversing. In general, chains are
used to measure length and compass or theodolite are used to
measure the direction of traverse lines. The types of traverse and
methods of traversing are discussed in this article.
 Bearing Sheet

A bearing sheet is a type of engineering survey document used to record the bearings (or angles)
and distances between various points on a site or project. This information is critical for
accurately laying out and constructing structures and infrastructure such as buildings, roads,
bridges, and pipelines.

A bearing sheet typically includes a drawing or plan of the site, with key points labeled and
their coordinates recorded. The bearings and distances between these points are then calculated
and recorded on the sheet. The bearings are typically measured in degrees, with reference to
true north, and the distances are measured in feet or meters.

The data on a bearing sheet is often used to create detailed maps or plans for construction
projects, and can also be used for legal and regulatory purposes. It is important that the data on
a bearing sheet is accurate, as errors in the bearings or distances can result in significant
construction errors or delays.

Outline of a Bearing Sheet

1. Title block: This includes information such as the name of the project, the name of the
surveyor, the date of the survey, and the scale of the drawing.

2. Legend: This includes symbols and abbreviations used on the drawing, such as those
for different types of points or features.

3. Plan view: This is a drawing of the site or project from above, with key points labeled
and their coordinates recorded. The plan view may include information such as property
lines, buildings, roads, and utilities.

4. Bearings and distances: For each point on the drawing, the bearings and distances to
adjacent points are recorded. The bearings are typically measured in degrees, with
reference to true north, and the distances are measured in feet or meters.

5. Notes: Any additional information or comments relevant to the survey may be included
in the notes section of the sheet.

It's important to note that the exact format and content of a bearing sheet can vary depending
on the specific project and the requirements of the surveyor or client.
Solution
EMMITTED MEASUREMENTS
 CURVES RANGING

Types of Curves

In surveying, there are several types of curves that are used to represent changes in direction
and alignment of roads, railways, canals, and other civil engineering projects. Some of the most
common types of curves include:

1. Circular curves: These are arcs of circles used to change the direction of a path
gradually. They are the most common type of curve in surveying and are used in
highways, railways, and other transportation projects.

2. Compound curves: These curves consist of two or more circular arcs with different
radii and centres. They are used to change the direction of a path more sharply than a
single circular curve.

3. Spiral curves: These are curves that gradually increase or decrease in curvature over a
certain distance. They are used in highways and railways to provide a smooth transition
between two different radii.

4. Parabolic curves: These curves are arcs of a parabola and are used in the design of
bridges and other structures where a gradual change in elevation is needed.

5. Clothoid curves: These curves are also called Euler spirals and are used to provide a
smooth transition between two circular curves with different radii.

6. Elliptical curves: These curves are arcs of an ellipse and are used in the design of
horizontal curves for highways and railways.

Each of these types of curves has its own unique properties and is used for different purposes
in surveying and civil engineering projects.

APPLICATION OF CURVES IN ENGINEERING

curves have several applications in engineering, including:

1. Road design: Curves are used in road design to provide a smooth transition from one
direction to another, especially around hills or turns.

2. Railway design: Curves are used in railway design to control the speed of trains and
prevent derailments.
3. Bridge design: Curves are used in bridge design to accommodate different elevations
and provide a safe passage for traffic.

4. Canal design: Curves are used in canal design to control the flow of water and to
provide a smooth transition between different elevations.

5. Pipeline design: Curves are used in pipeline design to control the flow of fluids and
gases and to accommodate changes in elevation.

6. Tunnels design: Curves are used in tunnel design to provide a smooth transition from
one direction to another and to accommodate changes in elevation.

7. Airport runway design: Curves are used in airport runway design to provide a safe
take-off and landing area for airplanes.

8. Rollercoaster design: Curves are used in rollercoaster design to provide an exciting

and safe ride for passengers.

9. Ski slope design: Curves are used in ski slope design to provide a challenging and fun
experience for skiers.

10. Racing track design: Curves are used in racing track design to provide a challenging
and exciting experience for racers and to ensure their safety.
GEOMETRY OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVES
 SETTING OUT OF SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVES

Setting out a simple circular curve involves marking out the curve's centre, radius, and
endpoint, and then marking the points along the curve at specific intervals. There are several
methods used for setting out simple circular curves in surveying, The methods can be classified
into two methods namely;

1. Linear methods: in linear methods, only a tape or chain is used. Linear methods are
used when:
(a) A high degree of accuracy is not required
(b) The curve is short

2. Angular Methods: In angular methods, an instrument such as a theodolite is used with

or without a chain (or tape)

Linear methods of setting out.

1. By ordinates or offsets from the long chord

2. By successive bisection of arcs
3. By offsets from the arcs
4. By offsets from chords produced (or by deflection distances)

Compass and tape method: In this method, a compass is used to measure the radius
of the curve, and a tape is used to measure the length of the curve. The curve is then
marked out by setting stakes at specific intervals along the curve.

Tangential angle method: In this method, the tangential angle at the beginning and
end of the curve is measured, and the angle between the tangents is calculated. The
radius of the curve is then calculated using this angle and the length of the curve.

Chord offset method: In this method, the curve's centre is established, and the length
of the chord is measured. The offsets are then calculated at specific intervals along the
chord, and the points along the curve are marked out using the offsets.

Offset from a baseline method: In this method, a baseline is established, and the
curve's centre is offset from the baseline by a specific distance. The radius of the curve
is calculated, and the points along the curve are marked out using the radius.

Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method
depends on the specific project requirements and available equipment.
Compound Curves
 OBSTACLES IN SETTING OUT CURVES

1. Limited information: Incomplete or inaccurate information can make it difficult to set

out curves accurately, especially when it comes to slope, elevation, and other key
factors.

2. Weather conditions: Bad weather conditions can make it difficult to set out curves.
Rain, snow, fog, and extreme heat can make it challenging to see and measure
accurately.

3. Equipment failure: Equipment failure can disrupt the setting out process, especially if
essential tools such as theodolites, total stations, or GPS receivers are not functioning
correctly.

4. Site conditions: Site conditions such as uneven terrain, obstacles, or obstructions can
make it challenging to set out curves accurately.

5. Human error: Human error is always a possibility, especially if the person responsible
for setting out the curves is inexperienced or lacks attention to detail.

6. Communication breakdown: Miscommunication between team members can lead to

errors in setting out curves. This can be due to language barriers or lack of clarity in
instructions.

7. Safety concerns: Setting out curves may involve working at heights or in hazardous
locations. Safety precautions must be taken to avoid accidents or injuries.

8. Time constraints: Time constraints can put pressure on the team responsible for setting
out curves, leading to rushed work and potential errors.

9. Cost considerations: The cost of setting out curves can be a significant factor,
especially if it involves using expensive equipment or materials.

10. Changes in design: Changes in design can occur, requiring adjustments to the original
curve setting out plan. This can be time-consuming and may require additional
resources.