Mathematics in the Modern World (Ged 102)

Midterm Reviewers

LESSON 1.1 – The Mathematics of our World

Mathematics - Mathematics is a formal system of
thought that was gradually developed in the human
mind and evolved in the human culture. (Stewart)
Ian Nicholos Stewart: THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
Figure 1.1 (FUNCTIONS OF MATHEMATICS)
o British mathematician
Illustrated by Rizaldi C. Nocon and Ederlina C.
o Born: 24 September 1945 (age 76)
Nocon
o England
o Alma mater: University of Cambridge (BA) WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
University of Warwick (PhD)
o all about the unbelievable patterns of
o Known for: Does God Play Dice?
numbers formed by nature and of the
The Science of Discworld
universe
o Awards: Michael Faraday Prize (1995)
o all about language in different forms like
Royal Institution Christmas Lectures (1997)
patterns, shapes, music and so on.
Christopher Zeeman Medal
o all about what our eyes can see, what our
o Scientific career
ears can hear and even what we can
Fields: Mathematics
perceive in our physical environment
o Institutions: University of Warwick
o a language we understand
o Thesis: Subideals of Lie algebras (1969)
o Common notions associated with
o Doctoral advisor: Brian Hartley
mathematics:
MATHEMATICS IS A TOOL  numbers and counting (operations)
 numeric and geometric patterns
o useful, practical, and powerful  patterns of movement
o not about crunching numbers, formulas, and o A formal system of thought for recognizing,
symbols but rather, it is all about forming classifying, and exploiting patterns (Stewart)
new ways to see problems so we can  The great secret uncovered by
understand them by combining insights with mathematics: Nature’s patterns are not just
imagination there to be admired they are vital clues to
o allows us to perceive realities in different the rules that govern natural processes.
contexts that would otherwise be intangible
to us MATHEMATICS IS EVERYWHERE
o can be likened to our sense of sight and o use mathematics in their daily tasks and
touch activities
o our sense to decipher patterns, o important tool in the field of sciences,
relationships, and logical connections humanities, literature, medicine, and even in
o our whole new way to see and understand music and arts
the modern world o helps us cook delicious meals by exacting
o powerful tool in decision-making and it is a our ability to measure and moderately
way of life control of heat
o helps us to shop wisely, read maps, use
the computer, remodel a home with
constrained budget with utmost economy
 o Mathematics, provides new questions to
think about.
o In learning and doing mathematics,
there will always be new questions to
answer, new problems to solve, and new
things to think about.

THE MATHEMATICAL LANDSCAPE

o The human mind and culture developed a
Source: Space Telescope Science/NASA conceptual landscape for mathematical
thoughts and ideas to flourish and
THE UNIVERSE propagate.
Figure 1.2 o There is a region in the human mind that is
Whirlpool Galaxy - spiral galaxy capable of constructing and discerning the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration deepest insights being perceived from the
 UNIVERSE  natural world.
o describe the collection of all the things that o In this region, the mathematical landscape
exist in space exists- wherein concepts of numbers,
o made of many millions of millions of stars symbols, equations, operations calculations,
and planets and enormous clouds of gas abstractions,and proofs are the inhabitants
separated by a gigantic empty space as well as the constructs of the
o Astronomers can use telescopes to look at impenetrable vastness of its unchartered
very distant galaxies. territories.
o In this landscape, a number is not simply a
Any person can recognize the beauty of nature’s mathematical tree of counting.
mathematical patterns without any mathematical o Landscape Mathematics = Landscape
training. Architecture + Mathematics +
Engineering™.
Recognize the clues of patterns in nature 
Deduce the underlying rules and regularities o Landscape Mathematics is an
interdisciplinary STEM field that combines
THE ESSENTIAL ROLES OF MATHEMATICS knowledge in landscape architecture,
o Helps us to take the complex processes that mathematics, and engineering used to
is naturally occuring in the world around us design, build, and perceive this world of
and it represents them by utilizing logic to numbers.
make things more organized and more
efficient. o Landscape Mathematics teaches how to
o Facilitate not only to weather, but also to recognize and understand the seen and
control the weather ; be it social, natural, unseen beauty and logic of this world of
statistical, political, or medical. numbers.
o Applied mathematics
 used for solving problems in physics, WHAT IS IT FOR?
 useful tool in biological sciences: for o To organize patterns and regularities as well
instance, the spread of various diseases as irregularities.
can now be predicted and controlled. o To be able to predict.
o Used by scientists and researchers in doing o To help us control weather, epidemics.
or performing researches to solve social, o To provide tool for calculations.
scientific,medical, or even political crises. o To provide new questions to think about.

