APracticeBookinElementaryMetallurgy 10109426

A PR A CT ICE BO O K
E L EM E N TA RY M ETAL L U R G Y
BY
E R N E ST E D G A R T H U M ,
E M .
A ss z s ta rz t P r of essor f
o M eta llu r gy
U n iver s ity o f Cinc in n a ti
FIR S T E D I T I ON
N EW YO R K
JOHN WIL E Y S O N S, IN C .
LO N D ON : C H APMAN H ALL LIM I T E D

,
I91 7
C py i gh t
o r , 19 1 7
BY
E R NE S T E D G A R T HU M
PR E F A C E
S OM E two years a g o the author of this volum e was con fron ted
with the problem of presen tin g in ten sive lecture an d laboratory
courses in m etallurg y to cooperative studen ts in m echani cal ,
civil an d electrical e n gi n eerin g at the E n gin eerin g College

, ,
U ni versity of Cin cinn ati D rawi n g upon his own profession al

.
experien ce he co n cluded that for such studen ts the subject

,
m atter should m ost profitably be arran ged to throw light par

ticu lar ly upon the metallic m aterials of en gi n eerin g co n stru e
tio n ; how they are gain ed from m other n ature ; how they are
furth er refin ed an d worked ; an d how their chemical composi
tion an d past history in fluen ce their various physical properties ,
an d their adaptability for the duty expected of them .
S om e difficulty was experien ced in discoverin g recen t books

of moderate price coverin g the field of n on fer r ous m etals an d -
alloys as well as iro n an d steel which could be used as texts

,
‘
, .
Fort un ately M r A P M ills of Corn ell U n iversity brought out

,
. . .
, ,
his excellen t book on M aterials of Con struction at a bout

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that tim e which fitted our n eeds excellen tly The problem
,
.
of securin g a laboratory m an ual however p r esen ted p greater , ,
di ffi culties The o n ly n ote boo k s then kn own to us were those

.
-
by H M Howe of Columbia U n iversity an d by A lbert S auveur

. .
,
an d H M B oylsto n of Harvard U n iversity Thes e books

. . .
,
altho excellen t did n o t seem to be wholly adaptable to our

,
n eeds so they wer e stu died c ar efu lly , together with so m e older
‘
laboratory exercises i n herited from form er in structors an d a ,
set of m im eographed i n struction s hastily p repared to carry

the class thru the first course .
M an y weak poin ts appeared in every experim en t p erformed .
iii
3 7 624 5
iv PRE FA C E
In the first pl ace the limited time schedu l ed for the l ecture
,
—
course (on e sem ester of altern ate biweekly periods 4 5 lectures
in all) allowed little or no tim e for the proper di scussion of the
theory un derlyin g the experim en ts an d their application s to ,
practical m etallurgy In the secon d place the sketchy in str uc

.
,
—
tio n s left a good deal to the studen t s own resources h e would ’
be ru n n in g back an d forth to the stock room con ti n ually for som e

n eede d accessory (which m ight n o t be on han d ) or wasti n g hours ,
of valuable tim e because he had n eglected some mi n or p r ecau

tion .
I t was thought tha t en gin eerin g studen ts would be better

ben efited by followin g closely a set of n early fool proof -
in struction s whi ch would give the correct results from which

they could draw co n clusion s an d correlate allied i n form ation ,
ra ther than by spen di n g their time devisin g a proper experim en tal

procedure With this in min d an d with the added n ecessity
.
,
of han dlin g classes of fifty men in a laboratory equipped with a

mi n im um of simple every day apparatus the followin g book
,
-
,
was gradually evolved N early the whole n umber of exp er i

.
m en ts have been perform ed by four di ff eren t classes an d it is ,
hoped that by n ow the text an d in struction s are su ffi cien t an d

free from ambiguity .
A t the presen t tim e the laboratory at the U n iversity of Cin

,
c in n ati has available the fo llowm g ge n eral equipm e n t w hi ch is
used in this particular course :
Twelve sm all gas oven furn aces .
On e large hardeni n g furn ace gas fired ,

.
On e tiltin g crucible furn ace gas or oil fir ed , .
O n e lead softe n i n g pot gas fired ,

.
O n e core oven .
Fifteen millivoltm eters .
On e Wa nn er pyrom eter .
O n e M orse pyrom eter .
T en m icroscopic photographic sets .
T en sets of gri n din g equipm e n t .

PRE FA C E
On e B rin ell hard n ess m achin e .
Two scleroscopes .
O n e O lse n impact m ac hin e .
Three Howe drop hamm ers .
O n e Hy temp— resistan ce furn ace .
Two an vils forges tool kits etc

, , ,
.
I t is therefore apparen t that approxim ately fifty studen ts ,
divided in to twelve squads of about four each will have a gas ,
furn ace a n d pyrom eter for each squad A certai n rotatio n of .
the work is of course n ecessary afte r the first few days in order ,
that each squad m ay h ave a separate day at the refractory

experim en t N o 4 which uses the electrical resistan ce furn ace ;
,
.
,
the hard n ess experim en t N o 1 3 whi ch uses the B rin ell machin e
,
.
,
an d the scleroscopes ; the m etallography experim en t , N o I I .

,
which in volves in dividual microscopes ; an d so on .
Whi le the in struction s on first glan ce seem to be for on e

particular laboratory an d set of equipmen t a closer in spection ,
wi ll discover a sin cere effort to m ake the text applicable to

con siderable variation s in material E n tire gen erality would .
have defeated its own purpose as explain ed at som e len gth , ,
above Thus while exp erim en t N o 1 m ust illustrate on e

.
,
.
particular furn ace an d that furn ace n aturally is th e on e in

,
u se at this laboratory still the m ethods of operation are un i

,
ver sally applicable to all gas furn aces The therm o couple .
-
experim en ts N o s 6 7 an d 9 require m erely a millivoltm eter

—
.
, ,
or a poten tiom eter A n d so on in fact a very large percen tage

.
,
of the pieces of apparatus called for has been taken fro m stock
in the chem ical storeroom or purchased at local hardware stores ,
.
- While it is hoped that this book an d its m ethods may appeal

to o ffi cers n ow in charge of bet ter equipped laboratories an d help ,
em an cipate them fro m the n uisan ce of mim eographed in str u c

tion sheets it is thought certain that it will appeal m ore force
,
fully to in structors w h o like the author are con fron ted with the
, ,
problem of buildin g up a respectable laboratory course with a

modest am oun t of equipm en t fu n ds tim e an d assista n ce , , , .
vi PRE FA C E
I t is a pleasure gratefully to ackn owledge my in debtedn ess

to M r E P S ten ger M et E In structor in M etallurgy U n i
. . .
,
. .
, ,
versity of Cin ci n n ati for his con ti n ual care in the imm ediate
,
supervision of the laboratory work whi ch has brought forth ,
n umberless perfectio n s in the details of the experim e n ts ; an d
to M r Clyde William P ark A M A ssociate P rofessor of E n glish

.
,
. .
, ,
an d M r W O tto Birk M A
. In structor in E n glish U niversity
.
,
. .
, ,
of Cin cin n ati who have each critically examin ed portion s of the
,
man uscript .
CI N CIN N AT I , O mo ,
Ju ne 1 , 191 7 .
T A BL E OF CO N T E N T S
GE NE RAL R U L E IN S T RUCT I ON S
S AND
E E XP EN
R IM TA L GROUP I
I Fu c Op ti
. r na e er a on s
2 O xidizi g R c t i
. n ea on s
3 R duci g A tm p h
. e n os er es an d Reac ti on s
4 R f ct i
. e ra o r es
E E XP R IM EN TA L GRO UP II
7 . Th c u pl C t uc ti
er m o - o e on s r on
8 . T h C li g Cu
e oo f Pu S ubn r ve O a re c
stan e
9 . T h m c u pl C lib ti
er o- o e a ra on
Io . L d tim y All y
ea -an
on o s .
EXPE R IM E NT A L GRO UP III

1 M etallog aph y
1 . r
H d
ar n ess “
ae”
.
I4 . E lec tr ic Fur n c s
I 5 R di ti
. a a on an d Op t ic lPem te a e rs
E XP E R IM E N GR UP I V
TA L O
16 . T f m ti n P i
r an s o r a o o n ts
H d i g f St l
ar en n o ee .
Qu ch i g M di
en n e a .
T mp i g d T u gh i g
e er n an o en n .
T l M ki g
oo a n .
M t ll g ph y f S t l
e a o ra o ee
C C bu izi g
ase ar r n .
C i
or r os on .
C ON TE N TS
E E
XP RI M EN TA L GRO UP V
25 di g
. M ol n
26 C mp i ti
. f C t I
o os on o as r on
A PP EN E DIC S
A E l m t y M t llu g ic l C lcu l ti
. e en a r e a r a a a on s
B F u d y P c tic
. o n r ra e
C .
M E T A L L U R G IC A L L A BO R A T O R Y
G EN ERAL R U LE S A N D IN S T R U C T IO N S
E nr ollm en t . S tude n ts
can n ot be e n rolled for the laboratory
work u n til they have exhibited receipts fro m the registrar S how
in g that they have pai d the fees an d m ade the n ecessary cash
,
deposits A coupo n ticket will be given the studen t in exchan g e

.
for his breakage deposit receipt E xtra supplies an d n ew .
apparatus to replace breakage may be purchased with these c ou

‘
pon s When ever this ticket is reduced to a value of

.
the stock clerk m ay require an additio n al deposit O f 313 before

issuin g further supplies A certificate of refun d will be issued
.
on the co mpletio n of the course coverin g the am ou n t of the

,
deposit less an y deduction s pun ched out O f the coupon ticket

,
.
A tten d an c e .The laboratory is regularly open from I zoo

’
P M
. .u n til R M The roll will be taken at on e O clock by
.
visitin g the various furn aces an d ascertain in g the n am es of the

m en prese n t for wor k While in the laboratories the studen ts
.
,
will be expected to co n duct them selves in an in dustrious an d

orderly m an n er .
S qu ad O rgan iz atio n The members O f the class will be

.
divided in to squads at the beginn in g of the semester E ach .
squad is in ten ded to work as a un it at the assign ed furn ace u n der ,
the gen eral directio n of the captain A studen t will act as cap
.
tain of his squad for a period of two weeks ; his n ame will be
posted on the bulletin board at the begin n in g of the period ,
an d he will be respo n sible for the orderly prosecutio n of the work

,
the care of the equipm en t an d the con dition of the laboratory

,
work tables durin g that time .

G r A ppar atu s There is a certain am ou n t of equipmen t
en e al .
more or less comm o n to all experim en ts ; this apparatus will be

furn ished each squad an d it is to be cared for by them The .
m ovable parts are to be k ept in the lockers assign ed for that

purpose an d locked with the padlocks furn ished by the stock
keeper The m etal parts of furn aces kept on top of the desks
.
are to be blacken ed at the en d O f each week A t the en d of the .
semester the con ten ts O f the lockers will be in spected by the

storekeeper an d an y abuse of equipm en t or loss of m aterial
,
will be charged equally am o n g the m em bers of the squad on their

break ag e tickets This equipmen t for each squad is as follows : .
O ven furn ace ,

P ot furn ace lidan d ,
B last lamp ,
Three pieces rubber gas tubin g -
,
B un sen burn er ,
B utto n mold ,
4 O m esh screen p an an d cover

-
, ,
Horseshoe m agn et ,
Tripod ,
Wire gauze ,
B ox of matches ,
Taper holder ,
Rin g stan d an d clamp , Q uart pail ,
P in t glass tumbler ,
S co r ifier ton g s ,
M achin ist s hamm er

’
Crucible ton gs , ,
Blacksmith s to n gs for in ’
. S crew driver
-
,
roun ds , Two hack saw blades

-
,
Wire cuttin g pliers

-
, S patula ,
Hack saw fram e

-
, M ixin g cloth ,
Trian gular file , P ie ce of emery cloth ,
M arkin g pe n cil , A sbestos mitten s ,
Coun ter brush , Can of stove po lish ,
U sed clay crucible I O grn ,

'
.
,
P olishin g brush .
ach studen t in the m etallurgical

P er so n al A ppar atu s . E
laboratory S hould own a p air of safety goggles whi ch mu st be ,
worn when lightin g furn aces weldin g at the arc usin g the em ery , ,
wheel or pouri n g hot m etal D isregard of these elemen tary

, .
G ENERAL RULE S AN D I N S TRU CTI ON S 3
S tuden ts shou l d al so carry a ru l e or tape of some design .
The use of a S lide rule is recomm en ded -

.
S p ecial A ppar atu s The captain O f each squad wi ll each day

.
receive a tray from the stock room con tain in g the sp ec1al appa
ratus n eeded for each experim en t He will Sign a receipt for .
thi s material an d be respo n sible for its safe return in good order
,
at the en d of the period A n y loss or breakag e will be assessed

.
am on g the mem bers of the squad .
S uppli es A su ffi cien t quan tity of S upplies for the per

.
fo r m an c e of each experim en t will be issued to the captain of

each squad at the begin nin g of the aftern oo n In case of care .
less wastage a n ew supply must be purchased with the coupo n

,
book S upplies are n o t return able but S hould be reserved in a

.
,
locker as man y tim es the material s are to be used in a sub se

,
quen t experim en t Hot crucibles m ay be left overn ight un der

.
the furn ace in an orderly array but will be rem oved by th e ,
janitors at the week en d .
Lab or ator y E quipmen t A certain amoun t of larg e or .
expen sive apparatus for comm o n use at in tervals by all squads

is listed in each experim en t Thi s equipm en t will be located .
at suitable poin ts in the laboratory A decen t con sideratio n .
O f the rights of the other stude n ts will i n sure its proper use an d
care.
T ext s T h e laboratory in structio n book is to be used as an

.
auxiliary to the class room text an d the lesson assignm en ts

-
,
which will be posted at the begin n in g of the year or from time ,
to time S hould be stu died at the date specified The actual

,
.
laboratory work for each day will have been posted at som e
precedin g period E ach studen t is expected to have read over
.
’
the in struction s for the day s work before en terin g the laboratory
ln order that the work m ay proceed prom ptly an d i n tellige n tly .
The in structio n s have been worked out in detail S O that correct

results may be expected if the precaution s are carefully observed .
The referen ces given m ay be con sulted when con ven ien t to ,
O btain a more elaborate discussio n .
In spection When the experim en t assign ed has been c om

.
4 G ENERA L R U LE S AN D I N S TRU CTI ON S
p let ed ,
an in structor should be called to your furn ace an d th e
results O f the experim en t together with all prelimin ary computa
tion s an d sheets of n eat tabulatio n s O f acquired data should
be exhibited for his in spectio n an d O K ” O n receivin g .
this approval studen ts are at liberty to leave the laboratory if

,
the squad is up to schedule The captain will be expected to .
see that the laboratory tO O lS are left in an orderly arra n gem e n t
an d in their correct locatio n A ll dirt is to be bru shed o ff the

.
table tops ; movable apparatus locked up ; special apparatu s

retur n ed to the stock room ; an d the furn ace clean ed on the
in side on top an d u n dern eath
, ,
.
Wri tten Work The r esults of each lin e of procedure should

.
be recorded in a clear con cise an d defin ite statem en t D iscus

, ,
.
sion of these results Should follow in the order of procedure listed

in the pri n ted i n structio n s The statem en t of results an d the
.
solution O f th e assign ed queries are the on ly written exercises

required of the studen t I t is n o t n ecessary to recoun t the
.
m ethod O f performi n g the experim en t si n ce this would be m erely ,
a paraphrase of the prin ted i n structio n s A ll writte n work .
S hould be well an d n eatly do n e on stan dard paper followi n g the ,
gen eral direction s for written work in A ppe n dix C .
Q u eri es .Followin g the procedure in each experim en t is

a list of queries som e of which are for m ore advan ced studen ts
,
.
E ach studen t S hould therefore con sult the bulleti n board for
i n form ation as to the particular queries required from h is class .
These are to be worked out an d written up by each man ind i

vidu ally . P roblem s an d computatio n s must be solved in an
orderly m ann er with all steps S hown an d n oted S O that they c an
, ,
be rea dily checked over .
The in structor c an observe the results O f the experim e n t ,
an d will grade the studen t s S kill in m an ipulatio n durin g the

’
laboratory period The queries on the other han d are design ed

.
, ,
to show him whether the in dividual studen t comprehe n ds the

theory un derlyin g the experim en t an d c an i n terpret the results .
A high grade will be given work eviden cin g thought an d i n di
v id u ality even tho the correct solutio n is n o t attain ed

, F or .
G E N ERAL RULE S AN D I N S T RU CTI ON S
this reaso n it is also clear that squad work on the written part
,
can n ot be accepted S tan d on your ow n feet " When you are

.
past school age it will n o t always be S O easy to turn to a

wizard ” at your elbow for an explan ation O f the kn otty
poi n ts .
Cu rves A cceptable curves must be n eatly drawn to scale

.
an d lettered with In dia in k on sta n dard cross sectio n paper -

.
Title the curves an d the coordin ates followin g the directio n s in ,
the appen dix S ign an d date each curve sheet We wa n t

. .
curves made by en gin eers .
S ub mi ssio n of Wr itten W ork A ll written work queries.

, ,
curves an d tab u lation s of data are to be boun d together in a

, ,
regular M etallurgical L aboratory bin der O f cardboard an d

sub mit ted to the i n structor in charge at the en d O f each b i
weekly school period This bin der would therefore c on tain
.
reports on all the work sin ce the last sub missio n O f data A fter .
exami n ation an d gradin g thi s work will be return ed to the studen t

,
for his own referen ce an d is to be retain ed subject to call by the

,
E n glish D epartm en t I t is im portan t that the covers an d c on

.
ten ts be preserved i n tact as they m ust be resubmitted in case

,
of con ditio n s or u n satisfactory work .
G r ad e s Fin al grades for laboratory courses will be based

.
upo n daily m arks on

I st ,the queries ;
2 d the results of the laboratory work i n spected day by day ;
, ,
3 d ,
writte n work other tha n queries ;
4 t h ge n eral
,
co n duct an d in dustry durin g the laboratory
period ;
s t h atte n,
da n ce .
It
-
is essen tial for the orderly co n duct of affairs in the labor
ato r y that all n otes be kept up to date an d be sub m itted pro m ptly
accordin g to schedule In case a studen t fails in pu n ctuality

.
,
his work will receive but 7 5 per cen t the m ark it otherwise would
ob tai n .
E XP E RI M E N TA L G R OU P I
F O RE W O R D T O T H E S TU D E N T
In E xperim en ts N OS . I to 5 in clusive are presen ted a umber n

.
of gen eral experim en ts which form an in troduction to the study

of m etallurgy .
L aboratory work in metallurgy is largely con fin ed to the study

O f the behavior of solids at moderately high heat I t is essen tial .
,
therefore that the first experim en t should in struct the studen t

,
in the furn ace provided for O btain in g these temperatures .
S ystem atic m etallurgy n aturally starts with the prod uctio n

of th e pure m etals from the compoun ds or salts foun d in n ature .
The chemical processes i n volved in these operatio n s are qui te

dissimilar to the test tube reaction s with which the studen t
~
is already familiar E xperimen ts N O S 2 an d 3 on oxidizin g

. .
,
a n d reduci n g reactio n s are give n in order that the studen t may

,
adjust his state of m in d to the m etallurgical viewpoin t .
In the reduction of m etallic o xides high temperature r eac

,
tion s proceed co n ti n uously in certain con tain ers These fur .
n aces or crucibles m ust be able to withsta n d the high heat with
out meltin g or corrodin g E xperimen t N o 4 on refractories

. .
is design ed to Show the relative in f usibility of som e commo n

b rick makin g m aterials
-
.
These selfsam e refractory m aterials however are n ormally , ,
pre sen t in m ost m etallic ores ; an d E xpe rimen t N o 5 on slags .
is design ed to dem on strate how these relatively in fusible m ate

rials c an be rem oved from a furn ace in a m olten con dition .
E ach experim en t en deavors to presen t in a logical m an n er

a clear statem en t of the un derlyin g prin ciples O f the process
u n der con sideration together with n otes as to its c omm er cr al
,
‘
application s Carefully follow the details of the pr ocedure

.
,
an d the proper results are assured Then attempt to visualize

.
the gran d scale O f metallurgical operation s in the light of yo u r

laboratory practice .
E XP E RI M E N T N O . 1
FU R N A CE O PE RA T I O N S
O b j ect . Thi s experim en t is an in troductio n to th e op era

t io n of gas furn aces .
G en er al E xplan atio n The oven furn ace in use in this lab

.
oratory (Fi g 1 ) co n sists of an iro n box lin ed with fire brick

.
,
with three g as burn ers operatin g thru each side wall n ear ,
the bottom A short distan ce above the bottom is pl aced a

.
—
fir e clay S helf which co n stitutes
the workin g floor of the furn ace
an d forn is the roof of a c om
b u stion chamber in which the

in comin g gas an d air combin e .
T he h o t products of comb u s
tio n pass thru the open in g b e
tween the edge of the S helf an d
“
the side walls in to th e furn ace
”
laboratory above an d then c e ,
escape thru two ven ts in th e

cei lin g N atural gas is the fuel
.
u sed ; su ffi cie n t air un der press
ure is also supplied t o becom e FI G — O v en Fu r n ac

. 1 . e .
in timately m ixed with the gas

an d support perfect co m bustio n The maximum temperature
—
.
m ay be attai n ed by close regulatio n of the gas an d air an

excess of gas will as e ffectively cool the flam e as an excess
of air Therefore a n eutral atm osphere wil l gen erally give a
.
,
higher calorific in ten sity than either an oxidizin g or a reducin g

flam e .
M ethods O f measurin g the temperatures in a furn ace are of

EXPERIME NTAL GR O UP I
course very importan t On e of the earliest system s in u se is

.
that of observin g the meltin g poin t of S eger con es so called -

,
after their origin ator These con es are made of various mix
.
‘
tures of alumin a silica alka lin e o xides etc whose m eltin g

, , ,
.
,
or soften in g temperatures are fairly well determin ed E ach .
co n e has a n umber stamped on the side correspon din g to a d efi

n ite compositio n When the co n e is gradually heated up an d
.
approaches its m eltin g poin t the mixture soften s an d the pe ak

-
,
O f the co n e starts to be n d over When the apex is ben t over in .
an approxim ately horizo n tal directio n it has attain ed th e t em
p er atu r e correspo n din g to the n um ber which it bears as give n ,
in the followin g list :
T em p . T em p . T e mp . T em p .
N o te that all t em p er at u r es in th i li t
s s ar e dg
e r ees C ti g d
en ra e .
S peci al A ppar atu s . The special apparatus n eeded is as

fo ll ows
S even sc o r ifier s .
S upplies . The supp lies n eeded are as follows

S eger co n es N o s 0 2 1 0 1 7 0 1 30 08a 04d I d
.
, , , , , , 40 .
S an d.
Charcoal .
IO EXPERIME NTAL GRO UP I
radiated by the i n terior O f the furn ace A n experi en ced m an .
c an give a rem arkably close estim ate of the te m perature of his
furn ace or O f a piece of hot m etal by its color .
A fter the furn ace has apparen tly reached its m axim um
g .
temperature request an in structor to i n spect its co n ditio n

, ,
rem ove the sco r ifier s an d place a piece of charcoal in the fur
,
n ace . Then throttle down the am oun t of gas carefully un til

the charcoal glows brightly This glow shows that oxidizin g .
con ditio n s prevail in the furn ace Sin ce the charcoal is n ow ,
burn in g in the excess of air presen t B y turn in g on an excess .
of gas the reducin g atmosphere is produced which is eviden ced

, ,
by a thin g as flam e burn in g on the exterior of the furn ace .
N ote the con ditio n O f the charcoal u n der these co n ditio n s .
The n eutral con dition occurs when perfect com bustion is taki n g
place ; that is when n either an excess of gas n o r air is presen t
,
.
Thi s co n dition is O btain ed when n either the gas burn s at

’
the exterior of the furn ace n or the charcoal glows on the ,
hearth .
h R e read thi s en tire experim en t carefully an d be sure

.
-
,
that you un derstan d the text have perform ed all the manip ula ,
tion s an d c an an swer the required queries

,
.
i When the exp erim en t is fin ished exhibit the data to a

.
,
laboratory O ffi cer I f it is satisfactory return the special

.
,
apparatus to the stock room an d clean up your premises -

, .
Q u eri es (1 B riefly describe the con structio n of the furn ace

. .
,
together wi th the gas an d air pipin g an d illustrate the d esc r ip ,
tion with a n eat p en an d ink sketch - -

.
6 D raw a curve showin g the rate at whi ch the furn ace

.
was heated accordin g to the in structio n s on page 5 an d

, ,
A ppen dix C N ote the colors correspon din g to various tem

.
p er a t u r es on thi s curve .
6
. What causes the di fferen ce in the appearan ce of the gas
flam e u n der oxidizin g an d reducin g con dition s ?
d E xplain fully the reaso n s for the statem en t that a n eutral
.
flam e will give the highest temperatures .
6
. Cite various heatin g ope r ation s where it is importan t
F UR NA C E O PE RA TI ON S I1
to main tain a reducin g ,

an oxidizin g or a
, n eutral atmos
p h er e .
f Why
. are S eger co n es placed in a sc o r ifie r an d n ot on
the bottom of the furn ace ?

g D
. iscuss the li m itatio n s in usi n g S eger co n es for pyr o m
eter s .
O XID IZ I N G REA CTI O N S
O b j ect The object O f this experim en t is to reproduce in

.
the laboratory som e of the oxidizin g reactio n s used in m etallurgy

G en eral E xplan atio n B y the term oxidizin g reaction
.
“
the m etallurgist m ean s a chemical in terchan ge which will
co n vert som e m etal or m etallic compoun d in to a correspon din g
m etallic oxide .
O xygen is the most abun dan t elemen t kn own comprisin g ,
perhaps 50 per cen t of the en tire earth mass In the free state .
it form s 2 3 per cen t of the atm osphere by weight Combin ed ,

.
,
it form s eight nin ths of the water half the san d an d a large
-
,
proportio n of m ost O f the existin g min eral an d organ i c substan ces .
Oxygen has taken part in im portan t reactio n s durin g the for

m atio n of the earth m aterials quartz or san d b emg the result
,
of the oxidation of the m etalloid silico n :

Si l Oz--
S iOz
S ilica is an importan t substan ce in asm uch as large quan tities

‘
,
-
are foun d pure an d doubly so as it is an essen tial compon en t

,
of all volcan ic rocks Water is likew1se the produc t of th e

.
oxi d ation of the m etal hydrogen

2 H 2 + 02 2 H20+ (liquid ) .
O win gto the presen ce of an excess O f free or combin ed oxygen

in all processes un less carefully excluded an d to the stro n g
, ,
affini ty of m ost metals for oxygen the wastin g away O f pure ,
m etals by the form ation of their oxides is a comparatively rapid

process This oxidatio n when it goes forward slowly as the
.
,
result of exposure to atm ospheric agen cies is kn o wn as corr o

12
O XIDIZI N G R E A CTI ON S 13
sion. O xidation O f heated m etal in rollin g or forgin g is m uch

m ore rapid an d causes large losses as
,
m ill scale the r eac
tio n is as follows
3 F e + 2 02 F eg 04
Because of these facts the comm on m etals are foun d in n ature

,
in an oxidized co n ditio n the prin cipal ores of iron for in stan ce

, , ,
be in g hem atite lim o n ite an d m agn etite

,
.
The oxidatio n of pure m etals is a comm o n operatio n in mak

in g pigm en ts or in recoverin g rare m etals
,
In the first cas e .
,
2 Zn + 02 2 Zn O +
is exten sively practiced to m ake the body for the best white
pain ts In the seco n d in stan ce th e m etallic lead produced in
.
,
lead sm eltin g carries with it the gold an d Silver co n tain ed in

the furn ace charges which m etals are O ften separated by a proc
” ,
ess called cupellatio n wherein the m olten lead is exposed

,
to a curren t of air whi ch oxi dizes it to litharge Thi s lead oxide .
is then drawn O ff or skimm ed from the rem ain i n g metal while

the rarer m etals will resi st oxidatio n to the last The reac .
tion is as follows
2 Pb O =
+ z 2 Pb O +
S ulfur is an elemen t som ewhat S imilar in chemical proper

—
ties to oxyg en in fact ore bodies of m etallic oxides foun d n ear
,
the surface often chan ge by degrees in to bo di es of the corre

sp on d in g sulfides the oxi dized portio n s havin g been form ed fro m
,
the ori gin al sulfide en richmen t by the actio n of p ercolatin g

surface wate r con tain in g oxygen an d carbon dioxide in solu
tion In fact most m etallic ores are deposited in the fir st
.
,
in s tan ce as sulfides from hot alkalin e solution s risin g from

the depths thru fissures in the earth s crust The o xidized ’
.
—
ores are distin ctly seco n dary that is have been formed from the ,
primary sulfide deposits at a later tim e The e lim in ation of .
su lfur from these sulfide ores I S the prim e reason for roastin g
o p eration s (see pages 2 62 54 8 568 M ills M aterials of Co n
, , , ,
“
14 EXPERIMEN TAL GROUP I
struction an d they m ay be classed un der oxidizi n g r eac
tion s because the metallic sulfides are chan ged in to oxides often ,
with an in crease in valen ce while the sulfur which is elim in ated ,
burn s to sulfur di oxide (S Oz ) N on ferrous smeltin g plan ts .

-
liberate such en ormous quan tities of this gas as to becom e ver it

able n uisan ces in spite of the most modern applian ces for puri
fyin g the sm oke .
S p ec i al A ppar atu s The special apparatus n eeded is as .
follows
On e piece of g in iron pipe about -
.
,
6 in . lon g .
On e roastin g dish .
Two test tubes .
On e test tube holder-

.
On efu n n el .
On e blowpipe an d burn er tip ,

-
.
S uppli es . The supplies n eeded are as fol l ows

Zin c button about 2 0 gm ,
.
L ead button about 1 2 5 gm ,

.
Heavy iron wire about 8 gag e 3 ft lon g ,

-
,
. .
Thin iron wire about 4 0 g age 1 2 in lon g ,

-
,
. .
Two scor ifier s .
O n e piece of soft glass tubin g 6 in l o n g ,

.
Lab or atory E quipmen t . The laboratory equipmen t n eeded

as follows
A vil
n .
Two buckin g boards an d mullers -

.
P iece of in pin e board -

. .
P ackage of fil ter papers .
Coke .
P yrite .
Charcoal .
S odium carbon ate crystals .
A mmo ni a .
D istilled water .
O XIDIZI N G RE A CTI ON S 15
Pr o c e d u r e
a .M ake a rabble
.
“
N OT E : S tart parts
simultan eously
for stirri n g pyrite in this m ann er
b an d c .
Heat on e en d of the 8 gage iro n wire flatten it out thin on an

-
,
an vil an d ben d the thin en d over square formin g a sma ll hoe

, , ,
the blade of whi ch will be about if; in wide by in high . . .
6 P olish the fin e wire u n til it is bright twist it in to a spiral

.
,
aroun d a pen cil then i n sert it i n to the iro n tube an d place

,
the whole in a cold furn ace A t the en d of the aftern oon .
exam in e the con ditio n of the wire an d reserve it for comp arison ,
with the results of E xperimen t N o 3 . .
6 .B reak up to rice size su ffi cien t pyrite (F 6 8 2 ) to cover the

bottom of the roastin g dish 3; in deep ; place the dish in a cold
1
.
oven furn ace n ear the Open door B rin g the heat up to a l ow .
red with an oxidizin g flam e k eepin g the fron t door open al l the
,
time N ote the con di tion of the ore an d stir carefully but
.
th o r o ly with the rabble at ten min ute in tervals CA U TI ON

-
.
D O n o t overheat the roast .
d N ear the en d of the l aboratory period remove the dish

.
,
cool an d pulverize the con ten ts un til it will all pass thru
,
a 4 0 m esh screen P l ace this groun d m aterial on a piece of paper

-
.
,
an d separate magn e tite (F e3 04 ) an d pyrrhotite (F e eS 7 ) with
a m agn et Test for soluble iron sulfate (F eS O 4 ) by placin g the

.
n on m agn etic p art in

-
a test tube an d boi lin g with distilled
water Filter an d add a few drops of ammo n ia to the filtrate
. .
Ferrous hyd rate is white ; a darker colored precipitate shows

the presen ce of so l uble ferric compoun ds Test the magn etic .
part an d also the residue held on the filter paper by igni tin g
a little of each with sodium carbo n ate on charcoal in a reducin g
blowp ipe flam e Crush the resultin g bead place it on a c l ean
.
,
silver coin an d moisten B lack silver sulfide formin g wil l

.
eviden ce the presen ce of un decomposed sulfides in the roasted

m aterial .
6 .P owder 500 gm of coke P lace 2 0 gm of zin c in a scori

. . .
fier an d heat in a pot furn ace in a stro n gly oxi diz in g flam e un til
it catches fire then sm other the flam e with powdered cok e
, .
f .D raw the glass tube dow n to form an air n ozzle about

16 E X PERIME N TAL GR O UP I
1 mm in diam eter
. . a scor ifier con tainin g about 1 2 5 gm
P lace .
of lead upon a used crucible set in verted in the pot furn ace
,
.
Cover the furn ace an d heat the lead to a dull red color S kim .
o ff an y dross with a S liver of wood an d adjust the flam e of the

,
blast lamp b y carefully co n trollin g the gas supply un til the

surface of the lead butto n rem ain s clear Then carefully pro .
a blast of air thru the glass n ozzle upo n the m olte n lead
j e c t
with su ffi cien t force just to dimple the surface but n o t forceful ,
en ough to splatter the hot m etal The form atio n of litharge

.
(PhD) by reaction between the molten lead an d the oxyge n of

the air m ust proceed rapidly in order to coun teract losses by
volatilizatio n of the oxide an d the form ation of lead silicates
,
by reaction with the material of the scor ifier When the su r .
face of the lead is n early covered with the molten oxide pour ,
the whole rapidly in to a button m old When cool break o ff .

,
the brittle oxide on a buckin g board by h amm er in g th e lead

-
'
button in to a cube Pulverize the oxide to 4 0 m esh an d screen

.
out an y shot lead R etain the powdered li tharge CA U TIO N :

. .
A void breathin g poison ous lead fum es .
g
. R e read
-
this e n tire experi m e n t carefully an d be sure that ,
you un derstan d the text have perform ed all the manipulatio n s

, ,
an d c an a n swer the required queries .
h When the experim en t is fin ished exhibit the data an d

.
,
results to a laboratory O fficer I f it is satisfactory return

.
,
the specia l apparatus to the stock room an d clean up your

'
-
,
premises .
Q u eri es a D escribe an d explain the results of proce dure

. .
6. Write an equation S howin g the reaction an d p rove your ,
assumption by testin g the products .
6 D escribe an d explain the results of procedure 0

. .
c What are the en d products of the roastin g operatio n 6 ?

.
Write reaction s showin g how each was form ed Write all the .
reaction s perfo rm ed in the blowpipe test for un decomposed

sulfide .
d D escribe the experim en t with zin c

. Why should zin c .
.
emit copious wh ite fum es before it catches on fire ? What is the

R E D U CIN G A T M O S P H E RE S A N D RE A CT I O N S
Ob j e c t The object of thi s experim en t is to reproduce in

.
the laboratory som e of the reducin g reactio n s used In m etallurgy .
G en eral E xplan atio n A n oxidizin g atm osphere is on e which

.
con tain s free oxygen (such as air) or con tain s a gas which c an
easily furn ish oxygen by the decomposition of its m olecule for ,
example carbo n dioxide

,
C02 CO + O
S uch an atmosphere will give up oxygen to the surroun din g sub

stan ces ; the in ten sity of the oxidizin g reactio n var ymg Wi th the
temperature pressure an d relative am oun t of the reagen ts
, ,
available .
A reducin g atmosphere on the con trary co n tain s an excess

,
”
of gaseous m olecules which possess an affi n ity for oxygen ; “ ,
for example acetylen e (Cs ) carbon m on oxide (CO ) or a

, , ,
mixture of hydrocarbon s like n atural gas S uch an atmosphere .
ten ds to abstract oxygen or similar elemen ts from the substan ces

it surroun ds ; the reaction as before varyin g with the three , ,
co n dition s m en tion ed .
The mean in g of the term s oxidatio n an d reductio n was for

m erly restricted to the additio n or subtraction respectively , ,
of oxygen from substan ces The scope of the words has n ow .
been exten ded to in clude the addition or subtraction of other

elem en ts (sulfur particularly) or the raisin g or lowerin g of the
, ,
valen ce of polyvalen t elem en ts .
The third type of atm osphere viz the n eutral atm osphere ,
.
, ,
is on e which has n either oxidizin g n or reducin g eff ect as these ,
term s have been defin ed In the laboratory pure ni trogen

.
,
furn ishes a co n ven ie n t n eutra l atmosphere for it is an extremely ,
18
RE D U C I N G A T M O SP H E RE S AN D R E A CTI ON S 19
in ert gas u n der a ll ordin ary circum stan ces In comm ercial .
furn aces a n eutral atm osphere is ordin arily a mixture of oxid iz

in g an d reducin g gases in a state of chemical equi librium at the
existin g temperature ; the state is on e of balan ced activity in
whi ch the oxidizin g e ffect of on e is co n tin ually un don e by the
reducin g actio n of an other .
The mechan ical workin g of iro n an d steel i n gots in to mer

chan table shapes is m ost easily do n e at high temperatures .
E ve n those special operatio n s w hi ch m ay be perform ed cold ,
like wiredrawin g cold rollin g an d pressin g m ust occasio n ally

,
-
,
be in terrupted by a heat treatm en t to relieve dan gerous in tern al

stresses an d to restore d uc tility to the substan ce I t has been
a
.
shown in E xperim en t N o 2 that such operatio n s in the open

.
air are accompan ied by the formatio n of an excessive am oun t

of m ill scale on the surface of the piece the relative quan tity
,
of which i n creases rapidly with the decreasin g Size of the objects ,
because the ratio of sup er ficies to m ass becomes correspo n din gly
larger Heatin g an d ann ealin g furn aces for sm all or thi n articles
.
must therefore operate with a n eutral or reducin g atm osphere .
I t has been m en tion ed that most ore bodies are m asses of

m etal lic oxides or sulfides mixed with a variable quan tity of
barren r Ock materials called gan gue The min erals co n tain in g
.
the valuable m etals c an be obtain ed from the ore in a relatively

pure state by m echan ical processes called co n cen tratio n
”
.
"
(S ee Richards ,
O r e D ressin g ) E n orm ous co n cen trati n g
mills employi n g hu n dreds of m en an d treatin g thousan ds of
to n s of ore every day are in operation in m an y m in i n g cen ters .
L eavin g out of con sideration at thi s tim e the treatm en t Of an y

rem ain in g impurities in the ore which m atter will be the sub
,
j ec t of E xperi m e nt N o 5. the co
,
mm ercial productio n of the
m etal fro m oxides an d sulfides is e ff ected by reducin g reactio n s
operated on a gran d scale .
O xidized ores either foun d in n ature or produced by roast

,
in g are in most cases reduced to m etal in the blast furn ace

,
”
.
(S ee Hofm an ,
G en eral M etallurgy pp 384 , This is a
.
,
vertical shaft furn ace in to which solid ore flux an d fuel are , ,
O EXPERIMEN TAL GRO UP I
charged at the top A ir for the com bustio n of the fuel 18 blown
.
in u n der pressure thru open i n gs called tuyeres w hi ch are

located in the walls of the furn ace n ear the bottom The .
in ten se heat gen erated at this zo n e reduces an d m elts the m etal

in the ore which is tapped m olten from the bottom of the fur
,
n ace In the case of iro n oxide m uch of the reductio n of hem a

.
,
tite is accompli shed by the furn ace ga ses rich in carbo n m o n oxide ,
ascen din g thru the porous column of descen din g ore thus ,
2 F € 2 03 + CO 2 F€O + C02 + F 6 2 03 + 384 0
F eO + C —Pe + CO
>
(at 800
°
C) .
In
copper an d lead blast furn aces the charge co n sists quite
gen erally of mixtures of oxides an d sulfides which react upo n ,
each other as follows -
2 Pb O + Pb S 3P b + 502
A ny surplus of oxide may be reduced by the carbo n in the fuel ,
thus :
C O+
u C = Cu + C O —8 54 0,
altho it is usual to provide rather a large excess of sulfide s .
which will m elt without great chan ge This alloy of m etallic

”
.
sulfides will collect together as a substan ce called m atte ,
w hi ch is withdrawn in a m olten co n ditio n fro m the furn ace ,
is separated from S lag an d m etal an d then further sm elted in

m achin es called co n verters ” (S M ills M aterials of Con
,
”
ee .
,
structio n p ,
.
S p e c ial A pp ara tu s The special apparatus n eeded is as fol

.
l ows :
On e piece of g in iro n pipe about 1 2 in lo n g threaded
-
.
,
.
,
.
O n e in gas cock -
. .
On e gm trip bala
-
n ce a n d
. weights .
S patula .
On e butto n brush .
On e test tube .
"
f S ee S tou gh to n, M etallu gy r of I r on an d S tee , ”
l p . , 27 .
RE D U C IN G AT M O SP H E R E S AN D RE A CTI O N S
S uppli e s . The supplies n eeded are as follows

On e piece thi n iro n wire about 40 g age ,
-
,
16 in . lon g .
On e 0000 graphite crucible .
Twe n ty five gm hem atite

- . .
Thirty gm litharge . .
Twen ty gm f c opp er oxide (Cu O) .
Tw o I O gm clay crucibles
-
. .
Lab oratory E quipmen t . The laboratory equipmen t n eeded is

follows :
Coke .
B uckin g boards an d m ullers

-
.
B orax glass .
G alen a .
S alt .
Covellite .
D il ute hydrochloric acid .
P r o c e d ur e all m ixtures before startin g the fur

. a . P repare
n ace an d place them i n to the furn ace i mm ediately after light
,
in g. M ain tain a S lightly reducin g atm osphere at all tim es .
as determ in ed by E xperim e n t N o 1 . .
b S an dpaper the thin wire u n til it is bright twist it i n to a

.
,
spiral around a pen cil an d in sert it in to the iro n tube S crew .
the gas cock on the pipe an d co n n ect to a gas supply with a

rubber hose F ix the pipe with a co n den ser clamp in such a
.
m an n er that the flam es f rom the lid of the pot furn ace will
stro n gly heat that part which co n tain s the wire P ass a slow .
curren t of gas thru the tube durin g the en tire operation ; heat
stro n gly for an hour rem ove the pipe from the flam e an d , ,
cool without shuttin g off the gas curren t CA U T I O N : protect

’
.
the rubber hose from the h eat .
c R emove the wire an d examin e it critically comparin g

.
,
its co n dition to that of a short u n treated piece reserved for th e

purpose an d to that of the oxidized wire from E xperim en t N o 2
’
, . .
O bserve the color luster an d gen eral appearan ce ,

Test the , .
22 EXPERIMEN TAL GRO UP I
ductility by coun tin g the n um ber of tim es it must be ben t back

an d forth to break it Test the hardn ess with a file Test the
. .
m agn etic qualities an d solubility in dilute H Cl of an y scale

which c an be loosen ed P repare a quen chin g bath by filli n g
.
a pail with tap water an d place it as close to the furn ace as

,
possible G rasp a short piece of the origin al wire an d of the heat

.
treated wire Side by side in the jaws of a sm all ton gs an d heat ,
them to a bright red in the reducin g flam e issuin g from the pot
furn ace Quen ch the wires by quickly plu n gin g them at the
.
high heat in to the cold water S peed in tran sfer is the pri m e .
essen tial Test both pieces as before

. .
d M ake up a charge with 3 5 gm litharge (Pb O ) usin g that

. .
,
m ade in E xperim en t N o 2 an d test the reducin g actio n with

.
,
galen a (PbS ) Pulverize all the materials to 4 0 m esh weigh out

.
-
,
the required amoun t of the reagen ts add about 2 gm of fin e ,

.
coke m ix th or oly by rollin g together on a rubber mixi n g

,
cloth an d place the charge in a clay crucible F ill the balan ce

,
.
of the crucible with salt Heat rapidly from the cold in the oven
.
furn ace remove an d pour in to a butto n m old at a bright red

,
heat first exam in in g the m elt to see if it is th or oly m olten

,
.
E xam in e the button carefully break the m etallic lead loo Se with ,
a hamm er brush it fr ee from foreign matter shape it in to a cube

,
’
with a hamm er an d weigh CA U T I O N : A lways wear goggle s

,
.
when examin in g or pourin g molten m aterials B etter be safe .
than sorry .
6. Test the reactio n s
2 Cu S + Oz
2 Cu O + Cu z s 4 Cu + S O z
Covellite (Cu S ) on bein g heated will readily break down In to

the com poun d Cq which will then react with the copper oxide .
Figure the am oun t of Cq n ecessary to reduce the oxide an d ,
then figure the am oun t of covellite required to produce the Cuz s

accordin g to the first equation U se about 2 0 gm of Cu o . . .
T h or oly mix the pulverized m aterials addin g about 2 gm ,

.
RE D U C IN G AT M O SP H E R E S AN D R E A CTI ON S 23
pulverized coke tran sfer to a clay crucible cover with salt heat
, , ,
stron gly in the pot furn ace an d pour at a bright white heat ,
.
S eparate the copper an d weigh .
The m ost fusible pig iro n (alloy of per ce n t iro n with

f.
per cen t carbo n ) melts at 1 1 3 5 C while pure iron m elts °

.
,
at 1 500 C a temperature beyo n d the capacity of the gas fur

0
.
,
n aces Hematite c an be reduced by coke accordin g to the fol

.
lowin g reaction
F e2 03 + 3C 2 Pe + 3CO
The in fusib l e iro n will absorb an y excess of carbo n existin g

.
in its n eighborhood an d be co n verted in to the m ore fusible pig

iro n Therefore weigh out about 2 5 gm hem atite an d a com
.
,
.
,
p u t ed a m oun t of pulverized co k e ( thru 4 0 m esh ) to e ffect

the reduc tion accordin g to the above equatio n together wi th ,
excess of coke suflicien t to form the most fusible pig iron .
A ssum e the coke to be 9 0 p er cen t carbo n Then add app r oxi .
m ately 1 0 gm powdered borax glass an d mix thor oly by

.
,
rollin g on a mixin g cloth T ran sfer the charge to a 0000 graphite

.
crucible an d cover wi th a small am oun t of borax glass Heat

,
.
from the cold in the oven furn ace tran sfer the hot crucible quickly ,
to the p ot furn ace after pourin g e an d heat for thirty min utes ,
to the highest temperature attain able P our quickly in to a .
button mold an d carefully remove an y material which adheres

,
to the crucible with a sharp kn ife Crush separate the iro n .

,
from the glass with a magn et an d weigh ,

.
g R
. e read this e -
n tire experim e n t care f ully an d be sure ,
that you un derstan d the text have perform ed all the m an ipula ,
tion s an d c an an swer the required queries

, .
12 When the experim e n t is fin ished exhibit the data an d

.
,
results t o a laboratory o ffi cer I f it is satisfactory return .

,
the special apparatus to the stock room an d clean up your -
premises .
N O TE These last two in structio n s have been repeated

.
in E xp erim en ts N o s 1 2 an d 3 an d will be un derstood as

.
, , ,
appeari n g at the en d of each future day s work even th o ’

,
they do n o t again appear in pri n t .
Q u e r i e s a . T a b u
. la t e in five colu m n s the results of pro
c ed u r e b an d c with the iro n wire .
b M ake up a n eat tabulation of the results of procedure

.
d e an d f showi n g the weights of the reagen ts used the theo

, , , ,
r etic al weight of the m etal to be recovered ,

an d the actual
weight fou n d .
6 D iscuss the causes of an y discrepan cies between the

.
theoretical an d the actual weights of m etal recovered .
d What is the fun ctio n of the salt in procedure d an d e?

.
O f the borax in f?
e D o you get an y m atte in th e m elt for copper ?
. How do
you kn ow ?
f G. ive the co m putatio n s for procedure f in full .
g What. is the theory of vale n ce ? S tate so m e experim e n tal

facts which are satisfactorily explain ed by this theory .
12 What is the pro n u n ciatio n of tuyere ? of gan gue ? of

.
m atte ?
i E xplain the differen ces n ot ed in the co n di tion of the
.
‘
iro n wire before an d after an n ealin g ; also before an d after
quen chi n g What happen s durin g these operatio n s ?
.
j How
. m a n y cubic feet of m etha n e (CH 4 ) at stan dard co n di
tion s would be required to reduce 1 0 kg of Cu g O to m etal ?

.
How m uch heat would be evolved or absorbed d urin g the process ?

26 EXPERIME NTAL GR OUP I
from the just solid tridym ite by microscopic examin atio n u n der
polarized light A s a m atter of fact the roofs of open hearth
.
,
-
furn aces m an ufacturin g steel are m ade of silica brick an d are ,
steadily r un for weeks at temperatures in excess of 1 600 C 0

.
without failure of the brickwork In fact o n ly silica brick .

, ,
of all cheap refractories possesses the required compressive

,
stren gth at such high temperatures as to be available for u se in

the con structio n of the low arched roofs of these steel furn aces
-
actually workin g at a higher temperature than the true m eltin g

poin t of the brickwork itself (S ee M ills M aterials of Con
.
,
struction p ,
.
I t has been foun d that very small percen tages of impurities

will lower the m eltin g poin t of these refractories to a m arked
-
degree even tho the m elti n g poin t of the im purity b e higher

,
-
than that of the refractory Thus a little lim e is used as a bi n der

.
,
—
in the m an ufacture of silica brick pure S ilica havin g n o cohesio n
in itself to en able it to retain its sh ap e after m oldi n g B ut .
the am ou n t of l im e m ust be n o greater th an absolutely n ec es

sary in order to preven t harm ful e ffects on the refractory prop er
ties oi the brick itself For this reaso n it is eviden t that o n ly
.
the purest an d most un iform rocks c an be utilized in the man u

facture of all refractories Of course other properties than fusi
.
b ility must be co n sidered in the choice of furn ace m aterials such ,
as its coefficien t of expan sio n stren gth an d toughn ess at low an d

,
high temperatures behavior u n de r rapid chan ge in temperature

, ,
an d co n ductivity of heat an d electricity F or a discussio n of .
’
such features the studen t is referred to Havard s book on
,
R efractories an d Furn aces ” .
A good refractory m ust n o t o n ly resist the action of the heat .
but must be chemically in active ; that is to say it should resist ,
the corrosio n of an y liquid m aterial with whi ch it m ay be in

con tact For in stan ce a Silica or fir e C lay brick is rap idly
.
,
-
wasted away when in co n tact with a S lag or liquid m elt c on

tain in g a large percen tage of lim e This S lag however is per .
, ,
f ec tly resisted by a m agn esite brick S uch facts as these have .
l ed to the followin g classification :

R E F RA CTO RI E S
N am e o f r e r a f ct y or . C mpo o si ti on .
Lim e CaO
D olomite (C ao) ( gO)
M
agn esia
M M gO
A lu n dum A 12 03
B auxite Al g + x S l02
N eutral Chrom ite Fe an d Cr oxides

G raphite C
Carborun dum S iC
F ire clay -
S i lica S lO z
A m agn esite bric k typifies the basic refractori es a silica ,
brick the acid ; an d chromite is n either I t will be n oted that .
—
the promin en t basic refractories m agn esia dolomite an d
—
,
'
lim e ar e m ad e of the alkalin e earth oxides each of which is the ,
a n hydride of a very active base On the other han d the most .

,
p romin en t acid refractory silica is m ade of the an hydride of

, ,
the various silicic acids Hen ce the m etallurgist uses the sam e
.
term s acid an d base as are used in elem en tary chem istry

, , ,
.
The studen t should realiz e however that the ordin ary tests for
, ,
acid an d base can n ot be applied in m etallurgical reaction s .
He has been accustom ed to distin guish an acid from a base by

their action on litm us an d other in dicators an d by their behavior
“
durin g electrolysis B ut the C hem istry of aqueous solution

.
°
van ishes at tem peratures above 1 00 C an d the best the .
,
m etallurgist c an say about the chem ical actio n at high tempera

ture is that the substan ce which is a base in aqueous solutio n
ten ds to ac t as a base at high temperatures an d that the acid ,
of aqueous solutio n s acts as an acid at high temperatures B ear .
in min d at all tim es however that the term s acid an d base are
, ,
r elative term s o n ly. Thus iron oxide will act as a base with the
,
very aci di c silica form in g iron silicates but will act as an acid ,
with the very basic lim e form in g lim e ferrates A gain bauxite .
,
brick will resist corrosion an d unio n with silica to a very high

28 EXPERIMEN TA L GRO U P I
tem perature an d therefore m ay be called basic ; but in the pres

,
en ce of lim e easily fusible compoun ds will be form ed

,
.
A s an exam ple of the u se of such refractories take the case

- n —
of the so called basic ope hearth furn ace (M ill s M aterials ,
of Con struction p 38 7 e t Given the fact that thi s

,
.
process operates with a slag con tain in g a high percen tage of

lim e then the lower portio n of the furn ace m ust eviden tly be
,
of the sam e n ature as the slag it holds in order to resist corrosion ,
an d co n seque n tly is m ade with m agn esite brick side walls an d
gra n ular dolom ite hearth M agn esite brick has n o t the m echan .
ical stren gth at high tem peratures to perm it the con structio n
of the arched furn ace top which is therefore m ade of silica ,
brick A t the poin t of co n tact of these two differen t kin d s of

.
brick a partin g of n eutral brick m ust eviden tly be placed to

preven t the rapid form ation of m agn esium silicates an d co u se ,
.
quen tly a n eutral course of chromite brick everyw ere sepa h
rate s the two .
S p e c ial A ppar atus The special apparatu s n eeded is as fol

.
lows :
G lass stirrin g rod .
S ti ff wire bru sh .
On e I o o m esh scree n an d p an -
.
O n e 2 00 C C glazed porcelai n pe stle an d m ortar

. .
Fragm en t of 2 in rou n d graphite electrode -

. .
Han d saw -
.
gram trip balan ce an d weights

-
.
B rass m old for S eger co n es .
S patula .
S upplie s . The supplies n eeded are as follows

On e 2 00 -
C C beaker
. . .
I oo -c c . . of cylin der oil .
2 5 C C . vaseli n e .
Fragmen ts of the followin g N o . I refractories :

S ilica
brick . M agn esite brick .
B auxite brick . Fire clay brick

-
.
RE F RA CTORI E S
Lab orator y E qui pmen t . The laboratory equipmen t n eeded

as follows :
Bucki n g board an d m uller

-
.
H y temp
-
or other electrical resistan ce furn ace with
proper electrical con trol .
Op tical pyrom eter to read 1 800 C .
S olid reage n t s in suitable co n tain ers
A lum in a , A 12 03
Hem atite F e2 03 ,
S ilica S iO z
,
Kaolin ite (A 12 03 ) (S iO z ) 2
L im e CaO freshly burn ed
, ,
.
Pr oc e d ur e . N OT E : The followin g in struction s cover the

examin atio n of relatively pure refractories such as a r e used ,
for the m an ufacture of fir st class fir e brick an d even the highes t

- -
,
temperatures will S how little if an y e ffect upo n the S eger co n es .
V arious squads therefore should add i n creasin g percen t ages

, ,
of flux to the brick durin g the grin din g In this w ay a series .
of exp erim en ts c an be exhibited showin g the e ffect of im puri

ties upon the soften in g poin t of the purer refractory A seri es .
of addition s up to th e follow in g m axir n a are suggested

'
For silicabrick : 2 00 per cen t A 12 03 plus 5 per cen t P6 2 03 .
For bauxite brick : 1 0 per cen t S iO g plus 1 0 per cen t F ez n

For m agn esite brick : 2 0 per ce n t kaolin ite .
—
F or fir e clay brick : 3 per cen t CaO plus 6 per cen t F6 203 .
a. In terview the in structor to of impuri fin d th e amoun t

ties he w ishes you to m ix with the pulverized m aterials .
b Heat the cylin der oil over a B u n sen flam e an d dissolve

.
,
in it about on e quarter of its bul k of vase lin e This w ill be .
used as a bin der

'
0 Clean the b u
. cki n g board an d screen as follo w s : B rush
-
the buckin g board an d m uller vigorously with the w ire brush

-
,
co verin g the en tire surface at least twice Take several fra g .