DR. CATHERINE P. VISTRO-YU

HOW IS MATHEMATICS DONE? (Vistru-Yu)
o Professor of Mathematics
o With curiosity (Sherlock Holmes analogy)
Education, Ateneo de Manila University
o With a penchant for seeking patterns and
o 2012 Metrobank Foundation Outstanding
generalities (inquisitiveness)
Teacher
o With a desire to know the truth
According to Vistru-Yu PPT presentation,
 o With trial and error o regular, repeated, or recurring forms or
o Without fear of facing more questions and designs
problems to solve
 repetitive and duplicative
WHO USES MATHEMATICS? Different Kinds of Pattern

o Mathematics: pure and applied 1.Patterns of Visuals

o Scientists : Natural and Social Fractals
o Practically everyone
 Different people use different  type of mathematical shape that are
mathematics at different times, for infinitely complex
different purposes, using different  a pattern that repeats forever, and every
tools, with different attitudes part of the fractal, regardless of how
(Diversity and universality) zoomed in, or zoomed out you are, it looks
very similar to the whole image.
MATHEMATICS IS FOR EVERYONE  Examples: Fern, Great Geometry on this
(Vistru – Yu) Succulent: Aloe Polyphylla, Pine cones
o Everyone uses mathematics, whoever they
2. Patterns of Flow
are, wherever they are, and whenever they
need to.  The flow of liquids provides an inexhaustible
o From mathematicians to scientists, from supply of nature’s patterns.
professionals to ordinary people, they all  Patterns of flow are usually found in the
use mathematics. water, stone, and even in the growth of
o For mathematics puts order amidst disorder. trees.
o It helps us become better persons .  There is also a flow pattern present in
o It helps make the world a better place to live meandering rivers with the repetition of
in. undulating lines
 Examples: Water River Flow, Growth of
Tree
“Whatever the reasons, mathematics is 3. Patterns of Movements
a useful way to think about nature.What
 This prevalence of pattern in locomotion
does it want to tell us about the patterns extends to the scuttling of insects, the flights
we observe? There are many answers. of birds, the pulsations of jellyfish, and also
We want to understand how they the wave-like movements of fish, worms,
happen; to understand why they and snakes.
happen, which is different; to organize
the underlying patterns and regularities 4. Patterns of Rhythm
in the most satisfying way; to predict  Rhythm is conceivably the most basic
how nature will behave; to control pattern in nature.
nature for our own ends; to make  Our hearts and lungs follow a regular
practical use of what we have learned repeated pattern of sounds or movement
about our world. Mathematics helps us whose timing is adapted to our body’s
to do all these things, and often, it is needs.
indispensable.” [Stewart]  Many of nature’s rhythms are most likely
similar to a heartbeat, while others are like
breathing. The beating of the heart, as well
as breathing, have a default pattern
5. Patterns of Texture
LESSON 1.2 – The Mathematics in our World
 A texture is a quality of a certain object that
we sense through touch.
PATTERN - a structure, form, or design that is  It exists as a literal surface that we can feel,
regular, consistent, or recurring see, and imagine. Textures are of many
kinds.
  It can be bristly, and rough, but it can also
be smooth, cold, and hard.
6. Geometric Patterns
 A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern
which consists of a series of shapes that are
typically repeated.
 These are regularities in the natural world
that are repeated in a predictable manner.
 Geometrical patterns are usually visible on
cacti and succulents.
PATTERNS FOUND IN NATURE
Rotation
Waves and Dunes
o Tallest Waves o also known as rotational symmetry,
o Wind Waves captures symmetries when it still looks the
o Ocean Waves same after some rotation (of less than one
o Sand Dunes full turn).
Animals o The degree of rotational symmetry of an
o Spots on the Skin of Giraffe object is recognized by the number of
o Stripes on the Skin of a Zebra distinct orientations in which it looks the
same for each rotation.
Spirals Pattern
o Ram Male Sheep
o Big Horn Sheep
o Kudu – Large African Antelopes with Long
Spiral Horns