30 EXPERIMEN TAL GR O UP I
men ts of the m aterial to be crushed gri n d them down usin g ,

an d ,
the whole surface of the m uller an d a con siderable area of the ,
buckin g board B rush the fin es in to the sieve screen an d waste

-
.
, , .
the fin e m aterials B rush O ff the board an d muller again twice

.
vigorously with the wire brush Clean out the sieve an d p an .
by rubbin g with the fin g ers an d jarrin g attached particles ,
l oose .
d Take a fragmen t of silica brick weig h it an d add the

.
, ,
n ecessary amoun t of im purities (if an y is prescribed by the in
str u c to r ) P ulverize the whole un til it completely passes

.
thru the I oo m esh screen A void spil lin g the fin es in tran s

-
.
ferrin g from the buckin g board to S ieve an d vice versa -

,
.
e T h o r o ly
. mix this powdered material in the m ortar
with a little of the oil vase lin e solution When mixed properly -
.
,
with the correct am oun t of bin der the p owder will loo k dry an d ,
gran ular but will stick to g ether readily when pressed between
,
the fin gers .
f. M old three S e g er co n es by ta m p in g t h is g ra n u l ar m aterial

in to a clean brass m old A g ood con e should be free of crack s .
,
have plan e sides an d a sharp poin t P l ace these con es on th e

,
.
c lean hearth of a cold oven furn ace .
g. R epeat procedure 0 to f wi th each of t h e other r efr ac
t ories bauxite m agn esite an d fir e c l ay

, , B e p articularly care
,
- .
f ul to clean the en tire equipm en t th or oly between m o l di n gs ,
so that the purity of the m ixtures m ay n o t be impaired .
Iz When all the con es are p roperly m ade heat the furn ace
.
,
gradually to a maximum heat an d hold at this temperature ,
durin g the rem ain der of the period O bserve the temperature .
of the furn ace at the en d with an optical p yrom eter (S ee E xp er i .
m en t N o Cool in the furn ace

. .
i On the followin g day examin e an d n ote th e con ditio n of

.
the con es particularly as to the con di tion of the tips Then

, .
select the best an d sharpest con e of each class for further exp er i
m en tin g reservin g the others
, .
j S aw a g in wafer from a 2 in roun d graphite electrode

.
a
.
-
. .
Wi th a kn ife cut the squad n um ber on the side of this wafer

‘
-
, ,
RE F RA CTO RI E S 31
an d n otches in on e surface so it c an be grasped easily by smal l

ton gs an d lowered i n to the crucible of the electrical resistan ce
furn ace .
k P lace the four co n es on this wafer in the crucib l e in such a

.
m an n er that they are n o t in con tact with their surrou n din gs .
Then close the furn ace an d gradually raise the temperature

to 1 800 C carefully m ain tain in g this deg ree as n early con stan t
°
.
,
as possible durin g the balan ce of the period On e squad m ember .
should be dele g ated to this work while o thers p roceed to the n ext ,
experim en t The furn ace ten der should observe the temperature
.
of the furn ace with an optical pyrom eter at fifteen min ute -
i n tervals an d make the n ecessary electrical adjustm en ts un der

,
the advice of the in structor .
I On the fo ll owin g day remove the co n es examin e an d n ote

.
, ,
their con dition P lace the wafer con tain in g the co n es on the
.
design ated shelf alon g side the work of th e oth er squads for pur
poses of compariso n E xhibit here also on e of the con es of each
.
kin d which has been ba k ed in the muffle furn ace but n o t heated ,
to the high temperature This will serve as a referen ce in dica.

,
tin g the ori gi n al co n di tion of the con es A lso attach a card .
givi n g the squad n umber an d p ersonn el an d the composition

-
,
of each con e .
Q u er i es o D escribe. th e results of
. the various squads ,
sk etchin g the con di tion of represen tative con es after exposure

°
to 1 800 CL
’
b G ive the p ercen ta g e composition of each refractory when

.
it first shows app reciable soften in g at 1 800 C °

.
c What sort of bric k should be used for the stac k of an iro n

.
blast furn ace ? F or the bosh ? F or the crucible ? F or the

stoves ?
. d G ive a short accoun t of the process of m an ufacture of
.
refractory brick .
S LA G S
O b j ect The object of this experim en t is to show h ow to

.
produce fusible mixtures or slags from in fusible ore substan ces

, , ,
or gan gue an d to S how the e ff ect of chemical compositio n upo n

,
the properties of slags .
G en eral E xpl an atio n In the smelti n g of ores the operator

.
,
m ust recover his valuable m etal in as pure a co n dition as possible .
T his n ecessitates the separation of the m etal from an y i mpuri

.
ties which m ay be presen t in the ore S ome of these impurities.
m ay be volatile ; but others will be recogn ized as high ly r ef r ac ,
tory an d would scarcely m elt before th e furn ace itself E co n o m y .
of operation dem an ds that the con ten ts be rem oved from the fur
n ace In the fluid state ; therefore the problem the m etallurgist
,
must face is H ow c an these substa n ces b e sm elted i n to a

,
liquid an d easily fusible slag ?

The impurities in ores are of widely varyin g com positio n
—
“
an d character their gen eral n ature follows th at of the barre n
cou n try rock su rrou n di n g the mi n eralized ore body The .
gan gue of an ore body occurrin g In a limeston e form a tio n would

probably be high in lim eston e (CaCO g ) an d therefore basic ,
(see p . On the other han d ores in ign eous rocks would

,
probably be very high in silica (S l og ) an d therefore acidic ,

.
In man y ores valuable m etals m ay be regarded as impurities ;

,
for in stan ce in sm eltin g an ore for copper the iro n an d zin c

, ,
con ten t is slagged an d thrown away with the other impurities .
Thi s is n ecessary because of the fact that in the prese n t state of

m etallurgical art there is n o m ethod k n own for savi n g these
valuable metals as a commercial b y product -
.
The more importan t gan gue m aterials of various ores m ay

32
34 EXPERIME NTAL GRO U P I
stan ces the m eltin g poin t of either is lowered by the addition

”
-
,
of certain quan tities of the other The logical con clusion of .
this statem en t is that there m ust be on e or more mixtures of

lower m eltin g poin t than either of the con stituen ts The com
-
.
position of the mixtures m eltin g at the lowest poin ts does n o t

corre spon d to that of a chem ical compoun d ; they are the so called -
eutectic mixtures appearin g under the microscop e as
100; x y s ma
'
100fl C a S i O 3 80
FI G . 2.
—E quilib r iu m Di g a ra m, CaO -S iO; M gO
R p
e r in te df r om H o lman G lM
en er a ll
et a ur gy . by per m ission of th e M c G r aw -H lll B oo k Co .
in timate mixture of min ute crystals of two di fferen t substan ces

”
.
(E utectic m ea n s easily m elti n g )

This gen eral statem en t holds for alloys of elem en ts oxides , ,
or more complex compoun ds A S an illustratio n wollaston ite .

, ,
CaO S iOz m elts at I 51 2

,
C en statite M gOS i02 m elts at
°
.
, ,
°
1 52 4 C However a eutectic con sistin g of
.
,
per cen t of
M gO S iO z an d per cen t of CaO S iO z m elts at I 3 50 C an d °
.
,
an other eutectic of 67 per cen t M gO S iO z an d 33 per cen t CaOS iO z

m elts at 1 3 7 5 C The o n ly true chemical compoun d form ed by
°
.
SLAGS 5
these two silicates is called augite (CaO M gO ) an d it -2 S iO

g ,
m elts at 1 38 1 C lower than either con stituen t but higher

°
.
, ,
than ei ther eutec tic (Hofman G en eral M etallurgy p 444

.
, , .
,
shows a diag ram rep resen tin g the meltin g p oin ts of all c om ~
bin ation of th ese two si licates whi ch is reprodu ced above , ,
Q uic kly coo l ed sla g s are g lasses or so lid solutio n s of the,
oxides composin g them an d of the comp oun ds whi ch could exist

as stab l e substan ces at the temp eratures in question On m ore .
slowly coo lin g the stable comp oun ds ten d to separate out of
,
the mother li quor an d may be iden tified by the expert un der

,
mi croscopic exam in atio n The con stitu tion of slags con tain in g
.
several diff eren t oxides is therefore extraordin arily complex ,
an d to a large exte n t is yet un explored territory I t is certain .

,
however that the o l d fashi o n of assum in g all the bases to ran ge

,
toge ther on the on e han d an d the acids join in g on the other to

,
m ake on e complex si licate molecule is bas ed upo n n o grou n d ,
work oi fact However that m ay be it is n evertheless c on ven i

.
,
en t to say that the prob l em of sla g m a k in g usually con sists of -
determinin g the prop er am o un t of basic m aterial to add as a flux

in order to m ake a readily fusible comp oun d or eutectic m ixture , ,
with the excess of acid presen t in the g an g ue of the ore or vice ,
versa as the case may be What the relative proportion of acid

,
.
to base may be an d which oxides shall be regarded as acids an d

,
which as bases are question s ordin arily an swered by the m etal

,
lu r gist on th e basis of his experien ce obt ain ed in the m an agem en t

of certain furn aces F ortun ately co n siderable latitude is allow
.
,
able in most processes an d un iversal ag reemen t or scien tific

,
exactitude is therefore n o t n e cessary sin ce a furn ace will take

care of itself an d smooth out its own irre gularities to a certain
T emp eratures which are moderate for metallurgical furn aces

are n o t obtain able in the ordin ary gas muffle an d therefore ,
special acids and bases too expen sive to u se in bu lk are utilized

, ,
in the laboratory to m ake m ore fusible slags S om e of these .
c om bin atio n s are m olded i n to the fam i liar S eger co n es of exp er i

36 EXPERIMEN TAL GR O UP I
m en t N o .
,
substan ces as bicarbo n ate (N aH CO g )
I p . 8 . S uch ,
litharge (Ph O ) an d borax glass (N agB 4 O 7 ) are exten sively used

,
as fluxes in assayin g .
S p e cial A pparatu s The special apparatus n eeded is as fol .
l ows :
On e g1n trip bala n ce
-
an d weights . .
S patula .
S uppli es . The supplies n eeded are as follows

Three sc o r ifier s .
S ix 5 gm -
. crucibles .
La b oratory E quipmen t . The laboratory equipm en t n eeded

follows :
Opticalpyrom eter .
Charcoal .
Two buckin g boards an d m ullers -

.
Trays of reagen ts as follows : Bicarbon ate ,

.
L itharge .
B orax glass .
H em atite .
S ilica .
Fresh burn ed lime .
Fluorite
P ro c e d ur e
Fill separate
. a . sco r ifier s half full of each of the
fo llowin g substan ces :
L aboratory bases .
I Bicarbon ate (N aH COg)

. .
II L itharge (Pb O)
. .
L aboratory acid
III B orax glass (N ag B4 O 7 )
. .
Weigh the scor ifier an d bicarbon ate both before an d after heat
in g in order to n ote an y loss in weight
,
.
S LAGS 37
“
b Com pute the am oun ts of reagen ts
. n ecessary to m ake th e
follo wi n g m o n osilicate slags :
IV . U se 10 gm . S iOz .
V . U S O 8 gm S l og . .
0 . R eplace half the iron oxide in the latter by the m ore

basic an d m ore fusible alkali N 21 2 0 , thu s : (U se 6 gm S iO z ) . .
VI 4 N . aH C03 F 6 2 03 C 2 8 102
2 (N aQ O F O O S lO z ) C0 2 H 2 O + 4 C02 .
d .
R eplace half the Silica by the m ore fusible boric oxide ;
u si n g m ilica
‘
s
5 g .
VII N . 8 2B4 O 7 2N a H C 03 S lO z F e2 03 C
B 4 O O + H2 0 2 C02 CO .
N OT E:
all the above the am oun t of the various in gre
In ,
d ien t s should be com puted previous to the laboratory period ,
an d th e ; c alc u latio n s should be prese n ted for i n spectio n at the
begin n in g of the aftern oon before p r oc edin g with the weighin g .
U se cha rcoal for the carbo n assum i n g it to be 1 00 per cen t pure , .
A ll m ate rials should be pulverized to 4 0 m esh carefully weighed , ,
t o r o ly m
h ixed a n d each m ixture
,
placed i n to a —
5gm Crucible .
,
properly m arked .
e T he n iost fusible lim e silica m ixture co n tain s 3 7 per cen t

.
-
Cao an d 63 per cen t 5102 M ake up two samples of this mix

.
ture each co n tain in g about 1 5 gm S iO g an d add to on e app r oxi

,
.
m ately 1 0 per cen t of pulverized fluorite (CaF g ) M ix well an d .
place in separate crucibles m arkin g them VIII an d IX

“
.
,
f R a n ge these co n tai n ers in the cold m u ffl e accordin g to
the plan Fig 3 Heat stro n gly in a n eutral flam e observin g

,
. .
,
co n ditio n s at fifteen mi n ute i n tervals an d bein g careful n o t to

-
cool the furn ace by keepin g the fro n t door open too lon g A s .
the co n ten ts of the co n tain ers becom e th or o ly molten with

draw each from the furn ace an d pour i n to a butto n mold o b ser v ,
in g the approximate temperatures from the color of the muffi e

(Experim en t N o U po n request a laboratory o ffi c er

.
, will
check your estim ate by mean s of an optical pyrom eter .
C A U T I O N : S afety goggles must be worn when examinin g an d
pouri n g m olten m aterial .
g . A fter V II is rem oved close an d drive

, the furn ace on e
FIG .
3.
—L c at i o on o f Slag C i
o n ta n er s in O v Fu
en rna ec .
hour at max imum heat ; estimate the temperature remove all ,
the rem ain in g crucibles an d exam in e the con ten ts

,
.
.It S ee P rocedure It an d i of E xperim en t 1 I t is importan t .
that the in structor be shown all melts at the en d of the aftern oon .
Q u e ri
. e s a M ake
. up a n eat tabulatio n givi n g the followin g
i n form ation : N am e of m aterial chemical formula weights of
, ,
m aterials mixed color before heatin g color after heatin g mel t

, , ,
S LAG S 39
in g
- poin t viscosity gen eral appearan ce an d con ditio n of the
, ,
slag gen eral appearan ce an d co n dition of the co n tain er

,
.
b G ive the equation for the form ation of VI an d the detailed

.
computatio n s for this m ixture .
6 What happen s to I ? Compare your weighi n gs with the

.
theoretical loss What would happen should water be added to

.
the product ?
d What is the result of ad din g Ca
. to a calcium S ilicate ?
E xplain thi s How could you determin e whether the lim e
.
silicate is an acidic or a basic slag ?

e D id you get an y metal from m elt II ? Why should such
.
m etal appear ?
f G ive
. reaso n s for a n y corrosio n of the fir e clay sc or ifier s or
-
crucibles .
g What. would be the co m positio n in weight per ce n t of the

slag if 2 7 per cen t of the n umber of basic m olecules in I V were
rep laced by th e same n um ber of molecules of M gO ?
E XP E RI M E N TA L G R OU P II
FO R E W O RD T O T HE S T U DE N T
The experimen ts of G roup II are presen ted in an eff ort to

acquain t the studen t with the best m ethods of m easurin g accu
r at ely a m oderately high temperature A very large part of
.
m odern m etallurgical progress c an be directly attributed to

i n form ation gain ed by a study of the behavior of pure m etals
an d their alloys at high tem peratures I t will be apparen t that
.
an y i n vestigatio n s either in the works or in the laboratory

, ,
m ust be predicated on strict temperature con trol .
E xperi men ts N os 6 7 an d 9 will therefore in dica te p r ac ti

.
, , ,
c al m ethods whereby excellen t pyro m eters may be easily c on
structed an d calibrated .
S i n ce the m ethod of calibration in volves the determ in atio n

of the m eltin g poin ts of two or m ore m etals a study of the m elt
-
,
in g poin ts of various bin ary alloys is n aturally suggested which

-
will directly utilize the work already completed This is the sub .
j ec t m atter of E xperi m e n ts N os 8 an d 1 0
. the latter of w hi
,
ch
con structs an equi librium diagram of the sim ple lead an tim on y -
system . This family of alloys altho of sm all comm ercial

,
im portan ce is of great education al value sm ce all the m e mbers

,
have low m eltin g poin ts they c an easily be han dled by n ovices

-
,
an d their equilibria throw m uch light on the m ore im portan t

an d co m plex system of alloys betwee n iro n an d carbo n which ,
in cludes the various iron s an d steels .

42 EXPERIMEN TAL GR O UP II
un like m etals such as zin c an d copper are placed side by side

, ,
an d a positively charged plate is suspen ded above the plate ,
will deflect toward the copper as soon as the two disks are
m oved together so that they touch at an y poin t The con tact is .
a source of electrical e n ergy whi ch projects positive particle s of

electricity called electro n s in on e di rectio n an d n egative electro n s
in the opposite thus chargin g th ezin c disk with po sitive elec
,
t r icity an d the other with a l ik e am oun t of n egative The .
positive charge on the z in c repels the like charge on the positively

charged plate suspen ded above while the n egative charge
,
o n the copper attracts the plate the result bein g as n oted

,
that the plate swin gs over the copper disk .
I t might be thought that the electricity on the zin c bein g ,
at a higher poten tial would discharge across the jun ction to

,
n eutralize a li k e am oun t on the copper plate as soo n as a secon d
poin t comes in co n tact The flow of such a curren t however

.
, ,
would give an in stan ce of perpetual m otion eviden tly an absurd ,
ity when it is co n sidered tha t all poin ts of con tact between the
two plates are a like In bein g sources of electrom otive force ,
an d all poin ts are ten din g to k eep the two plates at a di ffer en t
poten tial E ach poin t in con tact projects electro n s like every
.
o ther poin t in co n tact an d n o electrical discharge c an take

,
place across this gen erator .
A curren t c an be caused to flow however in two ways , In ,

.
th e first place if two plates of un like m etals are touched at

,
their upper en ds an d the lower en ds imm ersed in a solution of

,
certain in organ ic substan ces a curren t will be produced S uch

-
,
.
a curren t is n o t an in stan ce of perpetual m otio n however for , ,
a certain defin ite quan tity of chemical en ergy existin g in the sub
stan ces in solution is tran sform ed in to electrical en ergy by the
degen eration of com poun ds of high laten t heat i n to others c on
tain in g lower am oun ts Curr en ts produced in this m an n er are
.
the cause of the action of all prim ary electric batteries an d

p robably of most of the corrosion of iron an d steel .
In the seco n d place a curre n t will be produced fro m a sourc e

,
of c on tact electro m otive for ce by joinin g th e en ds of two wire s

THERMO C OUPLE ELEMEN TS
-
43
of un e metals ,
an d m ain tain in g a diff eren ce of temperature
be tween the two jun ctio n s of the wires of t hi s so called therm o
”
-
couple Curre n ts such as these are the basic prin ciple un der
.
lyin g the action of most in strum en ts for the m easurin g of

m oderately high temperatures S uch in strumen ts are called .
pyrom eters The v alue of the con tact electrom otive force
.
of an y jun ction varies with the temperature an d c an therefore ,
be expressed as a fun ction of the absolute tem perature of that

jun ction ; therefore th e measurem en t of the electrom otive
force (or the resistan ce bein g u n chan ged of the curren t it ,
in duces) by suitable electrical in strum en ts gi ves an in dicatio n

,
of the temperature at that tim e an d place .
P eltier foun d that if a curren t of electricity be passed thru

'
a weld of two metals such as copper and iron a certain quan tity
, ,
of heat is absorbed or a like am o un t is evolved at the jun ction

,
should the curren t flow fro m the co pp er to the iro n or vice versa
”
.
T his fact kn own as the P eltier e ffect furni shes an explan atio n
, ,
of the phen om en a in an ordin ary therm o couple I f th ere -

.
,
fore a circuit is comp osed of on e wire of copper an d o n e of iron

,
welded together at the en ds a curren t flowin g pa s t on e jun ctio n

,
,
from the copper to th e iron wil l absorb a certain am oun t of

heat whi ch will be evolved in lik e amoun t at the other j un ction
,
w here the cur re n t flows from iro n to copper 01 without .

,
impressin g an extern al curren t if a diff eren ce in temperature

_ ,
be m ain tain ed at these two welds the circuit wi ll ac t as a heat ,
en gin e absorb heat at the hot j un ctio n an d tran sform in g it

, ,
in to electrica l en ergy con duct this electricity alo n g the wires

,
to the cold jun ction an d th ere reco n vert the electric en ergy
,
in to heat which is evolved at that p oin t The action of this

,
.
en gin e wi ll coo l off the region of the hot termin al an d heat th e

regio n of the co l d un til both arrive at the sam e temperature ,
at which tim e th e con tact electrom otive force at the two jun c
tion s wil l be equal an d opposite an d action wi ll cease The ,
.
en ergy n ecessary to heat the fir e en d an d to refrigerate the cold

furni shes the work n ecessary to m ain tain the existen ce of the
electrical cur ren t .
44 EXPERIME NTAL GR O UP II
N aturally the am o un t of electrical curren t gen erat ed will

depen d upon the metallic com bin ation as well as upon the diff er
en ce of temperature between the hot an d cold en ds The value .
of an y combin ation for u se as a therm o couple depen ds upon -
several other characteristics which will be discussed later but ,
primarily the therm o couple should prod uce a large electrom o tive
-
force an d therefore a proportion ately large curren t for a moderate

,
di fferen ce in tem perature in order that it m ay be delicat e or

sen sitive .
S everal diff eren t com bin atio n s of m etals c an be co mpared by

m easurin g the curren t gen erated when the en ds of the wires are
at a con stan t di ff eren ce in temperature The easiest way to .
m ain tain these temperatures is to imm erse the welded en d in

boilin g sulfur while the other en ds are In an Ic e bath
,
S p ec ial A ppar atu s The special app aratus used is as fo llows :

.
On e electrical m eter .
On e retort C lamp .
On e rin g stan d .
—
Various wires 1 4 gage , ,
24 in . lon g labeled with me
,
t allic tags as follows :
iron S oft .
M usic wire (hard ) .
M usic wi re (an n ealed ) .
A lloys 34 3 1 83 1 66 , ,
.
G erm an silver .
Copper .
N ickel .
On e piece of lamp cord 2 4 in lo n g ,

. .
On e blast burn er .

I ce .
Tw en ty five gm
-
sulfur
. .
On e 6-in by I -in. test tube

. .
On e -
in . by 3
-
in test tube
. .
T H ERMO -
C OUPLE ELEME NTS 45
On e two hole cork for I in test tube

- -
. .
On e 6 in piece of sm all glass tubin g

-
. .
O n e piece of asbestos paper 2 in by 3 6 in ,

. .
O n e piece of asbestos paper 6 in square ,

. .
Lab oratory E quipm en t . The laboratory equipm en t n eeded

as follows :
S poolof asbestos strin g .
B are arc with proper hood

,
.
S yrupy sodium sili cate .
S olderi n g outfit in cludin g ,
S olderi n g tool .
S olderi n g paste .
S older .
P iece of cloth for wipin g .
F IG .
4 . H o me-M
-
d
a e A rc W lde er .
P r oc ed ur e . ake up a thermo couple as follows : P olish

a . M -
both en ds of the wires with em ery paper clamp the tip en ds of ,
two wires alo n gside each other in a vise an d twist them tightly ,
together two or three turn s Fuse the twisted en ds by brin gi n g

,
.
them Slowly down to the flam e of an electric arc whi ch m ay be ,
arran ged as in Fig 4 u n til a globule of m olten m etal form s at the

.
,
tip S yrupy sodium silicate m akes a satisfactory flux A lways

”
. .
wear darken ed goggles an d look thru the n oviw eld glass plate
fixed in the hood to protect the eyes from the harm ful eff ect of
the i n ten se light .
b S older the leads to the couple as follows : Heat the

.
F IG .
5 .
—
Appa ‘
r at u s fo r B ili g P i
o n o n t of Su lfu r .
solderin g tool plun ge it in to the sol d erin g paste wipe off an d

, , ,
rub solder over the en d of the heated copper n ose un til a sm ooth
bright surface results I f the tool is too hot the bright so called
.
-
tinn ed surface oxidizes an d becom e dull in luster Clean s .
an d tin the en ds of the wires to be sold ered in a like mann er ,
twist tightly together an d fix with a dro p of solder

, .
THERMO C OUPLE ELEMENTS
-
47
c .up the apparatus as shown in the illustration Fig 5

S et .
as follows : Wrap the strip of asbestos paper tightly about the

large test tube coveri n g the middle p art of its len gth A
,
Cut ,
.
a sm all roun d hole in the cen ter of the square piece of asb es
tos paper B slip it over the lower en d of the test tube to ac t
,
-
as a hood over the flam e an d hold it in p lace with a rin g These

,
.
precaution s are to in sure a re gion at the cen ter of the test tube -
which is well in sulated ag ain st heat tran sfer so it will main

tain con stan tly the tem perature of boilin g sulfur The cork C .
in the top is to p reven t the vapor catchin g fir e ; the glass tub e

D is required to preven t an in crease in pressure in the test tub e -
which would raise the boi lin g— poin t an d then burst the appara
tus . The sm all test tube is in serted thru th e cork to act as
-
a protection tube for the therm o — cou p le an d serves to preve n t
the wires from su lfidiz in g

‘
d M elt the sulfur carefu ll y usin g o n ly en ou g h to fil l th e tub e

.
,
for 3 cm A djust the flam e so that the vapor rises n early to the
.
top of the test tube where it con den se s an d run s back down the
-
,
sides A p oin t in the cen ter of these fum es will n ow be main

.
t ain ed at the boi lin g poin t of su l fur -

C ,
.
“
e In sulate th e wires fro m on e an other at the welded en d
by runn in g a fi gure 8 with asbestos strin g for about 6 in .
Wrap a bit of asbestos about the wires to form a cork E closin g

the small glass p rotection tube so that th e welded en d is at the ,
bottom Iin mer se the other en ds in the ice jar F an d con n ect
.
the free en ds of the leads to the bin din g posts on the meter ,
takin g particular care to make tight co n n ection s G uard .
again st groun ds an d short circuits .
f Co m
. pare all wires a g ain st iro n n oti n g the n eedle d efl ec ,
tion for each m etallic combin ation to on e ten th unit P ay -

.
particular atten tio n to th e direction in whi ch th e cur ren t is

flowin g .
g S ubstitute
. boi l in g water for ice in the p ail at the cold
en d an d n ote the e ff ect on the therm o couple which gave the -
highest readi n g .
11 Test the co n tact electrom otive force of a cou p le m ade

.
48 EXPERIME NTA L GRO UP II
from hard an d a n n ea l ed m usic wire S older the ju n ctio n .
i n stead of weldin g in this in sta n ce .
Q u e ri e s a M ake
. a n eat
. tabulatio n arra n gi n g the m etals
an d alloys tested in a series from m ax im um to m i n im u m read
in g showi n g the n um erical values de term in ed by the m eter

,
.
S uch a list mi g ht read :
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
What is m ean t by the term absolute tem perature ? E x

b .
press 3 2 9 F in absolute temperature Cen tigrade

°
.
,
.
c Give the n am es of the uni ts for the m easurem en t of

.
electrom otive force resistan ce an d curren t D efin e their

, ,
.
m agn itude .
d Write an equatio n showi n g in sym bol s th e am ou n t of

.
curren t flo w in g in a therm o couple an d it s attachm en ts -

.
e I f the u n it on the m eter is supposed to be I m illivolt

.
,
what curren t would flow in the steel germ an silver couple if -
the total resistan ce of the circuit be 300 ohm s ? Which way ,
does the curre n t flow ?

f S uppose
. the leads were le n gthe n ed so as to i n crea s e the
resistan ce by 1 0 ohm s What would the curren t then be ?

.
g What
. does the m eter actually register curre n t or electro ,
—
m o tive force ? What causes the n eedle to d eflec t curren t or
electromotive force ? Why do you thin k so ?
—
be very carefully co n structed an d han dled a mere ben din g of
the wire m ay produce su ffi cien t cold worki n g hardn ess -
to a ffect the accuracy of the in dication S uch hard spots are .
sources of parasitic curren ts Wires of superior q uality m ay .
be had from the E lectric A lloy Compan y M orristown N J , ,

. .
,
an d m ay be tested for ho m ogen eity by m ethods described by
W P Whi te in the Journ al of the A m erican Chem ical

”
. .
,
S ociety 1 9 14 p 2 292
, ,
. .
Third the wires should be stable at elevated temperature

, ,
stable C hemically an d stable p hysically Th e m ost perfectly .
prepared wire would rapidly becom e useless if it oxidized readily ,
or alloyed with the small quan tities of m etallic vapor existin g

in m ost in dustrial processes P hysical stability requires that
.
crystalli n e growth at the high temperatures in u se be ve r y

slow Wires which chan ge sudden ly in an y physical property
.
(that is those whi ch are made of m etals possessin g allotropic

tran sform ation s
,
” at elevated temperatures ) are eviden tly ,
,
n o t stable in the sen se here used A ll physical p roperties vary

—
.
wi th the temperature thus the hardn ess becom es less as the

,
temperature in creases the specific g ravity becom es smaller

,
with risin g temperature an d so on B ut a larg e n umber of

,
.
m etals an d alloys will have sudden an d di scon tin uous chan ges
in their properties at certain fixed temperatures ; for in stan ce ,
pure iron loses its magn etism sudden ly when the risin g tempera
ture passes 7 60 C E viden tly such a profoun d rearran gem en t
°
.
,
of the con figuration of the iron m olecule as to cause it to lose

its m agn etism will doubtless have a con siderable effect upon
such a property as con tact electromotive force .
Fourth the wires should have a high m eltin g poin t in order

,
-
that their useful ran ge m ay be as exten sive as possible .
Fifth the wires should n o t be so exp en sive as to prohibit

,
their comm o n u se .
S ixth the w rr es sho uld be sm all tho rugge d in order

, ,
that the temperature of the hot en d will r apidly attain an d

closely follow that of the surrou n di n gs without bein g so de li
cate as to require gen tle h an d lin g .
TH E RM O C O UPLE C ON S TRU CTI ON
-
51
Con sideratio n s such as these poin t to the fact that an ideal

—
therm o couple is n o t a simple m atter to con struct in deed
- “
,
has n o t yet been discovered The best couples in u se are those .
of pu re platin um again st platin um alloyed with 1 0 per cen t of

rhodium or iridium These platin um couples (or din arily d esig
.
— —
nated as P t R d or P t I r) are sen sitive hom ogen eous r efr ac , ,
tory an d rugged but have the disadvan tage of bei n g very ex

,
pen sive A gain while they are quite stable physically at high
.
,
temperatures an d resist oxidation perfectly they are rapidly ,
de stroyed in a r educin g atm osphere by alloyin g readily with

volatile m etals an d m etalloids which m ay be presen t I t is .
im portan t that an excess of oxygen be always presen t when plati

n um couple s are in use in order that an y volatile substan ces
m ay be readily oxidized an d thus ren dered in capable of form :
ing an alloy .
A ltho the n oble m etals m ake the best coup les on accou n t ,
of the high cost their use is c On fin ed to scien tific in vestigatio n s

an d the co n structio n of stan dard therm om eters Cheap couples .
for use in comm ercial practice are therefore usually m ade of

wires of base m etal alloys M an y useful couples are m an u
.
fac tu r ed of alloys whose prin cipal m etal is ni c k el (m eltin g

poi n t 1 4 50 C ) com bin ed with various p ercen tages Of chromium
°
.
,
,
iro n copper m an gan ese an d cobalt The wires furn ished for
, , ,
.
this experimen t are Hoskin s M an ufacturin g Compan y n ickel ’
chromium alloys N o s 1 83 an d 34 3 1 4 gage This combin atio n

.
,
-
.
gives a high electrom otive force The wires are specially m ade .
for therm o — couple use an d are hom oge n eous in co n stitutio n ;

they resist oxidatio n up to 1 000 C an d oxidize but slowly at .
C ; the wire is relatively i n expe n sive ; the gage is sm all

°
1 1 00 .
e n ough to follow a rapid chan ge in temperature but still n o t so ,
small as to becom e rapidly weaken ed by surface oxidation .
The wires composi n g the therm o couple must eviden tly be -
properly i n sulated from on e an other an d also covered carefully ,
to protect them from the corrosive action of their surrou n din gs .
In case the couple is to m easure the tem perature O f a bath of

metal the protectio n tube is n ecessary to preven t the wires from
,
alloyin g with the m olten m etal The protectio n tube mus t in .
thi s case also be able to resist the corrosive action of the ba th ,
in order that it m ay n o t be rapidly destroyed an d at the sam e

tim e vitiate the purity of the melt Base m etal wires must .
further be protected from oxidatio n or sulfid ation .
N oble m etal couples have very small quartz tubes or beads

strun g alon g their len gth to preven t a short circuit from on e wire
to th e o ther should they touch an d then an outer tube of p or c e
,
lain or quartz covers the whole Quartz has a very low coef .
ficien t of expan sio n an d c an be heated or que n ched very rapidly

,
—porcelain on the o ther han d m ust be heated an d cooled with

, ,
ex tr eme care Tubes m ade of either of these substan ces are quite
.
brittle however B ase m etal tubes should n o t be used for n oble

,
.
couples on accoun t of the fact that metals vo la ti lize to a min ute

exten t at temperatures be low their m eltin g poin t an d this -
,
m etallic vapor readily alloys with the sup er ficies of the thin
elem en ts of the couple thus destroyi n g the chemical hom ogen ei ty
,
of the wires .
I t is often diffi cult to procure an adequ ate therm o couple -
protection tube Gil lett recomm en ds that base metal couples

.
m ay be in sulated from th e harm ful eff ects of sulfu r fum es by

a thin glass tube The wires c an be protected from alloyi n g
.
with a lead alumi n um an tim on y or z m c bath by closely wrap

, , ,
pi n g them with asbestos stri n g an d then co v erin g with retort Or

high temperature cem en t For melts of copper or brass a
.
,
n ickel li n ed tube of silic o

-
n ized graphite is n ecessary A n iro n .
protection tube c an be u sed in a le ad or cool alumi n um bath .
A comm o n arran gem en t for protectin g portable couples to be used

about the works to measure furn ace temperatures is m ade by
i n sertin g the wires properly separated by porcelain or qu artz
,
beads i n to a seamless protection t ube of n ickel or steel screwed ,
in to a wooden han dle which also con tai n s co n cealed bin di n g

posts for join in g the couple to wires leadin g to the elec trical
m eter. S uch tubes however are rapidly oxidized u n der most
, ,
co n dition s an d their replacem en t often am ou n ts to qui te an

,
expen ditur e "

TH E RM O CO UPLE C ON S TRU CTI ON -
53
In laboratory work It is usually possible to main tain th e cold

en d of the the r m o couple at a co n stan t tem perature by imm ersio n
-
in an ice bath M an ufacturers of pyrom eters have adop ted

.
various expedien ts to elim in ate the n ecessary correct io n in

p ortable therm o couples where the -
cold ju n ctio n is at a variable
temperature .
S p eci al A ppar atu s . The special apparatus used is as follows

S u ppli es . The supplies n eeded are as follows

On e piece of H oskin s alloy 1 83 2 4 in lon g ’
,
. .
On e piece of Hoskin s alloy 34 3 2 4 in lo n g

’
. .
,
On e piece of la m p cord 2 4 in lo n g ,
-
. .
On e piece of oko n ite tape 1 2 in lo n g

‘
.
,
.
On e pin t pail filled with kieselguhr .
Lab orat ory E quipm en t . The laboratory equipm en t n eeded

is as follows :
°
Core oven at 1 00 C .
B are arc with proper hood ,

.
S yrupy sodiu m silicate .
S pool of a sbestos stri n g .
S olderi n g outfit i n cludi n g ,
S olderi n g tool .
S olderi n g paste .
S older .
Piece of cloth for wipin g .
Can of retort cem en t .
Carpe n ter s ha n d saw ’

-
.
Jig saw .
Brace an d i ih - -
. b it .
P iece of b o af d ,
in . by 6 in .
Vise .
P r oced ur e Weld the no t jun ctio n as in structed in P ro

. a .
c ed ur e a of E xperim en t N o 6 or in the electric butt welder un der .

,
the di rection of a laboratory o fficer In an y case presen t the .

,
weld for in spectio n before proceedin g .
b S tartin g about 1 8 in from the weld wrap asbestos strin g

. .
,
tightly aroun d on e wire workin g toward the weld When

, .
this is covered as close up to the join t as possible lay the bare ,
wire alo n gside an d co n tin ue wrappin g out to the bead on the

,
weld Cover the bead with four short strin gs put on cross
.
wise the en ds to be held un der the circular wrappin g Work

,
.
back from the weld coverin g both wires for a distan ce of 1 2 in ;

, .
then the bare wire separately for an other 6 in .
c S older the lead wires to the therm o couple as directed

.
-
in procedure b of E xperim en t N o 6 Wrap the join t tightly. .
’
with a short piece of electrician s tape .
d Co n n ect the leads to a m eter an d heat the fire en d gen tly

.
,
in a gas flam e to test for a possible break or S hort circ ui t D urin g .
the heatin g grasp the welded en d an d the soldered c on n ection s

,
in pliers an d work ge n tly back an d forth lookin g for an y oscilla ,
tion in the n eedle whi ch will in dicate a faulty electrical circuit

’
, .
e D am pe n the wrappin g an d rub on a little retort cem en t

.
,
workin g it well in to the strin g un til the excess cem en t becom e s

som ewhat dry an d gran ular R em ove this excess dampen .
,
an d slick over the in sulatio n with a little water an d dry slowly ,
in a m u ffle furn ace or dryin g oven held at about 1 00 C P ut °

.
on three t hin coats in thi s m ann er an d lay aside to dry ove r
night A very good paste for fillin g in asbestos strin g is sold

.
by the Jo hn s M an ville Compan y un der the trade n am e of

”
-
R etort Cem en t The Quigley Furn ace S pecialty Compan y

.
also m ake a satisfactory cem en t called Hy temp ite Hoskin s .
recomm en ds a m ixture of 1 0 parts silica thru 2 00 m esh screen -

,
2 parts burn t fir e C lay thru 2 00 m esh screen 5 parts acid free

- - -
,
sodium silicate mixed with hot water sufficien t to m ake in to a

,
creamy paste .
f. The dr ie d couple is to be slowly heated fro m cold to
bright red in a m u ffle in order to an n eal the wire an d properly to

bake the in sulation .
Co stru ct an ice bath by packin g a stout glass jar 3 or

g. n ,
TH E RM O CO UPLE C ON S TRU CTI ON
-
4 in .in diam eter ,

in to a p in t pail with some in sulatin g ma
t er ial such as kieselguhr , mi n eral wool or asbestos fiber Cut.
a s uitable piece of wood or asbestos lumber to serve as a cover to

the pail with a g in hole in the cen ter for the en tran ce of the
,
i -
t
.
wires .
Q u e rie s a D
. efin.e the words m etal an d m eta lloid .
D istin guish between the term s n oble m etal an d base metal .
L ist several chemical elem en ts in these classes .
.b What is the diam eter of a 1 4 gage wire ?

-
°
.c Why is it n ecessary to keep the cold en d at 0 C ? .
d How is it possible to arran ge a couple for use when the

.
cold en d is at som e other temperature than zero ?

e Would
. lead wire m ake a satisfactory therm o couple -
elem en t ? Why ? Would iro ? Why

n ?
T HE CO O LIN G CU RVE O F A PU RE S U B S T A N CE
Ob j ec t .The object of this experim e n t is to obta in the

coo lin g curve of pure lead .
G en er al E xp la n atio n On e of the m ost importan t m ean s of

.
in vestig atin g the properties of pure m etals an d their alloys is by

an exam in atio n of their heatin g an d coolin g curves S uch cu r ves .
are con structed by takin g a sm all portion of the substan ce to

be studied an d observin g an d recordin g the temperature of the
m ass at u n iform in tervals of tim e durin g a n n if or rn heatin g or
coolin g These observation s when plotted in the form of a curve
.
, ,
will Show whether the temperature of the m ass rises or falls

un iform ly with the con tin uous addition or abstraction of heat .
The heat which a body absorbs serves ei ther to raise the tem
p er at u r e of the m ass or cha n ge its physical co n ditio n T h a t .
portion of the heat whi ch results in an in crease in tem perature

”
of the body is c alled sen sible heat in asm uch as such a gain ,
in heat is appare n t to the physical se n ses of the observer P recise .
calorim eter experim en ts have revealed th e fact that the relation

between tem perature an d sen sible heat c an be expressed by a
co n tin uous fun ctio n such as
where H is the total heat required to raise the temperature from

° °
0 to t ,
S is the specific heat of the body m easured at

k is a co n stan t an d ,
t is the fin al temperature of the body .
56
temperature of the water will steadily drop un ti l the freezin g

poin t 0 C is reached A t thi s tim e despite the con stan t
,
°
.
,
.
,
radiatio n of heat in to the colder surrou n din gs the temperature ,
rem ain s at zero un til all the water is chan ged in to ice When th e .
whole mass is en tirely soli dified further radi ation of heat is ,
a gain at the expe n se of the sen sible heat of the ice an d the ,
temperature again falls un til it fin ally arrives at the low tem

p e r atu r e of the refrigera nt D urin g the solidificatio n period
.
,
however the temperature remain s statio n ary an d the radia

,
tio n is at the expen se of the so called laten t heat of fusion -

“ ,
of the ice which equals an am oun t of heat which would

,
raise the temperature of an equal amoun t of water thru an

in terva l of 80 C °
.
The coolin g curve of liquid lead or an y pure m etal n ear the

so lidification poin t is en tirely an alogous to that traced by fr eez
in g water L et a properly in sul ated therm o c oupl eb e imm ersed
.
-
in a cru cib l e of m olten lead which is then al lowed to cool in still

air an d the read in g on the dial recorded every thirty seco n ds
, ,
as follows :
Tim e . Tim e .
These readin gs will appear as shown in Fig 6 when plot ted .
on cross —sectio n paper as ordi n ates to the scale of 1 un it = 1 cm .

,
again st times as absciss a: to the scale of 1 m in ute = 1 cm an d .

,
con n ected with a sm ooth curve Followin g the reason in g given.
in the case of water we kn ow that duri n g the tim e 4 min 30

, .
T HE C O OLI N G C URVE OF A PURE SU B S TAN CE
sec . to 8 mm
the statio n ary temperature den otes the pro
.
,
gr essive solidification of the lead Therefore whatever th e .

,
temperature of the other readin gs n oted m ay sign ify we ,
kn ow that the readin g correspon ds to the m eltin g poin t -
of lead F rom a sim ilar series of observation s m ade with a

.
m ercury or air therm om eter the m eltin g poin t of lead has ,

-
been determin ed to be 3 2 7 C In this in stan ce un its equals

°
.
°
32 7 C .
u —
6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40
Tim e in M in t es a » Tim e I n t er vl
a s
FI G S . 6 an d 7.
—C li g Cu v
oo n r es o f L ad a
e n d A t imo
n n y.
S p ec i al A pp ar atu s . The special apparatus used is as follows

On e 0000 graphite crucible .
Three hu n dred gram s pure lead .
'

I ce .
Charcoal .
EXPERIMEN TAL GRO UP II
Lab oratory E quipm en t . The laboratory equipmen t n eeded

is as follows
Buckin g board -
an d m uller .
CA U T I O N : N ew graphite crucibles should be

P r o c e d ur e .
heated ver y slow ly t h e first tim e they are used R apid hea tin g .
will expel moisture from the crucible walls so rapidly that large
pieces of graphite will be flaked away .
a With a sharp kn ife cut the letters Pb in the side of the

.
,
crucible .
b M elt the lead slowly in a pot furn ace an d when it is

.
,
e n tirely m olten Skim o ff an y floatin g oxide or slag with a splin ter

,
of wood Then fill the rem ain der of the crucible with crushed
.
charcoal A void r aIS mg the tem perature m uch above the

.
m eltin g poin t of the lead or breathin g the f um es arisin g from the

-
pot .
c . P lace
the cover on the pot furn ace S lowly heat the dried .
an d an n ealed therm o couple co n structed in E xperim en t N o

-
7 .
to about the tem perature of the m olten lead in the flam es

issuin g thru the open i n g in the furn ace cover L ower the ho t .
un ctio n in to the ce n ter of the m elt holdi n g the W i res In pos 1tio n
j ,
with a con den ser C lam p an d rin g stan d .
d B en d the therm o —
. couple wires so that the cold j un ction
c an be imm ersed in the ice bath co n structed in E xperim en t
N o 7 an d C
. o n n ect the leads to the electrical m eter R em ove .
the blast lam p as soo n as the hot jun ction attain s the tempera
ture of the bath .
e R ead the dial o n the m eter to o n e ten th u n it at fiftee n

.
-
secon d in tervals record an d plot the observation s in pen cil a s in

, .
Fig 7 Con tin ue the observatio n s to about two un its below

. .
the solidification poin t A fter each readin g the meter may be

.
,
tapped gen tly with the fin g er s to start the n eedle .
f Whe .n the coolin g has proceeded far e n ough m ake sure ,
that the couple is frozen solidly in the m etal by attem ptin g to

lift it out Then light the blast lam p an d heat the crucible
.
slowly at a u n iform rate u n til the lead is again m elted R ead . .

T HE C OOLI N G C URVE OF A PURE SU B S TA N C E 6L
the m eter at i n tervals of fifteen secon ds r eco r d an d plot the heat ,

'
in g curve .
g S hut
. o ff the flam e an d observe an d plot a n other cool in g
curve accordin g to procedure e .
1
k P resen t curves an d data to a laboratory o fficer for in sp ec
.
tio n an d approval .
i: When a satisfactory check has been secured m elt the coup le ,
free from the bath allow the m etal to cool in the crucible rem ove
,
‘
the crucible from the furn ace an d return it to the stock room .
M elt away an y lead adherin g to the in sulation by holdin g it in

the flam e of the blast lam p Cover the couple with a fresh layer.
of cem en t an d lay away to dry over n ight

,
.
Q u e ri e s a D efi
. n e .specific heat What is the u n it of .
heat ?
b The specific heat of a cubic m eter of oxyge n is as follows
.
°
At 0 C .
303 calories .
°
2 00 C = 14
.
3
°
4 00 C = 32 5
.
°
600 C = 336
.
800
°
C =
.
34 7
D erive a form ula of the form

S pecific heat a + bt
to express the data tabulated above .
c What would be the aver age specific heat for the temperature
.
0
in terval between zero an d 1 000 C ? .
d How m uch heat would be required to raise

. cubic m eters
°
of oxyge n from 0 C to 1 000 C ? °
. .
e I f heat were supplied to 1 c u m of oxyg en at the rate of

’
. . .
1 000 calories per seco n d p lot the heatin g curve which wou l d
,
result .
D iscuss the reaso n s w h y the heat in g curve of lead does n o t

f .
give as satisfactory results as a coolin g curve .
I l l m l ng
'
g s .it possib e to cool a liquid be ow its true e ti

62 EX PERIMEN TAL GR OUP I I
poin t ? Is it p ossible to heat a above its true mel tin g

poin t ?
12 S how
. how the sp ecific heat of m o l ten an d solid l ead c an
be compared by a coo li n g curve Can the l aten t heat of fusio n
.
be computed from the curve ?

i What e ff ect wou l d a sm all quan tity of al l oyin g impurity
.
have upon the m elti n g poi n t of the l ead ? What eff ect would
-
a sm all qua n tity of i n soluble impurity have ?

E XP E RI M E N T N O 9 .
T H E RM O C OU P LE CA LIBR A T I ON
-
Ob j ect .The object of this experim en t is to ca librate a

th erm o coup le by kn own fusion temperatures of metals
- .
G en er al E xplan ation I t has been shown in E xperim en t

.
N o 6 that if the resistan ce of the circuit is a co n stan t the

.
,
am oun t of curren t flowin g in a therm o c ouple an d therefore the ,
in dication re gistered on the dial of the electrical in strum en t ,
varies directl y as the n et therm al electrom otive force g en erated

in th e coupl e This resistan ce is very n early con stan t if on e uses
.
the same coup le l eads an d meter an d if the sm all varia tion

, , ,
in resistan ce in th e couple wires due to varyin g temperatures ,
at the hot jun ction may be di sregarded The n et electromotive

,
.
force of the couple is equal to the con tact electrom otive forc e
gen erated at the hot en d min us that gen erated at the cold en d .
In symbo ls
R E T E C
wher e R is the n et electrom otive force of the coupl e E , is th e ,
C o n tact electrom otive force gen erated at the hot en d an d E C ,

.
is th e con tact e l ectromotive force gen erated at the cold en d .
I t w as al so stated that the value of the con tact e l ectro

m otive force was a fu n ctio n of the absolute temperature that is , ,
=
E T f )
(T
=
E C (
f )
C
where T or C absolute temperature of th e hot or co l d e

nd ,
r espec tively .
64 EXPERIME NTAL GRO UP II
When ce substituti n g in I
, ,
R =f (T ) —f (C)
A
gen eral equatio n which exactly expresses the relatio n s b e
tween n + 1 experim en tal determ in atio n s of equal accuracy is
E T
=
f )
(T
"‘
E A .C
where A O A 1 A 2 A 3 ,
are n um erical coeffi cien ts the
, , ,
sam e in both expan sio n s because E is the sam e fun ctio n of , T
T that E C is of C .
S ubstitutin g in E quatio n IV an d collecti n g
v . R =E .
+A 4 (T 4 —C4 ) +
Nsubstitute for the absolute temperatures T an d C their

ow
equivalen ts t + 2 7 3 an d c + 2 7 3 where t an d c are expressed in ,
the ordin ary cen tigrade scale E xpan din g after this sub .
stitu tio n an d collecti n g like powers of the variable s t an d c

, ,
VI . R = (t A
-
2
-A 3
-2 2
73
—
—
l4 -A
4
-2
73 +
3
+ (t
2
+ (t
3
+ (t
4
will be n oticed that the quan tities m ultiplyin g the te rm s

It
— z —z
( ) (
t c t ,
c ).
co n sist of n u m erical values o n ly who s e ,
sums c an be replaced by other co n stan ts such as p q r

’
, ,
.
This is really to be expected in asm uch as the substitution of ,
c + 2 7 3 for C et c m erely shifts the origin of coor din ates 2 7 3

,
.
,
u n its to the right an d the degree an d form of the equa tion is

,
u n affected by such an operation as is well kn own from an alytical ,
geom e try E quation VI then becom es

.
V II . R = p (t —c) -
q (t2—6 ) + r
2
(i3 —3
c ) —
l s (t4 —4
c ) -
66 EX PERIMEN TAL GRO UP II
Sb
u st a n c e . B li
oi n g- p o in t . F r e e z in g -p o in t .
S ulfu r .
S ilv e r .
C pp
o er . .
Li thiu m m et asil ic a te
D i p id
o s e
N ic k l e . .
For the purpose of this experim en t pure lead an d comm o n ,
salt (N aCl) will be used to determ in e the coeffi cien ts p an d q

,
.
The coo lin g curve of lead already dete rm in ed in E xperim en t

N o 8 will give on e set of data while a correspo n din g coolin g
.
,
curve of salt gives the relation in this hypothetical in stan ce , ,

°
of un its = 800 C .
Tw o in depen den t relation s between the m eter readin g an d a

fixed tempe rature have been discovered in this m an n er The se .
values substituted in E quation IX will give
F or lead , 5
F or salt ,
12
which gives a pair of simultan eous equation s m p an d q S olv

—
.
=
in g the values p + 0 0 1 69 an d c = o 00000 1 1 5 are foun d .
, .
,
an d the equatio n of the calibration curve for thi s particular
couple is completely determin ed as

R 0 0 1 69 t
. 1 si z
.
Values of R c an n ow be calculated for each hun dred degrees

i n terval from this equation an d plotted as illustrated in Fig 8 , . .
TH ERMO C OUPLE CA L I B RATI ON
-
67
S pe cial A pparatu s . The special apparatus n eeded is as

foll ows
O n e 0000 graphite crucible .
O n e soun d I o gm clay crucible -

. .
Three hun dred gr am s pure salt .
Three hu n dred gram s pure an tim o n y .
ll v l t m t
Mi i o e er R ead in g s
FI G . 8 —C lib ti Cu v
. a ra on r e of Th er mo- C u pl
o e .
Ic e .
Charcoal .
L ab or ator y E qu ip mt en . The laboratory equipm en t n eeded

13 as fo llows
Buckin g—
bo a rd an d muller .
With a sharp kn ife c u t the letters S b

P r o c ed u r e . a .
,
in the side of the grap hi te crucible con tain in g the an ti

m on y .
elt the salt con tain ed in the C l ay crucib l e slowly in a

b M .
pot furn ace but avoid heatin g the crucible much above t he
,
m elti n g poi n t of the salt A t high temperatures the m aterial

-
.
readily volatilizes an d is so labile as to easily work its way

thru checks in the crucible walls .
c Follow procedure c to h in clusive of E xperim en t N o 8

. .
,
taki n g care n o t to cool the crucibl e m ore than 1 00 below the °
solidificatio n poin t of the salt u n til the work has been i n spected ,
an d a S ubdivide t h e duties amon g the squad a ri d plot

i ' ‘
c cep t ed
"
the coolin g curve as in d below .
d Follow procedure b t o i in clusive of E xperim e n t N o 8

. .
with the crucible of an tim o n y an d plot as shown in Fig 7 ,

.
,
p 59 where the tim e scale has been co n tracted In such

.
,
.
a plot it is u n n ecessary an d u n desirable to co n n ect th e

poin ts by a curve as the poin ts them selves in dicate its co urse ,
excellen tly well A pe n cil dot is even better than t he sm all .
circle In this work assign on e member of the squad to read

.
the m eter an other to call tim e in tervals an d record the read

,
in gs the third to plot the readin gs as they are read with a pen cil
,
on cross sectio n paper (Fig 7 p -

an d the fourth to atte n d .
,
.
the furn ace an d therm o couple -

.
a Compute the values of the coe ffi cien ts p an d q

.
in E quati on IX for your therm o couple usi n g the values -

,
obtain ed by the m elti n g poin ts of lead an d salt Write -

.
the equatio n of the calibration curve as an explicit fun ctio n

of R .
b U sin g this equatio n compute the readin g for th e m elt

.
,
in g poin t of an tim o n y
-
.
c Tran sform the equation of the calibration curve in to an

.
explicit fun ction of t Check the value obtain ed in qu ery .
b by m ean s of thi s equation I t should agree with the readin g .
obtain ed in procedure d within the least co un t of the m eter

dial .
d Co m pute values of R for each hu n dred degrees an d draw

.
,
a calibration curve with In dia in k followin g closely the style ,
an d form of Fig 8 . .
THERMO C OUPLE C ALI B RATI ON
-
69
e . What would be the readin g on the meter if the hot en d

°
were at 9 00 C an d the cold en d in boilin g water ?
.
f. I f the te m perature of the cold en d were disregarded ,
what would be the apparen t temperature in dicated in e?

g What
. is the cause of the supercooli n g e ff ect n oticed
in th e an timon y curve ? How c an it be preve n ted ?
XP E RI M E N T
.
E N O . 10
LE A D A N T I M O NY A LL O Y S
-
O b j ect The object of this experim en t is to con struct the

.
equilibrium diagram of the lead an tim o n y system

-
.
G en e r al E xplan atio n (N.otes o n the co mm ercial importan ce

of these alloys m ay be foun d in Gulliver s M etallic A lloys ’
PD 4 6 an d
S everal di ff ere n t lead —

an tim o n y alloys c an be m elted an d
their cooli n g curves obtai n ed as in E xperim e n t N o 8 These . .
alloys may vary in composition from pure lead con t ain in g n o

an tim on y thru alloys of lead con tainin g in creasin g am oun ts
,
of an tim on y up to the limit represen ted by pure an tim o n y itself .
A s w e have already n oted (p a sudden discon tin uity or

”
.
arrest in these cooli n g curves is eviden ce that a con siderable

proportio n of the con stan tly ra di atin g en ergy is supplied by
laten t (n o t sen sible) heat Thi s heat m ay be produced by an y
.
o n e of a variety of physical or chem ical cha n ges in the body un der
observation ; an d a complete study of an alloy system in volves ,
am o n g other thin gs the location an d explan atio n of all chan ges

-
,
in the state of all possible alloys in that seri es The relation s .
between temperature compositio n an d co n stitution obtain ed

, ,
in such a study c an be represe n ted grap hi cally upo n coordin ate

paper in what is called an equilibrium diagram .
The equilibrium con dition s of the lead an tim o n y series -
may be Sim plified by a con sideration of the coolin g curves of a

series of solution s of ordin ary table salt N aCl in water We
, ,
.
will call thi s series of alloys the water salt system These -
.
two system s are typical of an im portan t an d comm on family

—
of alloys alike in that the compon en ts lead an d an tim on y
—
or water an d salt respectively form n o com pou n ds with each
,
70
LEAD AN
-
TIM ON Y ALLOYS 71
other an d are perfectly soluble in the liquid state but totally

,
in soluble in the solid In other words lead an d an tim on y

.
,
(or water a n d salt ) alloy perfectly whe n liquid but upo n so l id ,
ifi c ation separate in to a cem en ted mixture of min ute crystals

,
of pure lead an d of pure an tim o n y (or pure water an d pure salt) .
The coo lin g cu rve of pure water will give a horizo n tal arrest
°
at 0 C correspon din g to the freezin g of water in to ice A
. .
coolin g curve of a solution con sistin g of 1 0 per cen t salt an d

°
9 0 per ce n t water will show the first break n o t at 0 C but at .
,
—4 C This arrest is n o t a horiz on tal portion of a curve as is the

°
.
case in a p ure substan ce (E xperim en t N o but m erely a chan ge .
in the direction I n sp ection of the solution shows at this sam e

.
in stan t the appearan ce of the first min ute crystals of solid ,
an d therefore thi s chan g e in di rectio n of the coolin g curve is
in terpreted to m ean that at that in stan t an d thereafter on ly a

p ar t of the radiatin g heat is furn ished by the sen sible heat of
th e mass an d the balan ce is furn ished at the expen se of the
,
la ten t heat of fusi on of the solidifyin g substan ce .
In fact the m ass does n o t solidify at a co n stan t temperature ;

—
but at 4 C the first few crystal s separate out of the liquid
.
,
an d p rove on an alysis to co n sist of pure water in the form of
ice The presen ce of th e salt in the solutio n has eviden tly

.
lowered the freezin g poin t of the water This phen om en o n

-
.
E xperim en t N o 5:
“
mi ght have been predicted from the gen eralization stated in
,
G iven two pure substan ces the m eltin g

.
,
poin t of either is l owered by the addition of certain quan tities

of the other ” .
Within limi ts the amoun t of this depressio n of the freezin g

,
poin t varies directly with the am oun t of salt in the solution .
A s the first crystals of pure water form there rem ain s behin d ,
a liquid (m other liquor) which p ossesses a correspon din gly

‘
less am o un t of liquid water an d therefore co n tain s a higher ,
percen tage of salt Co n sequen tly the freezin g poin t of thi s

.
-
richer salt solution is lower than that of the origin al an d other ,
crystals of ice cann ot separate out u n til further coolin g lowers

th e sen sible temperature of the en tire mass to the freezin g
72 EX PERIMEN TAL GR O UP II
poin t of this m ore co n cen trated salt solutio n B y the selective .
solidificatio n of the water (an d co n sequen t removal of these

crystals of water from the liquid) the residual mother liquor
becom es richer an d richer in salt an d the tem perature at which ,
crystallizatio n takes place falls further an d further There .
must be a lim it to this short of produci n g pure salt for sa lt ,
“
solidifies at 800 C Thi s lim it may be co n sidered as bein g
0
.
the true saturated solution an d is fin ally reached at the ,
temperature of — 22 C when the whole rem ai n i n g liquid

°
.
,
solidifies at a co n stan t temperature an d this fact is shown o n ,
the coolin g curve by a horizon tal portio n .
S hould the ice crystals form in g from such a solutio n be

rem oved as rapidly as they freeze the rem ain in g m other liquor ,
which solidifies as a pure substan ce would be fou n d on an alysis

to con sist of per cen t salt an d per cen t water ‘
.
O ther salt co n cen tratio n s will produce S imil ar freezin g

curves A ssum e the solution to be 1 5 per cen t salt an d 8 5 per
.
cen t water ; the process is strictly an alogous except that the ,
first ice crystals freeze out at a still lower temperature (about

—9 °
which in deed is to be expected The solutio n r e
, ,
.
m ai n in g liquid to the last left behin d by the solidificatio n of ,
m ore an d m ore water co n geals as before at the co n sta n t tempera

,
—
ture of 2 2 C an d possesses the sam e composition i e 2 3 5
°
.
, ,
. .
,
.
per cen t salt an d 7 6 5 per cen t water. .
I f a solution origin ally possess this limitin g compositio n it

—
,
°
has on ly on e freezin g poin t which is at 2 2 C Thi s coolin g
-
, .
curve will look like the coolin g curve of a pure substan ce an d ’

,
Show a horizon tal arrest at that temperature S olutio n s whi ch .
co n tain m ore than 2 3 5 per cen t of salt have coolin g curves exactly
.
sim ilar to solution s poor in salt ; that is they possess an arrest ,
(or m ore correctly a chan ge in directio n ) at om e temperature

,
<
—
,
°
higher than 22 C as well as a horizo n tal arrest at that
.
temperature For in stan ce a con cen tratio n of 2 7 per ce n t salt

.
,
an d 7 3 per cen t water begi n s to deposit crystals of pure salt
at its first arrest The rem ain in g mother liquor con se q uen tly
.
becom es p oor er in salt u n til the an alysis 2 3 5 per cen t sa l t .