SYMMETRIES

SYMMETRY 
o means that one shape becomes exactly like
another when you move it in some way:
turn, flip or slide.
o indicates that you can draw imaginary line Translation
across an object and the resulting parts are
mirror images of each other. o exists in patterns that we see in nature and
KINDS OF SYMMETRY in man-made objects.
1. Reflection o Translations acquire symmetries when units
2. Rotation are repeated and turn out having identical
3. Translation figures, like the bees’ honeycomb with
hexagonal tiles.
Reflection
o Reflection symmetry, sometimes called line
symmetry or mirror symmetry, captures
symmetries when the left half of a pattern is
the same as the right half

SYMMETRIES IN NATURE
Human Body
 o The human body is one of the pieces of o This kind of symmetry is created when a
evidence that there is symmetry in nature. pattern is repeated until it covers a plane.
o Our body exhibits bilateral symmetry. o Beehives are made of walls with each side
o It can be divided into two identical halves. having the same size enclosed with small
hexagonal cells. Inside these cells, honey
and pollen are stored and bees are raised.
Leonardo da vinci’s vitruvian
man showing the proportions Starfish
and symmetry of the human
o have a radial fivefold symmetry. Each arm
body.
portion of the starfish is identical to each of
the other regions
FIBONACCI IN NATURE
Animal Movement Flowers display figures adorned with numbers of
o The symmetry of motion is present in petals that are in the Fibonacci sequence.
animal movements. EXAMPLES
o When animals move, we can see that their Classic five-petal flowers
movements also exhibit symmetry. 1. buttercup
Sunflower 2. columbine
3. hibiscus
o One of the most interesting things about a Eight-Petal flowers
sunflower is that it contains both radial and 1. Clematis
bilateral symmetry.
2. Delphinium
o What appears to be "petals" in the outer ring
Thirteen-Petal flowers
are actually small flowers also known as ray
1. Ragwort
florets.
o These small flowers are bilaterally 2. Marigold
symmetrical.
o On the other hand, the dark inner ring of the -Nautilus Shells with a Logarithmic Spiral Growth
sunflower is a cluster of radially symmetrical
disk florets. LESSON 1. 3 : The Fibonacci Sequence
RADIAL SYMMETRY
Sequence- an ordered list of numbers called
o symmetry around a central axis, as in a terms, that may have repeated values
starfish (radial five-fold symmetry) or a tulip TYPES OF SEQUENCE
flower 1. Arithmetic sequence
o the condition of having similar parts o To determine if the series of numbers follow
regularly arranged around a central axis an arithmetic sequence,check the
common difference between two
Snowflakes
consecutive terms.
o Snowflakes have six-fold radial symmetry. o Subtraction
o The ice crystals that make-up the
2. Geometric sequence
snowflakes are symmetrical or patterned. o To determine if the series of numbers follow
o The intricate shape of a single arm of a a geometric sequence, check the common
snowflake is very much similar to the other ratio between two consecutive terms.
arms. o also known as a geometric progression, is
a sequence of non-zero numbers where
Honeycombs/Beehive
each term after the first is found by
o Honeycombs or beehives are examples of multiplying the previous one by a fixed, non-
wallpaper symmetry. zero number called the common ratio. 
o Division/Multiplication
3. Harmonic sequence LESSON 2.1 Characteristics and Conventions in
o a progression formed by taking the the Mathematical Language
reciprocals of an arithmetic progression/
Language is one of the most important thing among
sequence
the people because it has an important role in
4. Fibonacci sequence communication.
o a series of numbers governed by some According to Cambridge English Dictionary, a
unusual arithmetic rule language is a system of communication consisting
o organized in a way a number can be of sounds, words and grammar, or the system of
obtained by adding the two previous communication used by people in a particular
numbers country or type of work.
o formed by adding the preceding two
numbers, beginning with 0 and 1 A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, … The language of mathematics makes it easy to
express the kinds of thoughts that mathematicians
like to express.