,
74 EX PERIMEN TAL GRO UP II
sm ooth co n n ecti n g curves drawn N otation s have been made o n

.
the lin es an d areas of thi s equilibrium diagram which are self

eviden t in the light of the previous discussio n an d a brief ,
con sideratio n will in dicate how the di agram shows the physical
con ditio n of every possible solution of salt an d water at an y
F IG .
9 .
—T h e Water -
Salt E quilib r iu m D i ag m
ra .
con ceivable temperature the pressure rem ain in g co n stan t at o n e

,
atm osphere .
This simple case is given at som e len gth as an example

of equi librium con di tio n s an d diagram s because as men tion ed ,
at the outset it is typical of m ost of the importan t m etallic

,
alloys an d because it is m ade from the freezin g m ixtures so

,
comm on in the household ic e cre am freezer The un derlin ed

-
. .
V (M ) is an elem e n t recogn iz ed in eve n the m ost co mplica ted

.
equilibrium dia gram s .

L E AD AN
- TIM ON Y AL LOYS 75
S pe cial A ppar atu s . The special apparatus n eeded is as
follows :
The followin g will be issued to altern ate squads ,

w h o will
in terchan ge them as n eeded
Four 0000 graphite crucibles .
On e 500 -
gm butto n of each
. of the following
Sb 6 per cen t Pb 9 4 per cen t

Sb Pb
Sb 25 Pb 75
S b 50 Pb 50
S upplies . The supp lies n eeded are as follows

Ic e .
Charcoal .
Lab or ator y E quipmen t . The l aboratory equipm en t n eeded is

as follows :
B uckin g board -
an d mul l er .
P r o c e d ur e With a sharp kn ife cu t a n um ber in the side

. a .
of the crucibles correspo n din g to the p ercen tag e of a n tim o n y

co n ta in ed in the alloys .
b M elt the alloy slowly in a pot furn ace u n der a heavy

.
cover of fin e Charcoal A void raisin g the temperature m uch .
above the temperatures given below or breathin g the fumes ,
risin g from the pot .
per 6 cen t an tim on y alloy , 350

°
C
1 2 5 per
. cen t an tim on y alloy , 3 50
2 5 per cen t an tim o n y alloy , 4 50
5 per
0 cen t an timo n y alloy ,
600
c . P lace the cover

the pot furn ace S lowly heat the on .
ther mo couple ju n ction to about the temperature of the m el t

-
in th e flam es issuin g thru the open in g in the furn ace cove r .

76 EXPERIME NTAL GR O U P II
L ower the hot jun ction in to the cen ter of the m elt an d hold it
there with a co n den ser Clam p an d rin g stan d .
d Imm erse the cold ju n ctio n in the ic e bath an d co nn ect

. .
,
the leads to the m eter R em ove the blast lam p as soon as the
.
hot jun ctio n registers the temperature of the bath .
6. R ead the dial on the m eter to on e ten th un it at fifteen -
seco n d in tervals ; record an d plot the observation s u n til the tem

f
°
p er a t u r e has falle n to 2 00 C A ter each readi ng

. the m eter ,
m ay be tapped gen tly with the fin gers to preven t the n eedle from
laggi n g D urin g the early part of the coolin g m ove the the r m o
.
,
couple back an d forth in the m elt horizon tally usin g it as a ,
stirrin g rod to preven t segregation of the alloy B e careful .
n o t to lift the welded u n ctio n above the ce n ter of the m elt

j .
When the alloy becom es m ushy fix the jun ction at the cen ter of ,
the m elt with the Clamp .
f. The ti m e tem perature-

curve co n structed a s above is n o t
well adapted to show sm all evolutio n s of heat in an alloy
”
.
C on struct an in verse rate curve for the alloy (which will .
m agn ify the chan ges in directio n of the cooli n g curve) as follows :
R em elt the alloy an d cool with con stan t stirrin g as in p r o c e
,
dure e P ost on e of the squad m embers n ear the m eter with a

.
watch an d have him read an d n ote the time to a seco n d whe n

the meter n eedle reaches each half un it When the coolin g is -
.
fin ished sub tract each tim e readin g from its imm ediate pre
,
decessor ; the differen ce will give th e tim e required to cool the

'
alloy thru on e half un it or the rate of coolin g at that tem

-
,
p er a t u r e P lot these
. rates agai n st m eter readi n gs an d co n n ect ,
with a sm ooth curve .
g P
. rese n t both curves to a laboratory officer for i n spectio n
an d approval .
12 When a satisfactory check has been secured m elt the

.
,
couple free from the bath an d allow the m etal to cool in the c r u
,
cible M elt away an y alloy adherin g to the i n sulation by

.
holdin g it in the flame of the blast lamp E xami n e the i n sula .
tio n carefully for breaks an d repair it with retort cemen t if

,
n ecessary .
LE AD AN
-
TIM ON Y ALLO YS 77
i . R epeat the above procedure c to i i n clusive for each of

the four alloys .
j .A t the en d of the day cover the couple with a fresh

,
layer of in sulatin g cemen t an d lay away to dry over n ight .
Q u e ri e s a . M ake an equilibriu
. m diagra m of the lead
a n tim o n y system with I n dia in k on stan dard cross section paper -
,
usin g the exact form of Fig 9 The data for this diagram has . .
been derived in E xperim en ts N os 8 9 an d 1 0 P lot the S hore .

,
.
scleroscope hardn ess (E xperim en t N o 1 3) for each alloy an d the .
pure m etals on thi s diagram an d conn ect the plots with a red ,
lin e
.
b E xplain the reason s for th e action whi ch occurs whe n

.
On e strews salt on an ic y sidewalk Would thi s expedien t .
rem ove ic e at an y tem perature ?

c . Give som e practical application s of the lead an timon y
a lloys .
d S how the derivatio n of the followin g from the equilib

.
r ium diagram : 1 st What is the state of a 40 per cen t lead

, ,
60 per cen t an timo n y alloy at 4 50

°
C ? 2 d What is the .
,
composition of the m other liquor when this alloy has cooled to

m m m
°
3 52 C ? 3d
. How ,
uch a n ti o n y per gra of the alloy , ,
°
has crystalliz ed out when it has cooled to 2 7 5 C ? 4 th How .
,
m uch eutectic per gram wi ll appear when this alloy is en tirely

, ,
soli di fied ?
e S uppose the eutectic to be a chemical co mpou n d
. figure ,
a formula for it .
FO R E W O RD T 0 T HE S T U DE N T
Group III con tain s a n umber of experim en ts of rather gen eral

application They have been separated from G roup I sin ce
.
,
it is im portan t that the studen t learn the elem en ts of pyrom etry

as soo n as possible Then too som e of the experim en ts will
.
, ,
probably n o t be perform ed by all studen ts A s an in stan ce ; .
E xperim en t N o 1 4 on electric furn aces m ay b e c on fin ed to

'
E lectrical E n gin eerin g studen ts O ther experim en ts will form

.
th e basis of exte n sive adva n ced work for m etallur gic al s pecial i
ists such as E xperim en ts N os 1 1 an d 1 2 on m etallography an d

,
.
,
photom icrography .
E xperim en t N o 1 3 coverin g hard n ess is presen ted in this

.
, ,
place rather than In a course on the stren gth of m aterials chiefly ,
—
because it is of m ost value in the testin g of heat treated too ls
an d m achin e parts .
E xperim en t N o 1 5 on radiatio n an d optical pyro m etry is

.
separated from G roup II m ore be cause of the rather special an d

complex u n derlyin g theory than of the difficulty of their m an ip u
,
lation A t some tim e in the course each studen t S hould h a

.
,
ve
an opportu n ity to ha n dle these rem arkable i n strum en ts of
CIS l O Il .
M E T A LL O G RA P HY
O b j ect The object of this experim en t is to examin e the
”
.
i n tern al structure co n stitutio n ) of m etallic substan ces .
G en er al E xplan ation The use of the microscope to examin e

.
th e co n stitutio n of m etals is a lo n g step in adva n ce of the a n cien t

practice of breaki n g a bar an d lookin g at the fracture I t .
off ers a mean s whereby the apparen t size of the grain s m ay b e

m a gnified to an y desired degree up to the limits of m icroscopic .
en largemen t altho a m oderate magn ificatio n will usually

,
suffice to brin g out th e str u c tu r e excellen tly well F or the great

i
bulk of routin e work theref ore a low priced len s outfit co n sist
, ,
-
in g of two objectives an d two eyepieces (givin g m agni ficatio n

of 50 diam eters 7 5 diameters 1 00 diam eters an d 1 50 diam
, , ,
et er s) is all that is required .
E xcellen t m icroscopes have been built especially for m etal

logr ap hi c work but an or din ary biological m icroscope c an be
,
easily adapted to the examin atio n of m etals M etallographic .
work requi r es an uni que m ethod of illumin a tion as it deals with ,
op aqu e objects an d the substage illum in ator used by the bio lo

,
gist in examin i n g tr an sp ar en t sectio n s by tran smitted light is

con sequen tly of n o service The attachm en t takes the form.
of a vertical illum in ator or plan e glass reflector screwed -
in to the draw tube of the microscope between the eyepiece an d

the objective This reflector con sists merely of a prism or
.
plate of glass m ou n ted on a horiz o n tal pivot an d capable of ,

.
adjustm en t in such a way as to reflect a beam of light from an

outside source down thru th e len se s of the objective up on g the »
specim en un der exam in atio n from whi ch the ligh t is then r e

,
flec ted directly bac k thru the optical system to the eye .
79
80 EXPERIMEN TAL GRO UP III
For this reaso n the surface of the specim en must be prepared

,
so as to have a reflectin g surface S oft m etals an d alloys should

.
be first sm oothed o with a ff fi n —

e toothed file well oiled ; o n ly ,
hard m etals should be placed o n the em ery wheel The sam ple s .
are then grou n d on can vas covered disks charged with abrasive
-
powders of successive degrees of fin en ess or on fin est em ery ,
paper ran gin g from 0 to 0000 laid over a plate glass F in al

, ,
.
’
polishin g is don e on a w et broadcloth covered disk usi n g jeweler s -
rouge as an abrasive .
The method of m oun tin g a specim en so that the poli shed

surface is parallel to the stage an d therefore perpen dicular to
the optical axis of the microscope is an importan t an d often
tim es a troublesom e detail The m ethod shown in procedure f
.
is sim ple an d highly satisfactory for m od er ate siz ed specim en s ~

~
The methods outlin ed above will give a surface free fro m

scratches an d brightly reflectin g but will n o t gen e r ally brin g
,
out the in tern al structure Where the alloy con sists of hard
.
an d soft particles ,
the fin al polishin g on a soft cloth disk will
—
often differen tiate between the co n stituen ts by relief the harder
con stituen t withstan din g erosion while the softer is depressed
, .
O rdin arily however it is n ecessary to etch the surface with

, ,
acids which corrode on e con stituen t more rapidly than the other .
O bviously u n corroded parts of the surface still brightly reflect

,
light an d will appear bright or whi te u n der the microscope ;

other parts which have been corroded will appear gray to
black depen din g upo n the am oun t of in ciden t light whi ch is
,
dispersed or absorbed O r again on e m ay produce diff eren ces

.
, ,
due to n atural coloratio n s in the alloy or due to selective st ain ,
in g by the corrosive m edium .
Further an d detailed description s of the m etallurgi cal micro
c an be foun d in
“
scope an d m ethods for preparation an d examin ation of section s
The M etallography an d Heat Treatm en t of
”
I ron an d S teel by A lbert S auveur Chapters I to III in c lu ,
Si ve
.
S p ec i al A pparatu s The special apparatus n eeded is as fol

.
lows :
82 EXPERIME N TAL GRO UP III
mold . S aw a cub e of m etal from this butto n about 3 in ,

. on a
side .
b M ake up the tr im mmgs from thi s an timon y button in to

.
an alloy C on tain in g 3 per cen t P b 9 7 per cen t S b by m eltin g , ,
the more refractory m etal an d then carefully addin g the m ore

fusible substan ce S tir well with a splin ter of wood an d cast
.
,
quickly in to a clean warm button mold C A U T I O N : G uard

,
.
again st spittin g or explosion s when addin g cold m etal to a

m elt D o n o t heat the metal much above the m eltin g poin t
.
-
.
c O il a fin e toothed file an d sm ooth On e surface of each

.
-
sample flat .
d G ri n d off the file m arks by rubbin g lightly bac k an d fo r th

.
on a piece of 0 em ery paper laid over a piece of plate gl ass .
Hold an d m ove the sample in such a way that the m otio n w ill be
at right an gles to th e scratches left by the prece din g operation .
P olish u n til these scratches are elim in ated

e Con tin ue the process from fin er to fin er p apers lastly
.
,
polishin g on a piece of wet broadcloth stretched over the p late

an d m oiste n ed with rouge Wash the specim en an d han ds before
.
tran sferr in g to a fin er em ery bein g very careful to preven t coarse

,
grit from lodgin g on a fin er paper for S hould thi s occur deep , ,
scratches will be cut in to the m etal which c an n o t be readily

polished off P reserve the abrasive fabrics by placin g them in to
.
separate en velopes .
f M
. ou n t the speci m e n in a sm a ll brass cup which has the
top edge an d bottom surface milled precisely p arallel P artly .
fill the cup with sm all lead shot lay in the specim en with polished ,
face upperm ost an d p ress it down in to the shot wi th a cover

,
glass u n til the glass rests upon the top of the cup .
g S e t
. up the m icroscope as follows : S crew the p la n e g lass
reflector A (Fig 1 0 ) in to the top of the objective B an d then
.
screw the com bin ation in to the bottom of t h e draw tube C .
P lace an eyepiece D in to the top of the draw tube selectin g ,
such a combin atio n of ocular an d obj ective as will give a m agn ifi

cation o f about 50 diam eters P lace the brass m oun tin g Cup .
‘
on th e stage E brin gin g the specim en i n to approxim ate focus b y

'
,
M E TALLO GRA P H Y 83
thumbscrew F Then adjust an in can descen t ca dle lamp

. n -
at the level of the open in g in the plan e glas sreflector an d at the ,
focus of an in terven in g con den sin g l en s which will project a

parallel beam of light in to the reflector Turn the reflectin g .
glass by m eans of thum b n u t G u n til a bright spot of light

appear s on the sam ple Then place the eye at the ocular D an d
.
focus exactly by the stage pin o n F an d the microm eter screw H .
F IG . 10
—M etallog r aph ic
. M ic r oscope
.
h E .xamin e both specim en s in this m an n er n otin g an y ,
diff eren ce in their appearan ce .
3
. E tch the po lished specim en of pure a n tim o n y as follows
P lace 5 c u cm of co n cen trated H N 03 in a sm all porcelai n
. .
‘
crucible an d heat over a Bu n sen flam e placed in a hood D rop
,
.
the specim e n carefully i n to the hot acid so that the po lished face
is exposed to its attack for five seco n ds Then stop the actio n .
an d wash o ff the specim e n by holdi n g the crucible u n der ru n ni n g

84 EXPERIM E N TAL GR O UP III
water The surface is n ow covered by a white crust of in s o luble

.
an tim o n ic acid which c an be rem oved by a very light polishi n g

,
o n the rouge covered broadcloth

-
.
j. E xa m in e the whole surface carefully u n der the m icro

scope observin g whether the boun daries of the crystallin e grain s
,
are well defin ed I f n o t repeat procedure i un til the sam ple is

.
,
regarded as satisfactory by the i n structor .
13 R epeat procedure i an d j with the lead an tim o n y alloy

.
-
.
1 D raw the appeara n ce of each specim en on a stan dard

.
sheet of blan k paper with a hard S harp pen cil N ote below ,
.
F er r ite
F IG . 1 1 .
—Fr ee H an d M ic g ph
ro ra of W ugh t I
ro r on .
each sketch the m aterial m agn ificatio n an d etchin g N ame th e

, ,
.
various structural co n stituen ts occurri n g in the field an d in dica te

their positio n by arrows These S ket hes should be carefu lly . c
don e by each studen t in di vidually som ewhat like Fig 1 1 an d ,

.
,
they must be accepted by the in structor before the studen t leaves

the laboratory .
Q u e ri e s a W
.h y do the
.
crystalli
. n e grai n s of pure a n timo n y
i n terlock with each other developin g n o Clearly defin ed facet s ? ,
b What is the di ff eren ce between a crystallin e body an d an

.
am orphous body ? How do you kn ow that these m etallic grain s

have a true crystallin e structure ?
M E TALL O GRAP H Y 85
c The min ute b l ack spots appeari n g u n der the microscope

.
in the lead an tim on y alloy m ay be on e of these thi n gs :

-
I st , P ure
lead .
2 d, A lead an tim o n y a lloy

-
.
d
3 , A cavity .
4 th , A n impurity .
Which of these thin gs is it an d why ? ,
d O n e an d three ten ths gram s of lead were added to a

.
-
crucible con tain in g gm a n ti m o n y A fter .cast in g .it ,
w as a n alyzed an d fo un d to co n tain per cen t lead E x .
pl ain the reaso n for the m etal losse s an d in dicate m ethods to

preve n t it .
e What i n flue n ce will the rate of coolin g have upo n the

.
size of the crystallin e grain s ?

f .What c an you sa y fro m the results of this experi m e n t
about the mu tual so l ubi lity of lead an d an tim o n y ?
PHO T O M I CR OG RA P HY
O b j e ctThe object of this experim en t is to photograph the
.
co n stitutio n of a metallic substan ce .
G en e ral E xpl an ati on E xperim en t N o 1 1 m en tio n ed the ad

. .
van tages of microscopic examin ation of m etalli c structure I t is .
just as desirable to m ake a perm an en t record of the appearan ces

thus revealed The advan tages of these records are that they
.
m ay be in defin itely m ultiplied min utely studied an d compared

,
at leisure an d at distan t tim es an d places A s in the case of .

'
astron om y the p hotographic plate may even revea l min ute

,
details otherwise un seen .
O f course the m ethod of photo g rap hi c m an ipulatio n will

,
vary wi th the kin d of apparatus whi ch in turn depen ds up on the

,
ideas used by the m akers In gen eral however the procedure

.
, ,
is as follows : The specim en is polished etched m oun ted an d , , ,

.
exam in ed as directed in E xperim en t N o 1 1 When an area . .
deem ed proper to photograph is foun d the ocular is replaced by a ,
suitable projection len s an d a light tight conn ection m ade to a

,
-
camera box This box is supported firm ly in such a way that the
.
back is at right an gles to the op tica l axi s of the microscope .
B y liftin g or lowerin g the stage the im age is then focused on

th e groun d glass plate which form s the bac k of the cam era
box A loaded plate holder n ow replaces the groun d glass an d
.
,
the plate is exposed the p r op er len gth of time developed an d , ,
prin ted by the ordin ary m ethods of photo g raphic m an ipula tion .
P erson al experien ce alon e can perfect t h e min ute detail s

n ecessary to the productio n of un iform ly good photo g raphs .
F or this reason o n ly gen eral in struction s c an be given which

, ,
may be m odified to meet the co n ditio n s of in dividual Cases .
86
P H OTO MI C RO GRAP H Y
O rthochrom atic , slow plates (or process plates) are best

,
for two reaso n s : first a slow plate will reproduce m uch m ore
,
m in ute details than a fast plate ; an d seco n d extrem e care ,
is n ecessary to preven t foggin g of fast plates duri n g loadin g ,
exposure an d developmen t A ray filter of colored glass in serted

.
between the lamp an d plan e glass reflector will furni sh m o n o

chrom atic light wh ich will give a n egative with great con trast
,
.
In ten se light is n eeded for high m agn ification s which also in , ,
g en eral require a lon ger exposure than low powers

,
.
The tim e of exposure is govern ed by the n ature of the source

of li ght the speed of the plate the m agn ificatio n an d th e color
, , ,
an d co n trast in the sample I t therefore varies so widely that it

.
is impossible to give an y useful rule for its computatio n The .
best way to arrive at the correct tim e for given con ditio n s is to
expose a trial plate en echelon as follows : D raw out the s lide
shutter from in fro n t of the p late an d expose for a certain meas
,
u r ed n umber of seco n ds which is so m ewhat l ess tha n the expected

,
tim e n ecessary P ush in the shutter to cover about on e fifth

.
—
of the plate cuttin g off the light as the s lide is pushed in Then
,
.
expose for an other m easured in terva l of tim e Con tin ue the .
exposure strip by strip in this fashion thus givi n g to the middle

,
strip that tim e estimated to be correct When the plate is de .
velop ed ,
the in ten sity of the n egative will vary strip wise -
,
an d it will at o n ce furn ish an in dex of the best exp o sure

.
.
The un der exposed strips wi ll be thin an d tran sparen t those

-
,
exposed correctly wil l be den se an d rich in co n trast while the ,
over exp osed strips will presen t a fogge d appearan ce

-
.
The proper developm en t of the plate furn ishes a perman en t

n egative from whi ch an in de fin ite n umber of prin ts c an be m ade .
Co n tact pri n tin g papers c an be purchased in a great variety of

g rades suitab l e for a wide ran ge of n egatives from stron g to
weak A proper selectio n will furn ish prin ts which are brillian t
.
an d vi g orous in their gradatio n s from black to whi te

,
These .
papers m ay have a rough or sm ooth matte fin ish or a glossy ,
surfa ce , the bril lian cy of which m ay be heighten ed by glazin g .
D irec tions for exposure developm en t an d fixin g vary with

,
88 EX P ERIMEN TAL GRO UP 111
the ki n d of paper in use ; the pri n ted di rectio n s accom pan yin g
the supplies may be followed In case the comm ercial tube
.
developers do n o t give the desired results (as is ofte n tim es th e

case ) the followi n g developer recomm en ded by L eitz m ay be
advan tageously employed :
Water ,
M etol,
S odium su lfit e ,
H ydroquin o n e ,
P otash ,
P otassium brom ide ,
D issolve in the exact order in which they are n am ed an d dilute ,
with three parts of water N o m ore of this developer should

.
be m ade than is to be used at on e tim e .
The followin g tips m ay be of service : Weak n egatives are

due to u n der exposure if the n egatives are thin with clear
-
“
—
shadows but to un der developm en t if the detail is obscured by
,
shadows F ogged n egatives m ay be due to an un safe dark

.
room a leaky cam era box or plate holder prolon ged over
, ,
—
exposure o r over developm en t or warm developer Y ellow
,
.
stain s on n egative are due to in su fficien t rin sin g before fix in g ,
or to stale solution s B listers on the gelatin e are due to warm

.
solutio n s ; use cracked ic e in solution s an d harden with an

alum bath Halatio n is caused by light passin g thru the
.
em ulsion an d bein g reflected from the clear S ide D eposits .
o n n egatives are usually due to cloudy solutio n s or di rty w as h
water an d m ay be rem oved by rubbin g the dry n egative with

,
cotto n m oisten ed with alcohol .
Correctly exposed prin ts will develop to a proper poin t an d

then stop A llowin g the prin t to rem ain in the solution will
.
cause yellow stain s Flat muddy prin ts are usually due to

.
over exposure ; use a harder grade of paper to fit the n egative .
S pots on prin t s m ay be due to air bubbles on the surface of th e

prin t durin g developm en t or to abrasio n of t h e sen sitive coatin g
,
90 EXPERIME NTAL GRO UP III
Three eighth in ch cube of

-
50 per cen t P b , 50 p er c en t Sb
alloy .
Ic e .
P iece of cotton .
Tube of prin t deve l oper .
B ox of twelve process plates .
E n velope of 1 2 hard photographic prin tin g papers .
E n velope of 1 2 pieces K odak dry m ou n ti n g tissue .
M allo graphy R oo m E quipmen t The equipm en t

et . n eed ed in
the metallography room is as follows
Warm air blast .
E lectric fl at iro n -
.
G raduate .
S tan d of brass pin s .
O il c an with cylin der oil .
Vise .
A n alytical balan ce an d weights .
D ark room equipped with ruby light work table , ,
box an d sin k .
D evelopin g solution N o 1 .
Water ,
Dry N aQ S O ?
Hydroquin o n e ,
D evelopin g solution N o . 2
Water ,
1 liter
N aO H , 1 1 gm .
KB r , gm .
F ixin g solution of commercial acid fixin g powder .
S aturated solutio n of alum .

P H OTO MI C R O GRAP HY 91
Clearin g solutio n
Water ,
1 liter
Citric acid , 4 gm .
A lum , 4 0 gm .
P r oced ur e surface of the al loy accordin g

. a . P olish on e
to E xperim en t N o 1 1 procedure 6 to e i n clusive .

,
.
6 Open the box of plates in the dark room o n ly lon g en ough

.
to rem ove on e plate D isti n guish between the sen sitive an d bare
.
side of the plate by touch or by observi n g the reflection of the ,
ruby lamp usin g the plate as a m irror The bare side will
,
.
reflect sharply while t h e coated side will show as thru a fog

,
- .
N um ber the plates serially an d also write your in i tials on on e ,
corn er of the em ulsio n coated side with a sharp lead pen cil -
.
L oad the plate holder with the sen sitive side n ext to the slide
shutter closin g the fro n t of the fram e
,
.
6 M ou n t the specim en u n der the microscope (procedure f

.
an d g E xperim en t N o
,
an d select so m e regio n where the .
prim ary crystals are sharply form ed an d the structure of the ,
eutectic cemen t is clearly discern ible R eplace the ocular by .
the projectio n len s an d fix the cam era box ri gidly above the
,
microscope m akin g a light proof co n n ection to the draw tube

,
.
F ocus the image on the groun d glass by m ean s of the stage

pin io n an d micr om eter screw excludin g outside light with a focus ,
in g cloth A djust the can dle lamp an d plan e glass reflector so

.
that the im age is even ly illumin ated an d free from color frin ges .
E x hi bit the im age to an in structor .
d Close the shutter if the cam era box is supp lied wi th on e or

.
, ,
put out the can dle lamp R eplace the groun d gass with the plate .
holder an d pull out the slide shutter in fron t of the plate A ll

.
, .
is n ow ready for the exposure which is m ade by simply open in g ,
the shutter or burnin g the can dle lam p for the required time .
6. D eterm in e the tim e n ecessary by exposin g the fi rst plate

en echelon as described in the gen eral explan ation above
, .
Close the slide shutter completely an d rem ove the plate ho l der ,
to the dark room .

92 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP III
f D evelop
. the plate as follow s : a tray place 50 cu cm In . .
each of developin g solutio n s 1 an d 2 with a few sm all piece s ,
of ic e Take out the exposed plate an d imm erse it in the solu

.
,
tion graspin g it by the edges R ub the en tire surface with a

,
.
-
piece of w et cotto n to free it fro m air bubbles an d dust particles .
The plate should be rocked back an d forth co n tin uously u n der the
solution for a sufficien t time (usually in the n eighborhood of five
m in utes ) The im age of the roun d exposed field should appear
.
in le ss than a m in ute ; som ewhat later will appear the sharp

outlin es of the crystals Co n tin ue the developm en t un til the.
whole exposure becom es very black an d den se an d the sharp ,
outlin es are on ce m ore obscured .
Whe n the plate is developed wash it t h o r o ly in cold

g .
,
water an d drop it gen tly in a hard rubber tan k filled with the
iced fix in g solutio n A llow the plate to rem ain here for at least
.
t en m in ute s or u n til it looks perfectly clear — all m ilkin ess .
should have vani shed from the un exposed corn ers of the plate .
12 Wash the plate in the washin g tan k in a co n tin uous

.
stream of cold water for half an hour Then carefully rub th e .
plate with a soft spon ge an d imm erse it in a tan k of saturated ,
alum solution for five min utes to harden the gelatin e R em ove .
,
wash briskly in run n in g water shake off excess an d dry in fro n t , ,
of a warm air blast .
i D iscuss the results of the trial exposure with a labora

.
tory offi cer an d decide upo n the correct tim e R eload the plate
,
.
holder as in b refocus the im age on the grou n d glass expose the

, ,
plate the re q uired tim e an d develop the plate as above procedure

, ,
f to 1
1 i n clusive E xhibit th e results
. to an i n structor .
j M. ake two pri n ts fro m this n egative as follows : R em ove

on e piece of the photographic pri n t paper fro m the en velope
in the dark room P lace the prepared side of the paper again st
.
the gelatin e on the n egative , an d put the combin ation in to the

.
prin tin g fram e E xpose in the prin tin g box for a time as
.
directed by the in structio n s or as determ in ed by trial R eplace .
the developin g solutio n for developin g plates with an other solu

tion m a d e with the tube of prin t developer an d develop in ruby ,
E X PE RI M EN T N O . 13
HA R D N E SS
O b j ec t
The obj ect of thi s experim en t is to determin e the
.
hard n ess of various m etals .
G en er al E xplan atio n The word. hardn ess is us ed to

express various properties of metals an d is measured in as ,
ma n y di ff eren t ways (S ee M ills

. M aterials of Co n
,
structio n
pp 3 2 3 an d 4 59 )
.
S cratch hard n ess is used by the geologist who h as ,

’
structed M oh s scale as follows
Talc has a hard n ess of 1
R ock S a l t has a hardn ess of 2
C alcite has a hard n ess of 3

Fluorite has a hard n ess of 4
A patite has a hard n ess of 5
F eld sp ar has a hardn ess of 6
Q uartz has a hardn ess of 7

Topaz h as a har dn ess of 8
Corun dum has a hardn ess of 9
D iam on d has a hard n ess of 10
A m i n eralwill scratch all those above it in the series an d ,
be scratched by those below A weighted diam o n d con e drawn

.
slowly over a surface will leave a path the width of whi ch

(m easured by a microm eter m icroscope) varies in versely as th e
scratch hardn ess .
Cuttin g hardn ess is m ea sured by a stan dardized drillin g

m achin e an d has a lim ited applicatio n in m achin e shop practice
,
.
R eboun din g hardn ess is comm o n ly m easured by the

S hore scleroscope illustrated in Fig 1 2 p 9 8 A s m all steel
'
. .
,
.
,
94
H ARD N E SS
hamm er z} in in diam eter 2 in in len gth an d weighin g about

,
.
,
.
,
‘ oz is dropped a distan ce of 1 0 in upo n the test piece The

T g . . .
height of rebou n d in arbitrary u n its represen ts the hardn ess

n um eral .
S hould the hamm er have a hard flat surface an d drop on steel

so hard that n o impressio n were made it would reboun d about ,
9 0 per ce n t of the fall The point however . co n sists of a , ,
slightly spherical blun t diam o n d n ose o 2 in in di am eter

,
. .
,
which will in den t the steel to a certain exten t The work

.
.
required to m ake the in den tation is taken from the kin etic
en er gy of the fallin g body ; the reboun d will absorb the balan ce ,
an d th e hamm er will n ow rise fro m the sam e steel a distan ce equal
to about 7 5 per cen t of the fall A perm an en t im pression is

"
left upon the test piece because the impact will develop a force
of several hun dred thousan d poun ds per square in ch un der the
tin y diam on d poin ted hamm er head stressin g the test piece at
-
,
thi s poin t of con tact m uch beyo n d its ultim ate stren gth The .
reboun d is thus depen den t upo n the in den tatio n hardn ess for ,
the reason that the less the in den tatio n the m ore e n er gy will ,
reappear in the reboun d ; also the less the in den tation the , ,
harder the m aterial Con sequen tly the harder the material
.
, ,
the m ore the r eboun d .
In den tatio n hardn ess is a measure of a m aterial s resist ’
an ce to pen etratio n an d deform ation The stan dard testin g .
m achin e is the B rin ell F ig 1 3 p 9 9 A harden ed steel

,
.
,
. .
ball 1 0 mm in diam eter is forced in to the test piece with a

,
.
,
pressure of 3000 k g (or 1 000 kg for soft m etals such as copper

. .
,
alumin um an d whi te m etals) The resulti n g in den ta tion is then

.
m easured .
While un der load the steel ball in a B rin ell machin e n aturally
,
flatten s som ewhat in to a spheroidal shape The i n den tation left .
behin d in the test piece is a duplicate of the surface which m ade

it and is usually regarded as bein g the segm en t of a sphere of
,
som ewhat larger radius than that of the un stressed spherical

ball The radius of curvature of this spherical in den tatio n w ill
.
vary slightly with the load an d the depth of in den tation The .
96 E XP E RIM E N TAL GROUP III
B rin ell hardn ess n um eral is the quotien t foun d by dividin g the
test pressure in kilogram s by the spherical area of the in de n ta
tion The den omin ator as before will vary accordin g to the
.
, ,
size of the sphere the hardn ess of the sphere an d the load
, .
These item s have been stan dardized an d tables for each m achin e ,
have been con structed so that if the diam eter of the circular
id en tation produced by a load o f 3ooo kilogram s be m easured -
,
the hardn ess n um eral m ay be taken out di rectly .
S in ce the scleroscope n um ber is also depen de n t to a certai n

exten t upon the resistan ce to in den tation it should have a defin ite ,
ratio to th e B rin ell n um ber for the sam e kin d of m etals Tests .
show that very approxim ately the B rin ell n umber m ay be had
, ,
from th e scleroscope n um ber by m ultiplyi n g the latter by certain

n umbers som ewhat as follows :
,
Harden ed tool steel

H ot rolled m ild steel sc ler o sc op e + i4
G ray cast iro n
E tc .
S in cethere is a flow of m etal from the overstrain ed portio n

imm ediately un der the B rin ell ball durin g the test there should ,
be a relatio n between the hardn ess an d the ultima te stre n gth .
This is shown graphically in Fig 2 7 1 p 4 62 of M ills M aterials .

,
.
, ,
of Con struction The B ureau of S tan dards Techn ologic

.
’
P aper N o 1 1 shows that if the dep th of the in de n tatio n be m eas

.
u r ed the hardn ess n um eral derived will be in depe n de n t of the

,
size an d hardn ess of the sphere I f then the depth of the .

, ,
depression be m easured we c an compute in poun ds per square ,
in ch ,
L oad in kg
U ltim ate stre n gth 2 0 ooo + r o 3 2
.
.
,
D ep r essmn ln mi ll i m eters .
This form ula will give results to within 5 per cen t for steels of
quite various composition s For other classes of m aterials the .
,
con stan ts will be differen t .
The lim itation s of the B rin ell m ethod are boun ded by th e
98 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP III
the l oose side rod J actin g as a plu mb bob han gs freely in the
-
, ,
cen ter of the rin g at its lower en d .
2 . S m ooth the surface of the poin t to be tested rem ovin g ,
an y scale or rust .
L m g
'
3 . evel th e p o in t to be tested ou n tin ,the piece soli dly

in a vise or between the sp h er i
c al a n vi l an d the foot L In the .
l atter case main tain a slight ,
pressure on the lever M at all

tim es L ower the barrel N upo n
.
the upper part of the foot L by

m ean s of the kn ob O .
4 R elease t h.e hamm er by
squeezin g th e bulb A an d n ote ,
the approxim ate height of the

first reboun d A rran g e the light .
so that it g listen s again st the

top of the hamm er R aise the .
hamm er by again compressin g

the bulb A an d then releasin g
quickly .
5 M ove the test

. piece slight
ly so that th e hamm er will n o t
fall in exactly the sam e p lace ,
an d re m oun t as in 3 .
6 I ix your visio n upo n the

.
scale a few division s below th e

approxim ate reboun d m en tally
n oted in 4 an d read the ex act
F IG — Sh o e S c l c p
12 r er o s o e
,
scale n umber reached by th e

. . .
top of the hamm er on its secon d release .
7 . R epeat 5 an d 6 un til three co n corda n t rea din gs are foun d ,
the average of which will represen t the hardn ess of the piece
tested .
8 Test the stan dard bar in the in strum en t case in ord er to

.
obtain a con versio n factor for the observation s .

H ARD N E SS 99
D ir ectio n f or M ak n g
i th e Br in ell B all T est 1 . . S m ooth the
su rface to be tested rem o vi n g an y scale or rust
, .
2
. P lace the test piece upon the an vil A F ig ,
. 1 3, levelin g
F IO . 13 .
—
Hydr aulic Testin g Machin e .
(B r i n ell P ri n ci p le )
.
by m ean s of the spherical join t an d the spirit level R aise up .
to co n tact with the ball B by the han d wheel C .
3. Close the valve D an d pum p oil slowly behi n d the pisto n
wi th th e han d lever E n otin g the in crease of pressure on the gage

, ,
an d con tin ue u n til the yoke F floats .

100 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O U P III
4 ai
. nMtai n pressure 1 5 seco ds with a 3 000 kg load n -
.
,
or 30 secon ds with a 1 000 kg load R elease by openin g valve D

-
. . .
U n screw the ha n d wheel C .
5 E sti
. m ate the diam eter of the im pressio n to mm .
with a key seat scale an d m agn ifyin g glass taki n g out the
-
,
correspo n din g hardn ess n um eral from the accom pan yin g tabula
tion . U se o n e thi rd the hard n ess give n whe n testi n g with
-
1 000 kg .
TA BLE F OR B I LL B ALL
R N E TE S T
B ll H d N um b B ll H d N um b
L d d
ar n e ss er ar n ess er
D ia m e t e r o f a D ia m e t er o f a
for of for L of
Im p r e ssio n mm , .
a
3 000 kg
oa
.
Im p r e ss io n m m
, .
3.
3 000 kg
oa
.
E LE CT RI C FU RN A CE S
O b j ec t
The object of this experim en t is to co n struct a
.
wire wou n d pot furn ace

-
.
G en er al E xplan atio n When an electric curren t passes alon g

.
a wire or other co n ductor it c an be fou n d that while the am oun t

of curren t (amperes ) is the sam e at the en d as at the start ,
its poten tial or head (voltage) is decreased Thi s is a direct .
deductio n from O hm s law as given in E xperim en t N o 6

’
.
which m ay be sym bo lized as
or tran sposin g
, ,
II . E CR .
In words the drop in poten tial or loss in head varies as the

, , ,
product of the curren t by the resistan ce .
The en ergy lost durin g this drop in poten tial is that am oun t
required to overcom e the resistan ce o ffered by the con ductor
to the passage of the curren t an d reappears as heat in the ,
co n ductor The un it of electrical en ergy is the Joule an d is

.
,
equal to the work do n e durin g on e secon d whil e a curren t of

o n e am pere falls thru a di ff ere n ce of pote n tial of o n e volt .
The work don e durin g the passage of an electrical curren t is .
therefore ,
Joules voltag e drop curren t passin g tim e ;
or ,
in symbols ,
E LE CT RI C F URN A C E S 103
But by E quation II the drop

, ,
in poten tial E is equal to CR .
S ubstitutin g this value in III
IV . J = CR ° = 2
Ct C R L
quation IV expressin g the am ou n t of work don e by the

E ,
passage of an y curre n t thru som e resistan ce for a m easured

le n gth of tim e c an be tran sform ed in to heat u n its by use of the
,
m echa ni cal equivalen t of heat Thus on e Joule is equivalen t .

,
to 1 0 ergs while it has been determ in ed that on e calory is

7
,
equivalen t to 4 1 8 9 X 1 0 ergs Hen ce by proportio n

.
7
.
,
7
10 ergs
1 Joul e calories
X 1 0 ergs
’
0 24 . calories .
S ubstituti n g this value in E quatio n s III an d IV , we have
Heat ,
in calories = 0 . 24 E Ct
Ct .
The gen eratio n of heat by electricity accordin g to the above

prin ciples is n aturally m ore costly than by carbon aceous fuel ,
in asm uch as the electrical en ergy is usually produced from fuel

thru the in termediatio n of costly boilers en gin es gen erators , , ,
tran sm issio n lin es an d tran sformers each of which operates at

, ,
less than 1 00 per cen t efficien cy A n electric furn ace would .
seldom be in stalled therefore un less it o ffered advan tages whi ch

, ,
outweigh the in creased heat cost per calory Thus small .

,
laboratory furn aces are clean er m ore easily con trolled an d m ore , ,
un iform in temperature than carbo n fired furn aces .
Certain smeltin g operation s on the other han d require a '
tem
, ,
perature highe r than the m aximum obtain able with carbo n

°
a ceou s fuel (1 600 to 1 9 00 A s shown in A ppen dix A these ,
temperatures are limited by the poin t where the escapin g prod

u c t s of co m bustio n carry away as sen sible heat all the calories
gen erated by the chemical reactio n A t this poin t of course .

, ,
the e ffi cien cy of the furn ace becom es zero as there is n o surplus ,

104 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR OUP III
of heat left for useful purposes In fact the flow of heat from the .
,
source to the absorber by co n duction varies as the differen ce in

temperature between the two an d co n sequen tly if an y co n sider ,
able am ou n t o f heat is to be absorbed by the furn ace charge ,
the heatin g elem en ts or source should u n iform ly have a m uch

higher temperature than that required by the proce ss goin g
forward withi n This c an be readily obtain ed by electrical
.
m ean s the upper lim its of temperature bein g depen den t o n ly

,
upon the destructio n of the refractories form in g the furn ace

it self O ther processes requirin g close co n trol of a n eutral
.
atm osphere or an absen ce of carbo n oxygen or n itrogen are

, , ,
proper fields for electric furn ace operatio n .
A great variety of electric furn aces have been co n structed or

proposed but in every case the heatin g is e ffected by the passage
,
of curren t thru a resistor Thus the various types of ar c

” ,
.
furn aces (M ills M aterials of Co n struction

, pp 4 00
—
4 0 3) ,
.
gen erate heat m ain ly by the passage of a relatively sm all curren t

across an an gap havin g a very high resistan ce The i n ductio n .
furn ace (loc cit pp 4 04 . o n the other han d

.
,
is a tran s
.
,
form er which produces within itself en ormous curren ts in a m etal

bath which form s a seco n dary wi n din g of very low resistan ce
”
.
,
B etween these extrem es m ay be placed the so called resista n ce -
furn ace (lo c cit pp 2 88. whi ch gen erates heat by a pass age
.
,
.
,
of a m oderate curren t thru a m aterial of m oderate resistan ce .
The resistor in thi s case m ay be the furn ace charge itself as ,
in the ore sm eltin g carboru n du m or graphite furn aces ; or ,
it m ay be woun d or packed aroun d the furn ace walls as is the ,
case of laboratory muffl e or tube furn aces For a descriptio n .
of the design con struction an d use of these furn aces the studen t
, ,
is referred to The E lectric F urn ace by A lfred S tan sfield

’
.
,
In the presen t state of our kn owledge a precise m athem atical ,
treatm en t of furn ace design is impossible n o t so m uch from ,
ign oran ce of the un derlyi n g prin ciples of heat tran sfer as from ,
a dearth of physical con stan ts Thus we will suppose that a

.
.
,
certai n chemical reactio n is proceedin g in a con tin uous electric

furn ace W hose en ergy i n put is kn o wn I t is very sim ple to .
106 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP III
The tran sfer of heat by radiation c an be computed by

’
S tefan s law :
W ,
= I 2 8E
.
Where W ,
calories tran sferred per seco n d b y radiation from o n e
square cen timeter of the surface ;
E em issivity a factor depe n din g upo n the n ature of the
,
radiatin g surface ;
K h = ab solu te temperature (m etric scale ) of the radiatin g
body ;
K = absolute temperature (m etric scale) of the absorbin g
c
body ;
These form ulas eviden tly require for their application s a

.
good kn owledge of the shape factor specific resistivity surface, ,
resistan ce an d emissivity all of whi ch may an d perhaps d o

, , ,
vary som ewhat with the temperature as well as with the chemi cal
compositio n an d physical co n stitutio n of the substan ces in ques
tion A n un lim ited field for experim en tal research is here open
.
,
as our presen t kn ow l edge of these co n stan ts is p oor in deed an d ,
the techn ical importan ce of the in form ation is obvious O n .
accoun t of thi s paucity of i n form ation furn aces are n o t de ,
sign ed in the true sen se of the word but gr ow as a resul t of ,
cut an d try p ro cesses .
I t has been foun d for in stan ce that a small laboratory

,
tube furn ace will heat up quite rapi dly with a c ur ren t of 1 0
am peres A fter on ce reachin g a high heat the curren t should be
.
,
c u t down to balan ce radiatio n an d other losses I f therefore .

, ,
the win din g be m ade of a len gth of wire with a total resistan ce
of 1 0 o hm s an d an extern al resistan ce (rheostat) givin g from o
to 2 0 ohm s be placed in series with the furn ace across the usual
1 1 0 volt lighti n g circuit
- an y curren t fro m 4 to 1 1 am peres
,
m ay be impressed at the will of the experim en ter L esser c ur .
ren ts m ay eviden tly be had by further in creasin g the extern al

resistan ce A cross sectio n al view of the proposed fu rn a c e is
.
-
shown in Fig 1 4 . .
E LE CTRI C F URN A C E S 107
Tube furn aces may be arran ged to give a u n if or m temperature

from en d to en d by usin g heat co n ductin g en ds of m etal as ,
described by A W G ray in 1 0 U n ited S tates B ureau of

. .
, ,
’
S tan dards B ulletin 4 60 ,
.
d um C or e N
.
95 T r an site B o ar d
11 p iece
FIG . 1 4
.
—Wi w u d P t Fu c
r e- o n o r na e .
S pecial A pparatu s . The special apparatus used is as
Can of alu n dum cemen t .
S patula .
S pool of asbestos tap e .
’
Tin n ers sn ips .
S crew pun ch , with die for in ho l e -

.
—
.
E ight in ch gas pipe 1 2 in lo n g ,

. .
’
Carpen ter s han dsaw .
Jig saw .
R oun d rasp .
108 E XPE RIM E N TAL GR O UP III

On e corrugated alun dum core N o ,
. 659 7 .
Three feet of asbestos strin g .
S heet of 2 4 gage galvani zed iro n -

.
Tran site board .
E ight in stove bolts g in lo n g

-
.
,
. .
Two brass bin din g posts .
Lab oratory E quipmen t . The laboratory equipm en t n eeded

is as follows :
°
Core oven at 80 C .
S ack of kieselguhr .
D rill press with an d

,
-
in . drills .
S olderi n g outfit i n cludin g ,
S olderin g tool ,
S olderin g paste ,
S older ,
Piece of cloth for wipin g .
P r oc ed ur e Compute the len gth of resistan ce wire r e

. a .
quired to win d the corrugated core an d obtain sam e from the ,
stock room -
.
6 Win d the wire tightly about the core bein g careful to

.
,
place the wire in the bottom of the corrugation equally spaced ,
thruout Fasten the en d turn s with asbestos strin g an d

.
,
plaster the corrugation s sm ooth with alun dum cem en t .
6 Win d the core closely up an d down with asbestos tape

.
,
°
an d tie the e n ds P lace in a core oven at 80 C for two hours
’
. . .
d Cut a piece of galvan ized sheet to m ake the outer cas in g

.
,
ben d it aroun d a short piece of 8 in pipe an d solder the edg es -

.
,
together as in structed in E xperim en t N o 6 p 4 5 Cut eight .

,
. .
pieces of sheet I in by g in ben d in to an an gle an d pun ch a

,
. .
, ,
§~
in hole
. in o n e leg S older these a n gles at the quarter
. po in ts
of the top an d bottom edges for en d attachm en t .
6 S aw two pieces of tran site board 1 0 in square an d on e

.
,
.
,
piece 5 in square L ay out th e n ecessary holes for the en d c on

. .
10 E XPE RIM E N TAL GRO UP III
heat g en erated electrically with that furn ished by the comb us

tion of on e of the coals discussed in A ppen dix A should th e
.
,
latter cost per ton.
d What is the m aximum temperature which m ay be obtain e d

.
in resistan ce furn aces ?

e A bar of tool steel
.
, 3 cm by 3. cm by
. 1 0 cm
. is draw n
from a furn ace at 1 000 C an d cools in still air at 2 0 C I f

0 ° ‘
. .
the emissivity of the iro n oxide coverin g the bar is how much
heat is radiated per secon d ? A ssum in g thi s rate to remain
un chan ged for on e m in ute what is the then temperature of the
,
bar if its specific heat is

,
calories per gram an d its specific
gravity is
S uppose it is desirable to use the fur n ace m ade in this
f .
experim en t in a certain i n vestigatio n requirin g a u ni fo r m tem

n e an experim e n t to e n able on e to
0
p er a tu r e of 1 000 C
. O utli
predict the curren t required to brin g the cold furnace up to
equilibrium at exactly 1 000 C 0
.
g .What is the di ffere n ce between the co n structio n of a

voltm eter an d an amm eter ?
R A D IA T I O N A N D O P T I CA L P Y R O M E T E R S
O b j ec t
The object of this experim en t is to becom e accus
.
t om ed to the u se of the various styles of radiatio n an d optical

pyro m eters .
*
G en er al E xplan ati on The temperature of hot bodies m ay .
be estim ated by mea surin g the radian t e n ergy emitted in the

fo r m either of visible light radiatio n or of the lon ger in fra
red n on —
,
lumin ous rays In an y case optical or radiation .
,
pyrometers utilize the relatio n between total radiation an d

tem perature expressed by S tefan s law (p 1 0 6) ’
.
W ,
= 1 2 8E
.
Wh ere W i
calories tran sferred per secon d by radiation from
,
o n e square ce n tim eter of surface ;
E em issivity a factor depen din g upon the n ature of the

,
radiati n g surface ;
Kb absolute temperature (m etric scale ) of the radiatin g
body ;
an d K = absolute temperature (metric scale ) of the absorb
,
in g body .
Rad iation Pyr o m eter s
When w e co n sider the en orm ous in crease in the in ten sity of

radiation with rise in temperature this method app ears especially ,
well adapted to the m easurem en t of high temperatures This .

,
however is on ly partly true ; the m ethod is limited som ewhat

,
T h ese n o tes ha v b b str a c t d i p t v b ti m f m Bu g ’
”Ch p t VI t VIII
e een a e n ar er a ro r ess
M eas u men t
re o f Hi gh T mp e er a tu r es, a er s o .
111
'
1 12 E XP E RIM E N TAL GROUP III
by the fact that differe n t bodies altho at the sam e tem ,
p er at u r e e m it
,
vast ly di ffere n t a m ou n ts of light an d heat owin g
to the fact that the emissivity factor is differen t for di fferen t
substan ces an d (for that m atter) often varies with the tem pera
,
ture .
Kir kh off in on e of the m o s t importan t co n tributio n s to the

,
theory of radiatio n was led to the im portan t con ceptio n of what

”
-
,
he term ed a black body He defin ed thi s as on e which would

.
absorb all radiation s fallin g upon it an d would n either reflect ,
n o r tran sm it an y While carbon an d iro n oxide approxim ate

.
“
black body radiatio n with an em i ssivity factor approac hin g
”
u n ity a theoretical black body m ay be attain ed experim en tally
,
by co n structin g an en closed space all parts of which are m ain ,
t ain ed at the sam e temperature .
P recis e calibratio n of radiatio n an d optical pyro m eters m ay

then be m ade by observin g the radiation em itted thru a
sm all ope nin g in the wa lls of som e vessel plu n ged in a co n sta n t
temperature bath or en closed in a u n iform ly heated tube fur

, .
n ace . The temperature of the in terior of this radiator m ay

be ascertain ed at the sam e tim e with a calibrated platin um
therm o couple an d thus a correlation established between radi
-
,
ation an d kn own tem perature S uch work however is beyo n d .

, ,
the scope of elem en tary practice an d tran scen ds the facilities ,
of an ordin ary laboratory ; con sequen tly such calibration should

usually be in trusted to th e Bureau of S ta n dards .
A n en closed room with u n iform ly heated walls absorb s li ke

—
a theoretical black body that is to say perfectly because an y — ,
portion of a heat wave n o t absorbed but reflected on the fir st , ,
impin gem en t would ultim ately be absorbed durin g subsequen t

,
reflection s Further bodies in equilibrium with their surroun d

.
,
in gs must absorb an d radiate heat at exactly the sam e rate ;

otherwise should the absorptio n be greater than the radiatio n ,
,
a body would spon tan eously in crease in tem perature without

lim it Therefore a furn ace of crucible or an y other enclosure
.
,
whose walls an d co n ten ts are at a un iform temperature h as un it

emissivity n o m atter of what m aterial it is con structed
, .
E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP III
In m akin g a temperature measurem en t it is n ecessary to ,
sharply focus the im age of the in can descen t object upon the
therm o jun ction by an in geni ous device by mean s of which
-
straight lin es appear broken unless the in strum en t is in focus

( Fig. The ra n ge of the i n strum en t is in creased by m ean s
of a sectored di aphragm (D Fig so that temperatures from
,
.
the lowest to the highest m ay be read altho for low tern ,
a t u r es a quite se n sitive galva n om eter is n eeded

p er , .
I t should be emphasized that in gen eral radiation pyr om ,
eter s sighted upo n objects in the ope n air will read too low in
‘
temperature due to the selective radiatin g properties of all
,
m aterials They m ay be calibrated to give true surface tem

.
a t u r es when sighted upo n an y substan ce whose radi ati g

p er n
F ocu s
—
.
F IG . I 7 .
~
F cu i g Sc h
o s n eme fo r F y Py
er ro meter .
properties are kn own an d in an y case a con sisten t but arbi

, ,
tr ar y scale is obtain ed so lo n g as the surface sighted upon does

n o t C ha n ge its e missivity Flam es an d furn ace gases which also
.
,
seriously a ffect the readin gs of such pyrometers may also be

”
,
avoided togethe with the selective radiation errors by sight

,
r
,
in g on the bottom of a closed en d tube in serted in to the furn ace -

.
The radiation from such a tube of fir e clay or other refractory -
will approach closely to the ideal black body con ditio n s un der
which radiation in strum en ts will read correctly The radiatio n .
laws in their simplest form apply exactly to such a radiati n g

tube so that if the p yr om etc has been calibrated for theoretical
,
black body radiatio n the r ea din gs will hold when sightin g in to

,
such a tube or thru a sm all aperture in to an y clear closed

, ,
space at con s tan t temperature .