LEONARDO PISANO BIGOLLO (1170 – 1250) It is:

LEONARDO OF (DA) PISA 1. precise (able to make very fine distinction)

o nickname Fibonacci 2. concise (able to say things briefly); and

o Italian Mathematician 3. powerful (able to express complex thoughts with
o most talented Western mathematician of relative cases).
the Middle Ages
Importance of Language
The ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers o To understand the expressed ideas.
o To communicate ideas to others
approach the number (Phi) , also known
as the Golden Ratio – approximately equal to B. Vocabulary vs. Sentences
1. 618
Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and
its rules for combining these words into complete
FORMULA FOR COMPUTING FOR THE nth thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no
TERM IN THE FIBONACCI SEQUENCE exception. As a first step in discussing the
mathematical language, we will make a very broad
xn = φn − (1−φ)n classification between the ‘nouns’ of mathematics
(used to name mathematical objects of interest)
√5 and the ‘sentences’ of mathematics (which state
Where: complete mathematical thoughts)’

Xn stands for the Fibonacci number we’re looking Importance of Mathematical Language
for o Major contributor to overall comprehension
n stands for the position of the number in the o Vital for the development of Mathematics
Fibonacci sequence proficiency
o Enables both the teacher and the students
Φ stands for the value of the golden to communicate mathematical knowledge
ratio with precision

MODULE 2: Mathematical Language and

Symbols
C. Comparison of Natural Language into
Mathematical Language

D. Expressions vs Sentences
Mathematical Sentence - is the analogue of an
English sentence; it is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols that states a complete
thought. It makes sense to as about the TRUTH of b) Basic Operations and Relational Symbols
a sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes
true/sometimes false?
Truth of Sentences
Sentences can be true or false. The notion of “truth”
(i.e., the property of being true or false) is a
fundamental importance in the mathematical
language; this will become apparent as you read
the book

Expression - is the mathematical analogue of an

English noun; it is a correct arrangement of
mathematical symbols used to represent a
mathematical object of interest. An expression does
NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does
not make sense to ask if an expression is true or
false.
E. Conventions in mathematics, some
commonly used symbols, its meaning and an
example
a) Sets and Logic
C) Set of Numbers 3. Finite set
A finite set is a set that the elements in a given
set is countable.
Illustration: A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 } B = { a, b, c,
d}
4. Infinite set
An infinite set is a set that elements in a given
set has no end or not countable.
F. Translating words into symbol Illustration: A set of counting numbers A = { …-
2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }
o Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in
equation form. The job of the problem solver 5. Cardinal Number; n
is to translate the problem from phrases and
Cardinal number are numbers that used to
statements into mathematical expressions
measure the number of elements in a given set.
and equations, and then to solve the
It is just similar in counting the total number of
equations.
element in a set.
o As problem solvers, our job is made simpler
if we are able to translate verbal phrases to Illustration: A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } n = 4 B = { a, c, e }
mathematical expressions and if we follow n=3
step in solving applied problems. To help us
translate from words to symbols, we can 6. Equal set
use the Mathematics Dictionary Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if
and only if they have equal number of
cardinality and the element/s are identical.
There is a 1 -1 correspondence.
Illustration: A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = { 3, 5, 2, 4, 1}
7. Equivalent set
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be
equivalent if and only if they have the exact
LESSON 2.2: FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
number of element. There is a 1 – 1
correspondence.