RADIA TI O N A N D OP T I CA L PYRO M E TE RS 115
O pti c al Py ro meter s
In stead of usin g the totali ty of the radian t en ergy the ,

as in
m ethod described above optical pyrom eters m ake use of som e
,
part of the lumin ous radiation s on ly A discussion of the laws of .
radiation as applied to waves of various len gths would be out

, ,
of place in an elem en tary book an d therefore o n ly the followin g

,
gen eral prin ciples an d deduction s are presen ted .
A n in can descen t body emi ts radiation s of di fferen t wave

len gths The in ten sity of thi s em itted radiatio n is n o t th e sam e
.
for d iff eren t bodies even for a given wave len gth an d a given
, ,
temperature Thi s fac t is expressed in other words by sayin g

.
that di fferen t m aterials have differen t em issive powers f or a ,
g iven r adiation S im ilarly

. a body which receives
,
radiat io n s of a
given wave len gth ab sor b s p ar t of them an d sen ds back an other
part by di ff usion Or reflectio n ; a certain quan tity m ay also trav
erse the body Therefore the di ffusin g reflectin g tran smit
.
, , ,
tin g o r emissive power at a given temperature an d for a given

, ,
wave len gth varies from on e body to an other

,
.
I t follows from this that the relative p rop ortion s of the

various visible radiatio n s received or given off by a body are n o t
the sam e ; an d that diff eren t bodies at the same temperature , ,
appear to be differen tly colored A t temperatures less than .
2 000 C th e lon g wave len gths in the emitted light predom in ate
0
.
greatly an d the red coloration s they produce mask the in equali

,
ties of the radiation s of other wave len gths To ren der the .
coloration s of radiatin g bodies easily visible it is n ecessary to ,
co mpare them with those of a theoretical black body un der the

sam e temperature con dition s A hole pierced in the body or .
,
a crack across the surface gives a very good term of comparison

,
to ju dge of this coloration

’
The in ten sity of the radia tion s emitted by a th eoretical

black body always in creases wi th the temperature an d the rate ,
of chan ge is the more rapid as it approaches the blue region of

the spectrum ; but on the o ther han d the radiation s from the
, ,
red en d are the first to have an in ten sity su fficien t to affect the
1 16 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP III
eye . The color of bodies heated to higher an d higher tem

p e r a tu r es therefore s tarts with red passin g thru ora n ge a n d ,
yellow ten din g towards white In fact w hi te is the correct

,
.
,
color emitted by extrem ely hot bodies such as the sun , .
The estim ation s of temperature from measurem en ts of lumi

n ous radiatio n s m ay be m ade directly in two differen t ways by ,
u
First th e total in ten sity of the lumin ous radiation s ;
,
S eco n d the in ten sity of a radiatio n of a defin ite wave le n gth

,
.
In the first in stan ce it is a m atter of comm o n experien ce that

,
the brightn ess of substan ces in creases very rapidly with the
temperature On e m ay estim ate this brightn ess with the un aided
.
eye but thi s m ethod is very un certain for l ack of a co n stan t stan d
,
ard of comparison The sen sitivity of the eye varies with the
.
in dividual with the light which the eye h as received imm ediately
,
before the observation an d with the atten dan t fatigue Photo

,
.
m etric in strum en ts con structed for the m easurem en t of total

in ten sity while precise when used as a comparison in strum e n t
,
“
co n tin ually viewin g som e stan dard source can n o t be employed ,
on accoun t of the variation in the distribution t hruout th e

spectrum of the radian t en ergy emitted from differen t hot
bodies which results in the fact n oted above : that diff eren t
,
bodies at the sam e temperature appear to be diff eren tly

, ,
colored The method of usin g the total photom etric brightn es s

.
as a measure of tem perature therefore lacks sen sitiven ess as , , ,
w ell as d efin iten ess an d is better replaced by m ethods based o n

,
the use of a sin gle wave len g th .
I t might be thought that the sam e obj ection s would apply ,
in the seco n d m ethod of tem perature m easurem en t that is by , ,
estim atin g the in ten sity of a radiation of defini te wave len gth .
However a great m an y im portan t substan ces have an emissive

,
power approachin g u n ity while the variation of radiation With

,
temperature is su fficien tly m arked so that the errors committed

in n eglectin g the em i ssive power are sm all Thus the emissive .
,
powers of n early all bodies at high tem peratures are greater than
By as sum in g this factor equal to the greatest e r ror
1 18 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP III
The temperature is then computed from the proper form ulas

derived durin g the calibratio n or directly if the in strume n t h as
, ,
Ker o se n e am pL D iap h r ag mk
R C o m p ar iso n R efl ec t or
F IG . 1 9.
—S ec tio n al Pla n of Sho e Py
r r os o cp e .
been stan dardized an d the scale attached to the iris diaphr agm
properly m arked in degrees of temperature .
RADIATI ON AN D OP TI C AL PYRO M E TE RS 1 19
The Wan n er pyrom eter (Fig 2 0 ) uses as a compariso n l amp .
a 6 volt in can descen t lamp illumin atin g a glass m atte surface

-
,
.
M on ochromatic red light is produced from both the stan dard

lam p an d the observed body by passin g their radiatio n s thru
a direct visio n spectroscope an d screen which cuts out all but a
-
n arrow ban d in the red en d of the spectrum The photom etric .
compariso n is made by adjustin g both halves of the field to

equa lity by m ean s of a polarizin g arran gem en t which con sists ,
of a complex system of prism s an d len ses The eye observes a .
roun d field the U pper an d lower parts of which are form ed by

,
from the stan dard lamp an d the hot object respectively .
FIG . 20 .
—
V
V
an n er Py ro met er in S ta da dizi g F
n r n ra me .
B y proper rotatio n of a pair of N icol prism s these tw o fields are

adjusted to equal in ten sity when the temperature of the hot
,
body is read directly from an attached dial .
The accuracy of this pyro m eter eviden tly is in depen den t

of drafts an d air co n ditio n s whi ch aff ect the lamps of the L e
Chatelier an d S hore types but does depen d upo n the co n stan cy
i
,
o f ligh t e m itted by the sta n dard i n ca n desce n t lam p Thi s

'
va r ies with age to a s light exten t but m ore particularly with the
,
m o m en tary variatio n of the electr om otive force of the battery .
Thi s battery should eviden tly be on e of large capacity an d of

con stan t poten tial I t is therefore n ecessary frequen tly to chec k
.
the con stan cy of illumin atio n of the electric lamp .

120 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP 111
Thi s don e after the m an n er shown in the illustration

is ,
Fig 2 0 S et the dial on the n orm al poin t an d view a stan d

. .
ard am yl acetate flam e un der stan dard con dition s I f the two
-
.
parts of the field are n o t exactly of the sam e in ten sity the c u r ,
ren t passin g thru the filam en t of the compariso n lamp should

be adjusted by a suitable resistan ce in series A delicate amm eter .
in circuit should also be read The pyrom eter is n ow ready for .
in term itten t operation for som e hours if the extern al resistan ce ,
in the battery circuit is kept in such adjus tmen t that the proper
am ou n t of curren t is flowin g thru the filamen t as shown by ,
the amm eter .
S til l a third m ethod of m easuri n g radiatio n was first used by

M orse an d in depen den tly developed by Holborn an d Kurl
,
baum as follows : I f a su fficien t curren t is sen t thru a fila

,
m en t of an electric lamp the filam en t glows red at first an d as , ,
the curren t in creases the filam en t gettin g hotter an d hotter

, , ,
becom es oran ge yello w an d whi te just as an y progressively

, , ,
heated body I f n ow thi s filam e n t is in terposed between the eye

.
an d an in ca n desce n t object the curren t thru the l am p m a

y ,
be adjusted un til a portion of the filam en t is of the sam e color

an d bright n ess of the obj ect A t this in stan t the filam en t .
,
becom es in vi sible again st the bright backgroun d an d the ,
curren t then becom es a m easure of the tem perature A n .
absolute match of both color an d brightn ess can n ot be

m ade u n less m o n ochrom atic light is used which is e ff ected by ,
proper colored glasses built i n to the ocular of the observin g

telescope .
The telescope (Fig 2 1 ) also con tain s a special in can .
descen t lamp en ergized by a sm all lead storage battery Thi s -

.
battery with adjustable resistan ce an d a very sen sitive but

,
rugged amm eter are compacted in to a sm all case,

When .
in u se the hot body whose tem perature is desired is viewed

, ,
thru the telescope an d the proper curren t passed thru ,
the lam p filam en t u n til it van ishes again st the backgroun d .
The curren t n ow flowin g deflects the n eedle over a dial

calibrated to read degrees of temperature The system is .
1 22 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP III
Lab or ator y E quipmen t . The laboratory equipmen t n ee d .

(1
is as follows :
Hot furn ace in equilibrium .
P ro c e d u r e B efore workin g with optical or radiatio n

. a .
pyrom eters obtain a dem on stratio n of its man ipulatio n from the
,
in structor Calibration curves of the various in strum en ts should

.
also be obtain ed .
b The work will be to observe the temperature of variou s

.
furn aces in the laboratory at in tervals reportin g the results to ,
the captain of the respective squads .
6 . Various precaution s should be carefully n oted

D o n o t place a pyrom eter so close to a hot body that it m ay
be blister ed warped or otherwise in jured by the radiatin g
‘
, ,
heat A sufficien tly larg e open in g or portion of the hot body

.
m ust be observed to fill the telescopic field In terrupt the heat .
in g curren t between observatio n s .
d P lace the various cracked objects in a mu ffle equipped w ith

.
a temperature regulator an d brin g the furn ace to equi libriu m ,
at about A lso in sert the quartz tube thru a suitable

hole in the furn ace casin g so that the closed en d will be withi n ,
the furn ace laboratory .
e When the furn ace has m ain tain ed a steady temperature for
.
thirty min utes observe the tempe rature of the bottom of the
,
quartz tube by all the optical pyrom eters furn ished you as well ,
as the calibrated therm o couple in possession of the squad -

.
f . R e m ove the quartz tube an d observe the appare n t t em

p er a t u r e of the fur n ace at m osphere thr u the sa m e hole by
all the m ethods of procedure e I f the pyrom eter is an optical .
pyrom eter obtain the temperature by taki n g two readin g s

—the first approachin g equality in the fields from below an d
,
the secon d from above the unkn own temperature R ead each .
determ in ation an d use the average value for the temperature of

the furn ace .
g . O pe n the fur n ace door draw o n e of the e n closed O bjects

,
RADIATI ON A N D OP TI C AL PYR O M E TE RS 123
quickly forward n ear the open in g an d observe its temperature ,
w ith the M orse pyro m eter First observe the body of the piece
.
,
an d seco n d obtai n a m atch again st the radiatio n issuin g fro m

,
the crack This m ust be don e qui ckly an d by the most skil
.
,
ful m ember of the squad Then close the door of the furn ace
.
for several m in utes an d repeat the procedure un til all the

,
objects have been observed .
Q u er i e s a I f the in ten sity of the heat radiated fro m a body

. .
° °
at 1 000 C is R what will be the in ten sity at 1 500 C
.
, At
0
2 000 C?
.
b .Wh at is the true temperature of the furn ace as m easured

in procedure e an d f ? D iscuss the causes for an y variation s
n oted .
6 .Give precaution s to be observed in obtain in g the temp era

ture existin g in the m eltin g zon e of a cupola .
e .Give precau tion s to be observed in ob tainin g the tem

r atu r e of a tiltin g furn ace m eltin g copper bearin g m etals which -
p e ,
ti n ge the flam e various shades of green .
Figure the e m issivity of the substa n ces observed in p ro

f.
c ed u r e g .
the advan tage of optica l pyrom etry over

k D iscuss
. th e u se
of the thermoelectric prin ciple .

E X PE RI M EN TA L G ROU P IV
FO R E W O RD T O T HE S T U DE N T
This group comprises a series of experim en ts on stee ls .
S tartin g with N o 1 6 which obtain s the therm al equilibria for

.
,
—
low percen tage carbon alloys that is to say for steels the fol— ,
lowin g series o f four experimen ts develops the application of

thi s equilibrium diagram to such importan t m atters as grai n
size harden in g temperin g toughen in g an d ann ealin g
, , , ,
.
These various m atters properly un derstood should en able the

, ,
s tuden t to m ake a rugged m etal or wood cuttin g tool of simple -
hape which is the subject of E xperim en t N o 2 1

,
. .
E xperim en t N o 2 2 studies the relation between m icroscopic

.
structure an d the physical properties developed in E xperim en ts

N o s 1 7 to 2 0 in clusive
.
,
S hort courses m ay possibly fin d n o
.
tim e for this experim en t altho procedures a to f in clusive

,
c an be perform ed in on e aftern oo n an d will g1v e the studen t a ,
view of all the various co n stituen ts of harden ed an d tempered

steel M ore exten sive courses c an in clude p rocedures g to k
.
,
while i an d j will be perform ed by studen ts sp ecr aliz in g in metal

logr ap h y .
E xperimen t N o 2 3 is design ed to give th e striden t an in telli

.
gen t appreciation of the subject of case harden in g or m ore

”
-
,
properly case carburizin g

,
-
E xperim en t N o 2 4 is an in tro
. .
duction to the ba fflin g but n on e the less in sisten t problem s

, ,
presen ted by the c or r o smn of iro n an d steel .

126 E XP E RIM E N TAL GROUP I V
property an d in the total en ergy of the m olecule which l atter is ,
eviden ced by a spon tan eous evolution or absorption of laten t

heat The freedom of m olecular m ovem en t depen ds upon the
.
temperature bein g greatest at elevated temperatures becom in g

, ,
less with coolin g un til absolute zero is reached where all m ole ,
c u lar an d in tra m olecul r m otio n ceases M olecular chan ges

a
-
.
in the solid occur thru a temperature ran ge rather than bein g ,
well defin ed at a certain degree .
C oolin g curves of the purest iro n show at l east two well

d efin ed disco n tin uities at temperatures m ore than 600
°
-
C .
.
below its freezin g poin t I t seem s th a t the soft m agn etic metal
“
-
.
,
so fam iliar as wrought iro n an d called alpha iro n or fer

,
rite by the metallurgist becom es un stable at about 7 60 C ,

°
.
,
an d chan ges i n to the so called beta modification becomin g

-
,
sudden ly harder an d losin g its m agn etism This state in turn

,
.
p ersists n o higher than 9 30 C when a softer n on m a gn etic °
”
-
.
, ,
gam m a iro n is the stable m odification up to the actual m elt

in g poin t of th e m etal
-
These various chan g es occur in elec
.
tr oly tic iron an d therefore can n ot be attributed to an y chemical

,
reaction or solution ; they are en tirely due to the existen ce of

allotropic modificatio n s of the iron in its solid state S uch .
—
m odification s are by n o m ean s rare sulfur possesses the various
form s typified by rhombic crystals stable up to 9 6 C ; mon o ,
°
.
clini c crystals stable between 9 6 C an d the m eltin g poin t

,
°
.
-
,
C ; a pale yellow m obile liquid called gamm a sulfur

°
1 19 .
-
, ,
stable between the m eltin g— poin t an d 2 60 a dark viscous °

,
liquid stable above 2 60 C called mu sulfur ; an d fin ally a

,
°
.
,
supercooled form of mu su lfur ordin arily called amorphous ,
sulfur .
S teels (or iron co n tain in g a certain am oun t of carbo n ) d evelop

s om ewhat di fferen t coolin g curves fro m those pro duced by pur e
iron The r m al examin ation of a series of these iron carbo n

.
- -
alloys will form an equilibrium di ag ram in the so lid similar to

that which the water salt system deve l oped in the liquid (as
-
discussed in detail in E xperim en t N o n am e l y the un der .

,
“
lin ed V : (M ) The lin es an d areas of the two diagrams have an
.
TRAN S FORMATI ON P OI N T S 127
en tirely parall e l sign ifican ce an d for this an d other suflicien t rea

,
son s it is thought that at high temperatures the various con stitu

en ts of steels are in a solid solution ” The decomposition of .
the solid solution occurs in a similar m an n er to the decomposition

of the li quid solutio n s already studied In passin g it should be .
,
n oted that the carbo n really does n o t exist in the a lloy as free
carbon but combin es wi th iron to fo r m an iron carbide F e3 C

, , ,
whi ch is called cem en tite Therefore the diagram is really on e

.
between ferrite an d cemen tite rather than between iron an d ,
carbon I t should also be n oted that the word eutectoid

.
is used in stead of the word eutectic to den ote the so lidified

an d separated m other liquor of a solid solutio n This termi .
n o lo y is used to di stinguish it from the a n alogous m aterial solid

g.
ified from a liqu id m other liquor to whi ch the term eutectic is ,
m ore p roperly restricted .
A detailed explan atio n of the phen om en a atten din g the slow

heatin g an d coo lin g of iron carbo n alloys is given in M ills
”
-
,
M at erials of Co n struction p p 4 2 3 to 4 2 9 in clusive which the

,
.
,
stud en t should review in thi s con n ectio n .
S p ec ial A pp ar atu s The sp ecial apparatus n eeded is as fol

.
lows :
E l ectric pot furn ace of E xperim en t N o 1 4
—
. .
On e rheostat 0 2 0 ohm s .
—
,
On e amm eter 0 1 0 amperes

,
.
"
—
On e voltr n eter 0 1 1 0 volts
,
.
O n e p olar ity socket .
On e millivoltm eter or poten tiom eter .
S ix pieces of rubber covered flexible lead wire

-
.
S uppli es . The supp lies n eeded are as follows

I ce .
Three feet of soft iro n wire .
F ourteen r ods of steel in diam eter 6 in lo n g with ,

.
, .
,
carbon con ten t stamped upo n each p iece .
L ab or ator y E quipmen t . The l aboratory equipmen t n eeded

as follows :
128 E XPE RIM E N TA L GROUP IV
S ack of kie
selguhr .
M ore sen sitive pyrom etric equipm en t for squads worki n g

o n lowest carbo n steels
L arge scale coordin ate paper moun ted on bulletin board

- -
an d a supply of pin s with colored heads .
Pr oc e d ur e . N T
this an d the followi n g four expe r i
O E : In
m en ts it is desirable to provide a supply of plain carbon steel s
r an gin g from mild to high carbon tool steel in such a m an n er ,
that each squad m ay work with a separate an alysis The exp er i .
m en tal results should be posted on proper bulletin boards so

that at the en d of the experim en t complete in formation will be
available to all studen ts showin g the effect of in creasin g carbo n
on the various properties un der in vestigatio n The best squads .
should be assign ed the m ore diffi cult low carbon steels an d pref ,
er ab ly provided with more precise calibrated pyrom etric , ,
equipm en t .
a . The arran gem en t for takin g the coolin g curve of steel

varies som ewhat as to the shape of the m aterial un der study .
Thus a bun dle of thin rods m ay be wired together Wi th the

, ,
hot jun ction of a therm o couple at the geom etric cen ter I f a
-
.
larger rod or bloc k is used it may have a sm all hole drilled in to its
,
cen ter an d the hot jun ctio n in serted therein or two flat disks
, ,
m ay have a groove filed or forged on their surface s then wired ,
tightly together with the bare jun ction between

,
.
b Take the therm o couple ca librated in E xp erim en t N o 9

.
-
.
,
an d strip the in sulation from the en d backward for a dista n ce of
o n e in ch A rran ge the test pieces as in procedure a an d place

.
,
in the electric wire woun d pot furn ace leadin g th e elem en ts o u t

'
-
,
through the hole in the lid thru the cold en d ice pail to the ,
electrical m eter .
0 Co n n ect the pot furn ace to a polarity socket

. as shown ,
in the Wi rin g di agram Fig 1 5 p ,

.
,
.
d R ai se the temperature to 550 C as rapidly as co n siste n t

°
. .
an d from 550 C to 9 50 C at a rate of ab o rit 1 0 per m in ute

° o
°
‘
. . .
O bser ve an d plot an in verse rate curve durin g the latter in te r v al

130 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP IV
burn in g out the heatin g elem en t of the furn ace D o n o t chan ge .
° °
the extern al resistan ce durin g the in terval 550 C to 9 50 C . .
e S hut off the curren t

. an d read an d plot as in Fig 22 a ,
.
similar in verse rate coolin g curve thru the sam e ran ge Hold .
the temperature at 550 C while the curves are discussed with °

.
th e in structor .
f R epeat . procedure d an d e at a co n siderably slower rate ,
regulatin g the speed so as to occupy the remain der of the labora

tory p eriod P lace additio n al kieselguhr over the lid to decrease
.
th e coo li n g speed .
g P rese n.t all results to the i n str uctor an d stick properly ,
colored pin s in to the coordin ate diagram on the laboratory

wall locatin g both the A an d the A tran sformation s determ in ed
, , ,
by your curves .
Q u er i es a Co n struct
. a n eat equi
. l ibriu m d iagram showin g
the decompositio n of austen ite after the style of Fig 9 page 7 4 ,
.
,
.
A rran ge the scale so that the carbo n con ten t will ran ge up to
°
2 per ce n t an d the te mpera t ures betwee n 500
°
,
C an d 1 000 C . .
L ocate the A poin ts determ in ed by the various squad s with

,
sm all red circ l es an d co nn ect by a red l in e L ocate the A

,
.
,
po in ts an d lin es sim i l arly in blue A lso draw in a heavy black .
lin e the equilibrium diagram (A lin es) of Fig 2 3 whi ch was ,

.
,
ad opted by Howe after wei ghin g the best in form ation n ow

*
,
available on the subject This will produce a sheet of cross .
section = paper showin g three superimposed di agrams in Color

—two as determin ed in our l aboratory the third represen t ,
in g the stan dard adopted by Howe L abel all lin es coor .

,
din ates an d areas

b D raw the heati n g an
.
. d coo lin g curves derived with I n dia

in k D iscuss the reason s for the n on con curren ce of the corre
.
-
sp ondin g A an d A poin ts Has this lag an y relation to the,

.
surfusion shown in the solidification of an timon y ? What

effect should tim e have upon the ma gni tude of this hysteresis ?
S ee Hw o e, M etallog aph y of S te r el an d C ast I pg
r on , a e 1 30 . T he pi to n s
lo ctd
a e on th e di g
a ra m ar e f ro m c li g cu v
oo n r es ma d by C p
e ar en ter an d K li g
ee n ,
I Jou r n al of I d S t l I ti t u t
’
, 1 9 04 , the r on an ee ns e, 2 24 .
T RAN S FO RMATI ON POI N T S 131
P er c en t Car b on — w>
F IG . 23 .
—H w
o
’
e s Di g
a ra m .
132 E XPE RIM E N TAL GR O UP IV
c the light of th e above gen eral explan atio n an d a lso of

. In ,
your study of the lead an tim o n y diagram explain the actio n s

-
,
proceedin g in the m etal at all tim es duri n g the heatin g an d

coo h n g .
(1 . allotropy Give th e allotropic m odification s of

D efin e .
som e other substan ces than iro n an d sulfur Give an explan a

.
tio n of allotropy based upo n the m olecular theory as sii ggested

,
by the allotropy of oxygen .

its past heat treatm en t an d probable stren gth an d brittlen ess by

,
the fracture if the carbon con ten t of a steel is kn ow

, Pr o n .
g r essiv e m a n ufacturers are co n trolli n g suppl em en tin g an d , ,
checkin g their fracture in dication s by chemical an alyses while

—
,
wide awake en gin eers are dem an din g m ore th or ogoin g frac
ture tests supplem en ted by m etallographical an alysis to con
, ,
trol their acceptan ces A t the presen t tim e railway en gi

.
,
n eer s are dem an di n g that top rails fro m each in ot be teste d

g
un der the drop hamm er (see Fig -
w hile rail man ufacturers .
are in sistin g that the presen t practice of testin g ran dom rails
F IG . 24 . U d i b l R il
-
n es r a e a s .
R e pr o d df
uce ro m T he E n g in eer i n g N R
e w s-d by p ec or er missio n of th e M c G Hi
r aw - ll
li h
,
Pu b s ing Co .
from each heat is su fficien t B ridge an d mechan ical en gin eers .
“
are com in g to the co n clusio n than m an y d isastrous failures
attributed to crystallization u n der altern atin g stresses iare
in reality due to the brittle n ess in duced by the coarse crys
t alliz ation resultin g from improper heat treatm en t durin g
fabrication an d are relyin g upon their in sp ectors to reject such
,
pieces at the steel mills .
M icroscopic exam in ation has co n firm ed the supposition that

a piece of metal is essen tially an aggregate of small crystal lin e
grain s cem en ted together with a thin fihn of n on crysta llin e (or -
amorphous) material (S ee E xperim e n t

. N o I t seems .
that the amorphous cemen t is stro n ger an d tougher than th e

crystallin e aggregate ; therefore when a piece of such mater ial
. ,
C RYS TALLIZATI O N OF S TE E L 135
fail s , the fracture passes thr u the crystals themse lves al on g ,
well d efin ed C l eavage or partin g plan es rather than aroun d the

-
,
rougher sup er ficies of the in dividual crystals Con sequen tly .

,
the fresh fracture will show bright flashes of light reflected from
the sm all flat partin g plan es The larger the crystallin e g rain
, ,
.
,
the larger the parting plan es an d the coarser an d m ore fiery the ,
fracture The fin er the crystals the greater the percen tage of

.
,
amorphous m aterial the stron ger an d tougher the steel an d the , ,
m ore silky the fracture .
I f cast steel (Fig 2 5) is held at a high temperature the crys .

,
t allin e grain does n o t seem to grow coarser On ce the crystals .
of this castin g have been broken up an d in term ixed by hamm er

in g rollin g or other m echan ical kn eadin g (Fig
, ,
the grain .
size is strictly depen de n t upon the heat treatmen t subsequen tly

imparted to the bar (Fig I t seem s that even a m oderate
. .
°
degree of heat (500 if co n tin uously applied is suffi cien t to ,
cause growth in the grain si ze ultim ately in ducin g weakn ess

an d failure thru a phen o me n o n called S tead s brittlen ess ” ,
’
.
Furn ace b u ékstays cran e chai n s an d other m embers repeatedly

, ,
heated to such temperatures should therefore be an n ealed at , ,
i n tervals to restore their ori gin al properties

.
.
A very short tim e at an extrem e temperature will cause the

sam e grain growth an d the fin est steel c an be absolutely ruin ed
,
by lo n g exp psu r e at high temperature if follow ed by n o sub se

quen t workin g or heat treatm en t In weldin g an d forgin g .
practice the blacksmi th guards again st thi s dan g er b y c on tin

, .
u ally hamm eri n g the metal u n til it has cooled to a red heat less ,
than 9 00 C in order co n stan tly to break u p the g rowin g crys

°
.
,
tals B elow A 7 3 m echan ical work is aban do n ed because the

.
, ,
rate of g rowth is then quite slow an d the meta l has l ost the ,
pl asticity which is required for hot workin g .
F ortun ately un less the steel has been abso l utel y ruin ed by
,
“
overheatin g to th e p oin t of in cipien t fusion an d therefore
burn ed (Fig all previous crys talli n e structure seem s to
,
be ob literated by a r eheatin g thru A C1 at which tran sform a ,
tion r an ge a n ew an d in depen den t accumulation of crysta ll in e

/
F IG . 25.
—C as t I g n ot . F IG . 26 .
—F g d
or e an d R eh eat e dN yt
ear l o A 63
.
F IG . 2 7 . R eh eat e
-
dC on s id bly er a F IG . 28 .
—
R eh eate d M uc h
bv
a o e A 03. abv o e A 63
.
F IG . 29
—R eh eated P ast
. Bu i g P i
rn n o n t.
(Ph o tom ic r og r aph s by E P S t g . . en er , of C b St

ar on eel . A ll at 7 5 di m)
a .
1 36
E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP IV
S cleroscope .
E m erywheel .
Impact m achin e .
Optical pyrom eter .
Five gallo n water pail for quen chi n g bath

-
.
Vises .
Pr oced ur e N OTE carbo n steels are best to show crys

. . High -
t allin e growth at high tem peratures M edium carbo n steels .
c an also be used L ower carbon steels should be n icked d eeper

.
,
but even so som e will n o t break without large ben din g whi ch
, ,
spoils the appearan ce of the fracture These steels should .

,
therefore be sawed off an d studied microscopically by the better

, ,
squads an d a series of specim en s m ou n ted at equal magnific a

, ,
tio n s for in spection by the whole class

,
.
a S aw about three eighths of the way thru two of the

.
-
rods of E xperimen t N o I 5 at g in in tervals M ark the sec .