I. SETS AND ITS OPERATIONS Illustration: A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d,

e}
Language of Sets
8. Universal set
Georg Cantor – Founder of Set Theory
The universal set U is the set of all elements
“Set” as a formal mathematical term and a under discussion.
collection of well-defined objects.
Illustration: A set of an English alphabet U = {a,
Terminologies of Set b, c, d, …, z}
1. Unit Set 9. Joint Sets
Unit set is a set that contains only one element. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets
if and only if they have common element/s.
Illustration: A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }
A = { 1, 2, 3}B = { 2, 4, 6 } Here, sets A and B
2. Empty set or Null set; 
are joint set since they have common element
Empty or null set is a set that has no element. such as 2.
Illustration: A = { } A set of seven yellow
10.Disjoint Sets
carabaos
Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A
and only if they are mutually exclusive or if they  B , is the set defined as : A  B = { x | x  A
don’t have common element/s. and x  B }
A = { 1, 2, 3}B = { 4, 6, 8 } Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}
then A  B = {1, 2} .
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} then A
Two ways of Describing a Set
B=
1. Roster or Tabular Method It is done by listing or
tabulating the elements of the set.
3. Difference of Sets
2. Rule or Set-builder Method It is done by stating
or describing the common characteristics of the The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A -
elements of the set. We use the notation A = { x / x B , is the set defined as A - B = { x | x  A and x
…} B}
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}
then A - B = {3} .
Subsets
Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then
A subset, A  B, means that every element of A A - B = {1, 2, 3} .
is also an element of B.
Example : 3 If A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {a, c, e } ,
If x  A, then x  B. In particular, every set is a then A - B = {b, d } . Note that in general A - B 
subset of itself, A  A. B-A

Ordered Pair 4. Compliment of Set

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) For a set A, the difference U - A , where U is the
denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b universe, is called the complement of A and it is
together with the specification that “a” is the first denoted by Ac . Thus Ac is the set of everything
element of the pair and “b” is the second that is not in A.
element. Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are
equal iff a = c and b = d. Symbolically; (a, b) =
(c, d) means that a = c and b = d
Example: Let U = { a, e, i, o, u } and A = { a, e }
then A’ = { i, o u }
Operations on Sets 5. Cartesian Product
1. Union of Sets Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A
and B, denoted by A x B and read as “A cross
The union of sets A and B, denoted by A  B , B”, is the set of all ordered pair (a,b) where a is
is the set defined as: A  B = { x | x  A or x  in A and b is in B.
B}
Symbolically: A x B = {(a, b) | a  A and b  B
Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then
A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} . Note that A x B is not equal to B x A.

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , Illustration: If A = { 1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is

then A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} . Note that elements A x B? A x B = {(1,a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}.
are not repeated in a set.

Venn Diagram
2. Intersection of Sets A Venn diagram is an illustration of the
relationships between and among sets, groups
of objects that share something in common.
Usually, Venn diagrams are used to depict set
 intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter A.Reflexive
U). This type of diagram is used in scientific and
engineering presentations, in theoretical A relation R on A is said to be reflexive if every
mathematics, in computer applications, and in element of A is related to itself. In notation, a R a
statistics.
for all a ∈ A.
B. Symmetric
II. FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
A relation R on A is symmetric if given a R b then
b R a.
Relation
C. Transitive
1. A relation from set X to Y is the set of
ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) such that to A relation R on A is transitive if given a R b and b R
each element x of the set X there corresponds c then a R c.
at least one element of the set Y.
2. Let A and B sets. A relation R from A to B is
A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and
a subset of A x B. Given an ordered pair (x, y)
in A x B, x is related to y by R, written x R y, if transitive is called an equivalence relation
and only if, (x, y) is in R. The set A is called the
domain of R and the set B is called its on A.
codomain.
Examples of equivalence relations include:
_ The equality ("=") relation between real
Notation:
numbers or sets.
The notation for a relation R may be written
_ The relation "is similar to" on the set of all
symbolically as follows:
triangles.
x R y meaning (x, y)  R.
_ The relation "has the same birthday as" on
The notation x R y means that x is not related to
y by R; x R y meaning (x, y)  R. the set of all human beings.
Example: 1.
Given a set of an ordered pairs: FUNCTIONS - a relation in which every input
{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)} is paired with exactly one output.
The domain are x = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A function from set X to Y is the set of
The co-domain are y = {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0 ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y)
in which no two distinct ordered pairs
Charles Sanders Peirce have the same first component.
o BORN:September 10, 1839
CambridgeCambridge, Massachusetts
Function - a special type of relation where
o DIED: April 19, 1914 (aged 74)
o Milford, Pennsylvania every input has a unique output.
o American mathematician, scientist,
logician, and philosopher
o noted for his work on the logic of Function - a correspondence between two
relations and on pragmatism as a
method of research sets (called the domain and the range)

Properties of a Relation such that to each element of the domain,

there is assigned exactly one element of a+b∈Z
the range. If a = 10 and b = 5, then 10 + 5 = 15
15 ∈ Z Binary Operation

2. G ∈ Z define a * b = ab (usual
multiplication on Z)
ab ∈ Z 10(5) = 50
50 ∈ Z Binary Operation

3. G ∈ R+ defined by a * b = a + 17b
a + 17b ∈ R+
III. Binary Operation 10 + 17 (5)= 10 + 85 = 95
A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a Binary Operation
method (or formula) by which the members of an
ordered pair from G combine to yield a new
member of G. This condition is called closure.
4. G ∈ Z+, defined * by a * b = a – b for all set
The most familiar binary operations are ordinary
addition, subtraction, and multiplication of integers. a, b ∈ Z+.
Division of integers is not a binary operation on the Solution:
integers because an integer divided by an integer
need not be an integer. If a > b = a – b > 0 ∈ Z+

In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a 10 > 5 = 10 – 5 = 5 > 0 ∈ Z+

calculation that combines two elements of the set
(called operands) to produce another element of
the set If a < b = a – b < 0 ∉ Z+
5 < 10 = 5 – 10= -5 < 0 ∉ Z+
Definition of Binary Operations NOT a binary operation
Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * on G is
said to be a binary operation on G if for every pair
of elements, a, b is in G that is a, b ∈ G; the product 5. G ∈ R defined by a * b = ab

a*b∈G. If a = 0 and b = 0, then ab does not exist, hence

Note: For each (a,b) ∈ G, we assign an element a * it is not an element of R

b of G. 00 = undefined

EXAMPLES: If a = -4 and b = ½, then ab is

-4 ½ = Square root of -4
Tell whether the following is a binary operation or = √ -4 = +2i and -2i
not.
Complex Number
Not a Binary Operation
1. G ∈ Z define a * b = a + b (usual addition on Z)
6. G ∈ Z \{-1} , defined * by a * b = a + b + ab
for all set a, b ∈ Z.
Solution
Let a, b ∈ Z except -1, then a > -1 and b > -1
and a < -1 and b < -1.
If a * b= a + b + ab, it follows that
= 10 + 20 + 10(20) = 30 + 200 = 230
= -2 + -3 + -2( -3) = -5 + (6) = 1
Binary Operation
CLOSED
Definition: A set is “closed” under operation if the
operation assigns to every ordered pair of elements
from the set an element of the set.
Examples:
1. Is S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is closed under usual
addition?
Add the elements: 1 + 3 = 4
5 + 7 = 12
Answer cannot be found in the set.
Not closed under Addition

2) Let + and • be usual binary operations of

addition and multiplication of Z and
Let H = {n2 | n ∈ Z+ }. Is H closed under
addition? Under multiplication?
n = 1,2,3,4,5, …
H = { 1, 4, 9, 16 , 25 , 36 , ... }
Addition: 1 + 4 = 5 ; 4 + 9 = 13
Not Closed under Addition
Multiplication: 1( 4) = 4
4(9) = 36 Closed under Multiplication