-
. .
tion s con secutively with alphabetical pun ches P ut on e of these .
ni cked bars together with a n other of the plai n bars fro m E xp er i

,
m en t N o 1 6 in the hot crucible furn ace

.
,
D elegate on e mem .
ber of the squad to hold thi s furn ace as close to 1 2 50 C as pos °

.
sible main tainin g a reducin g flam e at all times A llow the

,
.
n otched piece to rem ai n in the furn ace thirty mi n utes an d th e n
rem ove it an d allow it to cool in the air The plain bar is to .
rem ai n in the hot crucible two hours cooled in air an d then used , ,
in procedure f .
. b B reak o n e sectio n from the en ds of both n otched bars by

.
placin g them in the roun d hole in the an vil an d striki n g a sharp

blow with a 3 lb hammer Vises must n o t be used for b reak in g
-
. .
specim en s E xamin e the fractures an d save the small pieces

.
,
for further comparison P aste a sm all gumm ed label ar orin d .
each fra gmen t givin g its carbon con ten t an d heat treatmen t
, .
6
. P lace the two n otched pieces alo n gside each other in the :
oven furn ace an d heat (an n eal ) successively to the followi n g

temperatures : A c l A c l + 2 5 ; A 63 —
° 0 °
2 5 ; A C3 + 2 5 ; an d
the n by 1 00 in tervals to the limit of the fur n ace M easure the

°
.
C RYS TALLIZATI ON OF S TE E L 139
temperature as in procedure d A fter each temperature has .
bee n reached rem ove the bars from the furn ace cool in air
, , ,
break off a sectio n ex am in e an d label as before n oted

, ,
.
d M easure the temperatures as follows : P lace your cali

.
b r ated therm o couple properly covered with asbestos stri n g

-
,
(E xperi m e n t N o 7) in a 1 2. in protectio n tube

-
of in wrought
.
-
.
iro n pipe In sert this tube thru a suitable hole in the side or
.
back of the furn ace in such a mann er that the hot en d will b e
directly above th e n otched bars A reducin g flam e should be .
m ain tain ed at all tim es A djust the couple an d bars correctly

.
,
close the door an d raise the temperature very gradually up to

,
th e first an n ealin g temperature n oted ta k in g at least fif teen min ,
utes to attain that degree an d m akin g sure that the bars an d ,
furn ace do n o t pass that heat T he door of the furn ace may be .
left open to cool the mu ffle slightly so that an other fifteen min ,
utes will be co n sumed in heati n g to the n ext temperature an d ,
so o n . R em ove the therm o couple an d use an optical pyrometer

-
,
for temperatures above 1 000 C °

.
e R em ove o n ly on e bar from th e mu ffl e at the highest t em

.
p e r a t u r e ,
a n d try to r efin e the grain of the other by allowi n g
it to coo l in the furn ace to just above A 63 an d then quick l y ,
quen ch by plun gin g it en dwise in to a pail of tap water D r y .
the bar an d in spect the grain size by breakin g as in p rocedure b; ,
.
f Take on e of the rods of E xperi m e n t N o 1 6 an d an n eal it .
carefu ll y up to the temperature which accordin g to your exp er i ,
m en tal results produces the fin est grain

, A llow it to cool in air .
from that temperature B oth thi s bar an d th e b ar overheated

.
,
for tw o hours in procedure a should be tested for re l ative tou gh

n ess in the impact m achin e as follows : M oun t the bars in the ,
vis e so th at about on e in ch will p rotrude an d strik e thi s pro ,
c tin g en d successive blows with the drop hamm er startin g at

'
j e -
,
1 in fa ll then 2
- .
,
then 3 in an d so on un ti l failure en sues
- .
.
g . G ri n d o n e e nd of each p iece flat a n d test the hard n ess with ,
the sc l eroscope .
Q u e r ie s a. Tak e a p iece of heavy cardboard 8%

.
in , .
,
letter it with the squad n umber perso n n el an d composition of ,

14 0 E XPE RIM E N TAL GRO UP IV
th e steel treated M oun t all the steel fragm en ts in an orderly

.
‘
man n er by thrusti n g them thru sm all holes cut in the paste

board U n der each specim en place its heat treatm en t its hard
.
,
n ess ,
an d its tough n ess if determ i n ed on the i m pact m ac hin e
, .
P lace this sheet on the bulleti n board for in spection of the other
squads .
b M ake up an e quilibrium diagram for steel on coordin ate

.
paper in light black lin es followin g Fig 2 3 page 1 31 P lot upori

,
.
,
.
this diag ram the hardn ess n um eral of all th e fragm en ts tested
by the laboratory squads as posted on th e bulletin board D raw .
con tour lin es of equal hardn ess in red .
0 B y exam i n ation of the work of the various squads place

.
,
a heavy black lin e on this diagram showin g th e an n ealin g temper

ature which produces the fin est grai n .
d What e ffect does tim e have upon the grain size if th e tem
.
,
r e is above A 6 3 ? below A 6 1 ?
p e r a t u
e D istin guish
. between overheated an d burn t steel .
Can the latter be again restored to its n orm al co n dition b y a

heat treatm en t ?
m m
'
f. Judgi n g f ro the experi e n tal data will there be

,
an y
chang e in the grai n size durin g temperin g ?

g I
. s there a relatio n shown between g rain size an d the hard
'
n ess and ductility of steel ? Cite figures .
Ii How Would on e m easure the size of the crystal lin e g rain ?

.
i Give experim en tal support to the statemen t on page 1 2 5

.
that m olecular rearran gem en t is n o t o n ly possible in the solid

State but m olecular mi g ration actually covers co n siderable dis
'
tan c es .
142 E XPE RIM E N TA L GRO UP IV
proper temp erature an d secon d coolin g it quickly an d un iformly

, , .
The first operation presupposes a well design ed furn ace un iform -

,
in temperature from top to bottom an d en d to en d operati n g ,
steadily with a n eutral flam e hazy heat M odern produc

tion of quan tity work dem an ds a heat con trol m ore delicate than
the un aided eye an d pyrometers are i n stalled in all furn aces
,
where quality an d u n iformity are prerequisite .
The m etal must be in the furn ace lon g en ough to attain the
furn ace temperature which tim e of course varies with the m ass
, , ,
of the piece I t has been fo un d that owi n g to the large heat

.
,
co n ductivity of steel the surface of a m etallic object is con

, .
st an t ly some what hotter than its cen ter but colder than the ,
furn ace atmosphere B oth differen tials decrease as the steel

.
n ears the furn ace temperature ; therefore whe n a therm o couple ,

-
in co n tact with the surface of the m etal registers the sam e degree
as the furn ace itself the piece is heated u n iform ly an d is ready
,
for quen chin g A t such a tim e the piece c an be seen o n ly with

.
di fficulty as it radiates heat at the sam e rate as the furn ace Walls
,
them selves .
A s a m atter of fact it is quite a diff cult thin g to co n struct a

,
i
furn ace which will operate at a u n iform tem perature an d a

n eutral flam e I t al so requires good jud gm en t so to place the
.
m etallic pieces that a good flow of heat c an circulate all about

them warm in g all parts at a un iform rate In m an y places
,
.
baths of molten salt are in stalled which have m an y obvious

advan tages over a gas or coal fir ed furn ace S alt baths are -
.
better than molten lead baths because they do n o t alloy with ,
the m etal n or do they oxidize the steel pieces readily sin k in the ,
hot liquid an d do n o t have to be held below the surface On .
withdrawal for quen chin g the objects are protected from surface ,
oxidation or decarbon ization by a thin film of adheren t s alt ,
which c an easily be washed off .
Warpin g may occur in the heatin g furn ace due to a n on

un iform heatin g or it with its partn ers crackin g an d in tern al
, ,
strain may appear after the quen chin g operation but for the self
, ,
—
sam e reason variable heat tran sfer rates The ordin ary dif -
.
HA R D E N IN G OF S TE E L 143
fer en ces in volume due to exp an sio n with i n creasin g tempera

ture are accen tuated by the fact that there is a large co n traction
in p assin g thr u the A 6 3 ra n ge an d a correspo n din g expan sio n
at A 7 3 tran sformatio n A large forgin g for in sta n ce rapidly.
, ,
quen ched from the austeni tic co n ditio n will act somewhat as ,
fol lows : T h e surface will be cooled very rapidly thru the A r

ran ges so rapidl y that the n orm al expan sion occurri n g here will
,
be suppressed The drop in temperature will also cause a further

.
large co n tractio n an d the n et result is a cold mu ff shru n k upo n a

,
hotter core This core will cool m uch m ore slowly an d the A r
.
tran sform atio n s with its accompan yi n g expa n sio n will proceed
, ,
(at least in part ) f urther stressi n g the outer re gion s I t is

,
.
sm all won der that quen ched forgin gs warp split an d eve n , ,
explode violen tly un der the exc essive stresses thus produced
,
.
L arge pieces should therefore be coun terbored m ildly quen ched

, , , ,
an d an n ealed immediately B orin g a hole in the cen ter of fo r g

.
in gs rem oves metal (which is usually below grade because of

pipin g an d segregatio n ) from that portio n of the piece where
even good metal would be least eff ective an d at the sam e time ,
provides for a more U n iform coolin g rate edge to cen te r I t , .
is therefore seldom that eve n a piece with a very large cou n ter
, ,
bore would n o t be a better stro n ger an d safer piece than , ,
ori gin ally .Con sequen tly such practice should be i n sisted ,
upo n in all larg e pieces un less absolutely impossible of attain

m en t.
From the above discussion it is eviden t that for han d work , ,
symmetrical section s should be quen ched vertically in th e

direction of their g reatest len g th Hollow section s should in .
,
addition have a stream of the quen chin g fluid forced up thru

,
the in terior open in g F or qu an tity work certain m echa n ical

.
,
features are usefu l as n oted in B u ll en s S teel an d its Heat

’
”
Treatmen t I st E ditio n pages 86 to 9 5
,
,
, .
S p eci al A ppar atu s The special apparatus n eeded is as fo l

.
lews :
On e e l ectrical m eter .
Five gallo n pail for quen chin g bath

-
.
14 4 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP . IV

T en steel rods from E xp erim en t N o . 1 6 .
Tw o steel rods from E xperim en t N o . 1 7 .
Han dful of waste .
Lab oratory E quipmen t . The laboratory equipme n t n eeded

as follows :
Vises .
N um erical p un ches .
I ce.
Tan k of quen chin g oil .
Impact testin g m achin e .
S cleroscope .
Pr o ce d ur e Take twelve pieces of steel from E xperim en ts

. a .
N o s 1 6 an d 1 7 an d saw on e n otch g in from the en d of each

.
,
.
piece These n otches must be g aged an d cut exactly the sam e

.
depth in all bars P n —

u ch m ark the short en ds correspon di n g
.
to the quen c hin g temperatures of procedure e .
b P lace the bars crosswise in the oven furn ace separated

.
,
somewhat from each other with that on e bearin g the lowest ,
n u mber at the fro n t In sert your ca librated therm o couple in.

-
the wrought iro n protection tube ; an d thrust thi s pipe thru

-
the pyrom eter hole in the furn ace in such a m an n er that the h o t
en d will be directly above an d preferably restin g upo n the first
of the bars .
c .Heat the furn ace slowly with a reducin g flam e takin g -about ,
forty five min utes to attain a temperature of 600 C When

-
°
.
thi s degree is reached on e squad m ember should open the door ,
o n ly lo n g en ough for an other to grasp the en d of the first bar

with ton gs plun gi n g it immediately en d on in to a 5 gallon pail
,
-
of quen chin g oil placed close up to the furn ace so that n o steps
, ,
are n ecessary S peed in tran sfer is essen tial M ove the bar
. .
back an d forth sideways in the bath un til it is cold k eepin g it ,
con stan tly subm erged in a ver tical positio n R emove wipe o ff .
,
the oil an d test for toughn ess an d hard n ess accordin g to pro
,
14 6 E XPE RIM E N TAL GRO UP IV
b
.Compare the crystallin e grain shown by the fracture of
th e quen ched pieces from this experim en t to those from E xper i
m en t N o 1 7 . What g en eral di fferen ce if an y is exhibited by
.
, ,
quen ched pieces from those ann ealed at the sam e temperature .
c .M ake up an equi librium diagram for steel on coordin ate

paper in light black lin es followin g Fig 2 3 page 1 31 P lot on
,
.
,
.
thi s diagram the hardn ess n um eral of all th e fragm en ts tested

by the laboratory squads as posted on the bulletin board D raw .
co n tour lin es of equal hardn ess in red .
d What is the co n stitutio n of a 0 5 carbon steel (five poin t

. .
-
° ° 0
steel) at 7 40 C 8 50 C an d 1 000 C ? A r e these states pre
.
,
.
,
.
served in the cold after quen chin g in oil ? What con clusion s c an
be drawn from the curves of query c as to the hardn ess of wrought
iron if quen ched from these temperatures ?
e Wh y is the lowest heat givi n g the harden in g e ffect th e
.
best heat to use ?

QU E N CHI N G M ED A I
O b j ect .The object of this experimen t is to study th e
harde n in g power of various liquids .
G en er al E xplan atio n Whe n a piece of hot iro n is plu n ged

.
i n to a cold liquid the latter dan ces again st the surface of the
,
m etal in much the sa me m an n er as drops of water da n ce o n a hot

stove The quen chin g fluid co mes i n to co n tact with the heated
'
surface perhaps m o men tarily b iit “ it i mm ediately vaporize

, s ,
an d the liquid for the m ost part is he l d away by a thi n film of gas .
The actual tra n sfer of heat (see pa g e 1 0 5 E xperimen t N o 1 4 ) ,

.
from the hot m etal to the col d liquid takes place in the first
place by con vectio n curren ts where gaseous bubbles are driven ,
away in to the colder surroun di n gs there to escape or be c on ,
d en sed ; secon dly by radiatio n thru this gaseous en velope

, ,
an d thirdly by C ,
—
o n duction across the followi n g system m etal
gas i n terface gas film gas :liq uid in terface The rel ative impor
, ,
.
ta n ce of the three m ethods are about in th e order as stated

the first (c o n vectio n ) probab l y rem ovi n g a large part of the heat ,
the third (con duction ) removi n g comparatively little owin g to ,
the great resistivity of the system due to the large coe fficien ts
of in tern al tran sfer at the two in terfaces The heat loss by .
con vectio n is obviously accelerated by movi n g the que n ched

m etal about in the bath .
We m ay say therefore that the quen chin g power of a fluid

, ,
depen ds to a large exten t upo n its total heat to th e boi lin g

, ,
p oin t its laten t heat of vaporizatio n an d its coefficien t of

~
, ,
emissivity (p age A bath which absorbs much heat p er un it

volum e to brin g the co n tact fihn to the boi lin g poin t then a ,
further large am ou n t to vaporize thi s hot liquid an d is thin or ,
m obile e n ough to allow free passage of gas bubbles away from

14 7
14 8 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP I V
the hot surface i n to the colder surro un din gs will cool heated ,
a rticles quickly .
Thousan ds of di ffere n t fluids have been tried as quen chin g

baths Those most co mm o n ly used are water various salt
.
,
solution s differen t kin ds of m in eral or organ ic oils an d fin ally

, , ,
m olten m etal or salt baths A tan k of ordin a ry tap water is .
o n e of the quickest que n chi n g baths k n own bei n g exceeded o n ly ,
by salt sol utio n s an d water jets ; in fact it produces an actio n ,
so drastic that it is u n safe to use o n work with m ore than twe n ty
poi n ts of carbon except in the han ds of experts O il baths are .
m uch milder an d their cooli n g speed is less depen den t u po n the

,
tem perature of the bath In fact som e sticky oil s q u en ch m ore

.
,
rapidly whe n hot than whe n cold owin g to the grea ter viscosity ,
at low temperatures M olten m etals or salts cool hot steel

.
q uite slowly but are i n,

valuable in the heat treat m e n t of m oder n
high speed steel M an y secret com poun ds on the m arket

-
.
are said especially by their salesm en to be capable of curin g

, ,
an y harden in g room di fficulty A s is the case of paten t cem en ts .
(E xperim en t N o m ost if n o t all such pa n aceas are worth

”
.
, ,
less ; educated people shun cure alls -

.
G ood quen chin g baths should have arran gem en ts to main

tain a u n iform temperature This m ay be effected by coili n g .
cold water pipes arou n d the sides of the tan ks ; or better by

-
, ,
circulatin g the quen chin g m e d ium itself S tirrin g the oil by .
m ean s of co m pressed air should b e avoided o n accou n t of th e ,
oxidatio n of the oil which usually proceeds an d the dan ger of a ,
stream of air bubbles bathin g the side of a hot piece durin g

quen c hin g with the con sequen t formatio n of a soft spot
,
.
S p ec ial A ppar atu s . The special apparatu s n eeded is as follows

Five 5 gallo n pails
-
.
O n e large gas burn er .
O n e large tripod .
Two pieces of gas tubi n g 1 0 feet lo n g ,

.
O n e 300 C m ercury therm om eter m etal cased

°
.
.
,
O n e electrical m eter .
150 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR OUP IV
Tap water .
B oili n g water .
°
A n n eali n g oil at 2 00 C .
A lso see that the lead pot is ready for use an d at a temperature ,
°
of 4 00 C .
e Que n ch on e bar in each m ediu m after procedure c of

.
E xperim e n t N o 1 8 Close the furn ace between tim es lon g

. .
en ough for the pyrometer to recover the correct temperature .
Test each p iece for hard n ess an d tou ghn ess accordi n g to pro
c ed u r es f an d g of E xperi m e n t N o 17 In pr epari n g for the . .
hard n ess test gri n d the pieces very slowly k eepi n g the bars cold
, ,
.
P aste a sm all gumm ed labe l arou n d each fragm en t givi n g its ,
carbon co n ten t heat treatmen t hardn ess an d toughn ess

, , ,
.
P reserve all the pieces for referen ce .
f. Heat the seve n th bar in the furn ace to the m axi mu m -
temperature attain ab l e an d quen ch in iced bri n e Test as i n ,

.
procedure e above ,
.
g. S hut o ff the gas after the last bar has bee n re m oved a n d ,
cool the furn ace rapidly by leavi n g the air blast on When it .
has dropped to a black heat ran ge all the lon g bar en ds properly ,
-
in the furn ace an d an n eal carefully at the temperature w hich

,
gives the m inimum grain size Cool overn i ght in the furn ace . .
Q u er ie s a Co n.struct a n eat tabulatio n of the results

.
,
in cludi n g the hardn ess an d toughn ess of oil quenched stee l from -
E xperim e n t N o 1 7 . .
b Why should a quen chin g in brin e g ive a greater hard n ess

.
than a quen chin g in water of the sam e temperature ?

c. D efin e toughn ess ” I s there an y relation be tween .
hardn ess an d toughn ess in carbon steels ?

d G ive two reaso n s wh y the hardn ess resultin g from wat er
.
quen chin g should vary in verse l y as the temperature of th e

quen chin g bath .
e Wh y should the hardn ess of a high carbo n bar que n ched

.
-
from 1 2 00 C in iced brin e be less than th at of the same b ar

°
.
quen ched from 8 50 C in cold water ? °

.
QU E N CH I N G M E DIA 15 1
O utlin e
a system for circ lati n g an d cooli n g the que n ch
f. u
in g oil for a battery of harden i n g ove n s .
g. What is m oder n high speed

-
steel ? O utli n e t h e heat
“
treatme n t of such tools recomm e n ded by Frederick W Taylor
k Why does procedure e above specify g ri n d cold ?
.
, ,
. .
T E M P E R IN G A N D T OU G HE N IN G
O b j e ct The object of this experim e n t is to study the effec t

.
of reheati n g a harden ed steel .
G en er al E xpla n atio n When carbo n steels are heated above

.
the tran sform atio n ran ge i n to the auste n itic ar ea the va r ious ,
aggregation s of ferrite an d cem en tite crystals n o rmally presen t

in slowly cooled steels are con verted i n to a u n iform solid solutio n ,
austen ite The exact reverse of this happen s on slow coolin g

.
,
as was i n dicated in E xperim en t N o 1 6 A ll previous structure

. .
is con sequen tly ob literated by a sufficien t heatin g an d upon sub ,
sequen t rapid coolin g by quen chin g the usual con version of ,
austen ite (stable on ly at high temperatures ) back in to th e ,
aggregate of ferrite an d cem en tite is preven ted at least in part , ,
because of lack of tim e a ff orded at the tran sform ation ra n ges .
T ime is an esse n tial to this decompositio n for the gamm a ,
iron existin g in the austen ite m ust chan ge thru the beta in to
the alpha m odification an d the ferrite an d cemen tite must
,
further separate an d coagulate in to the state recogn ized as

pearlite M olecular rearran gem en t an d migration in the solid
.
is possible o n ly if a suffi cien tly elevated temperature allows the

m olecules the requisite freedom of m ovem en t S hould coolin g .
be so rapid as to lock the m olecules tightly together in th e cold

steel before an y chan ge proceeds pure austen ite may be pre ,
served an d examin ed in the cold (Fig In the ordin a r y .
practice of harden in g steels as described in E xperim en ts N o s .
1 8 an d 1 9 the quen chin g is n o t so drastic an d th e tran sfo r m a

, ,
tion of austen ite back to ferrite an d cem en tite is more or less

completely eff ected givin g rise to certain tran sitory form s which
are kn own as marten site ”
,
troostite ”,
”
sorbite an d fin ally , , , ,
152
1 54 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP IV
gamm a i n to beta iro n (A n dr é L e Chatelier) M c Can ce thi n ks .
that supercooled gamm a iro n is held in its origin al octahedral

crystallin e orien tation u n der great i n term olecular stress ; while
Humphrey believes that the tran sform ation of iron h as actually
proceeded far en ough to lose its octahedral sym metry without
yet attain in g the cubic orien tatio n of alpha iron The resultin g .
iron is therefore in an am orphous con ditio n whi ch we kn ow to

, , ,
be harder an d stron g er than a crystallin e state .
These various hyp otheses are in capable of explain in g th e

hardn ess of slowly cooled an d ann ealed alloy steels altho ,
in tern al strain doub tless produces co n siderable hardn ess u n der

, ,
certain con di tio n s L ikewise hypotheses based on the presen ce

.
,
of carbon or som e hard carbide are in sufficien t to exp lain the

great hardn ess of low carbon alloy steels or the chan ge in hard
-
n ess on t e mperin g high carbo n steels A s a matter of fact a

-
.
,
m assive carbide F e3 C has been p rep ared an d foun d to possess

o n ly moderate hardn ess .
O sm on d s allotropic theory thus seem s most n ear l y to cover

’
the facts I t rests on the recogn ition of three un ique states of

.
iro n , viz : gamm a iro n den se ; beta iro n hard ; an d alpha iro n
.
, , ,
m agn etic When the steel cools from the gamm a co n dition the
.
,
allotropic chan ges m ay be regarded as takin g place in two steps ;

the first characterized by a dilation an d harden in g from the
gamm a state in to beta iron ; an d the seco nd by soften in g an d
m agn etizatio n from beta in to alp ha iro n These steps overlap .
to various degrees in quen chin g at differen t speeds an d cause ,
in depen den t variation s in magn etism again st hardn ess The .
latter in fact may be an ythin g from the B rin ell hardn ess 1 2 5 of
, ,
gamm a iron up to the 800 of beta or down on the other side of

, ,
the m axim um to the 7 5 of alpha iron .
A ccor din g to this theory a soft stee l m ay therefore be , , ,
austen itic co n tain in g gamm a iro n or pear litic with alpha iron
, , ,
.
A lloy steels are often austen itic with their A ran ges depressed ,
e
to n early room temperatures S uch a steel on m oderately slow .
coo lin g ordin arily would be in a slightly supercooled austen itic

con ditio n an d could be harden ed either by further coo li n g in a
,
T E M PE R IN G AN D TO UG H E N I N G 155
refrigeran t causi n g the beta iro n to form (marten site ) or by a

, ,
m oderate reheati n g to a temperature below the tran sformatio n

ran ge where the tim e an d m olecular mobility would be su fficie n t
to e ff ect the sam e co n versio n or lastly by the molecular activity , , ,
in duced by the overstrain i n g of machini n g forgin g or other cold , ,
workin g operation s .
O sm o n d s theory is also co mpeten t to explain an n ealin g an d

’
toughenin g practice A quickly quen ched carbo n steel is mostly

.
m arten sitic (F ig 3 1 ) which m etar al is a solid solution of beta iro n

.
,
F IG .
3I .
—
P tc h
a of M a te i t f
r ns e ro m E u t c t id S t
e o eel . Q u en ch ed f ro m
800
°
C . in Ic d B i
e r ne .
an d cem en tite hard an d brittle M oderate reheatin g or a n n ea l

,
.
in g chan ges this structure largely in to troostite (Figs 3 2 an d .
which is a partly tran sform ed m arten site possessin g much of the ,
hard n ess of marten site but with a largely i n creased toughn ess ,
an d shock resista n ce This toughn ess is the chief characteristic

.
of t h e n ext metar al in the tran sform atio n series sorbite (Figs ,

.
m m m
”
3 4 an d 3 which is erely arte n site wholly tra n sfor ed i n to a

m ixture of u l tram icroscopic crystals of ferrite (alpha iro n ) an d
cem en tite (F eg C) .
The wo r d temp er in g shou l d be restricted to de n ote a moderate

reheati n g up to about 3 50 C fo r m i n g troostitic stee l while
,
.
, ,
F IG .
32 .
4 ig ) p
M ar t en s it e (l h t ar eas ass F IG .
33.
—Ma ig dl )r t en s tei (l h t n ee es
i gi t T
n t i t (d k
n o ) r oos e ar ar eas . p i gi t T
ass n d k p t ch )
n o r oostit e ( ar a es .
E u t ec t id S t l Q u ch d f
o ee ,
en e ro m F m p c f E u t c t id
ro a ie e o e o
C t mp d t 75 C S t l E l c t ic lly W ld d
° °
8 00 .
,
e er e a 2 . ee e r a e e .
F IG 34
.
— S bi t (d a k p atc h ) p
. or e r es ass F IG .
—
C b ar on St eel .
p er
i g i t
n P li t (wavy st i ti )
n o ear e r a on s . c C b
en t 5 Xar O m don . 1
'
0 . s on .
L i gh t A a a P at c h s f F e i t
re s re e o rr e . P li t l m i t d p i g i t
ea r e, a na e , ass n n o
p i c f Hyp
F ro m a e e o oeu tec bi t d k d f ml
sor e, ar an or ess .
to id S t l E l c t ic lly W ld d
ee a R p d d b mi i f m S v
T
e r e e e ro u ce eu r
ph y
y p er s son ro a
l d H
. .
M e ta lo
” ra m f eat r ea t en t
gt l
an o
I r on an d ee .
158 E XP E RIM E N TAL GROUP IV
Two riddles ; on e é in ; on e i in -
.
-
.
Hatchet .
On e 5 gallon pail for quen chin g bath

-
.
On e deep m etal p an for an n eali n g bath .
Wire basket for holdin g m etal .
On e 300 C m ercury therm om eter m etal cased

°
. .
,
O n e electrical m eter .
S uppli e s The supplies n eeded are as follows

.
E leven bars from E xp erime n ts 1 7 1 8 an d 1 9 ,

.
Lab oratory E quipmen t The laboratory equipmen t . n eed ed

is as follows
I ce .
Coke .
Bucki n g board an d muller

-
.
Ki n dlin g wood .
A n vil an d blacksmith s too l s

’
.
E m ery wheel .
Vises .
N u m erical pu n ches .
S cleroscope .
Impact m achin e .
D rop ham m er with a n vil of mild steel

-
,
.
A n n eali n g oil .
L ead pot an d pyrom eter equipm en t .
P ortable rivet forge .
P r oce d ur e ake a coke fire in the portable forge as

. a . M
follows : Crush about 1 cu ft of coke thru the in ridd le . .
-
.
,
screen in g out the fin es with a i in riddle Wet the fin es an d -

. .
ba k the aroun d the sides of the forge for i g a saucer shaped

n m m n — ,
d epression with the tuyere at the bottom Cut fin e kin dlin gs .
an d build up a good bed of hot wood e mbers with a ge n tle blast ,
gradually addin g more an d more of the g in coke with the wood -

.
u n til a solid bed of glowi n g coke rem ai n s .
b I n sert eleve n steel bars i n to the hot bed of coals on e at a

.
,
tim e heatin g about 2 in at the en d to a bright red an d th en

, .
,
TE MPE RI N G AN D TO UG HE N IN G 159
forge a roun d poi n t on th e bar G uard again st overheatin g an d .
burn in g the bar an d co n tin ue the hamm erin g to a low heat

,
.
D o n o t start the heati n g of the seco n d bar u n til the first is h am

m ered cold Fin ish the p oin t on a coarse em ery wheel
. .
c D iscuss the results of E xperimen ts N os 1 8 an d 1 9 wi th an

. .
in structor an d decide with him the correct quen chin g tempera

,
ture an d m edium N otch each bar 3 ; in fro m the square

. en d to .
ex actly the sam e depth pu n ch m ark the e n ds an d bodies of the ,
bars wi th the reheatin g tem peratures used in this experim en t ,
heat the bars accordin g to procedures b to d of E xperim en t N o 1 9 .

,
a n d que n ch accordi n g to procedure c of E xperim e n t N o 18 . .
G rin d the square en d carefully an d test each bar for hard n ess ,
.
S hould the hard n ess of the di fferen t bars vary m ore than 1 5 per
cen t the harden in g m ust be repeated u n til this toleran ce is
'
attain ed .
d A rran g e a p an of boi lin g water over a g as burn er place

.
,
on e bar i n the wire basket an d plu n ge it i n to the liquid The ,

.
bar bein g reheated m ust n o t touch the bottom or sides of the

tan k an d the ann ealin g fluid m ust be in co n stan t circulatio n on
,
all sides of the piece A fter fifteen min utes rem ove an d cool .
,
in the air .
.6 G rin d a sharp poin t with a fin e em ery whee l an d test its ,
co n ditio n by holdin g the bar upright u n der the drop hammer -

,
with the bottom block replaced by a bloc k of mild steel R aise .
the hamm er I in release an d examin e the co n ditio n of the poin t

.
, ,
after the blow R epeat the drop from 2 in 3 in 4 in etc

. .
,
.
,
.
,
.
,
un til the poin t breaks turn s over flatten s or fails in som e other, , ,
m an n er .Test the square en d with the impact m achin e an d

scleroscope accordin g to procedures f an d g of E xperim en t N o 1 7 . .
P aste a s m all gumm ed label aroun d both fragm e n ts givin g the ,
carbon co n ten t heat treatm en t hardn ess an d toughn ess P re

, ,
.
“
serve all pieces for referen ce .
f
. R eheat four other pieces in a p a n of oil on e to the fo ll ow ,
in g temperatures ,
° ° 0
2 00 C . 2 50 C .
300 C .
1 60 E X P E RIM E N TAL GRO UP I V
stirrin g the oil co n stan tly an d m akin g sure that the piece is n o t
,
overheated These pieces m ay be withdrawn from a risin g

.
tem perature at the proper poin t if at least twen ty mi n utes is

co n sum ed in coverin g the in tervals between Cool each piece .
in air an d test as in procedure e above

,
The fourth bar s h ould be
.
held in the hot oil bath at 300 C for o n e hour (bein g extrem ely
0
.
careful to m ain tain a un iform tem perature ) an d then air cooled

an d tes t ed as the others
g R.eheat six other pieces in the lead pot o n e to each of ,
the followin g temperatures :
U sethe precautio n s n oted in procedure f an d test each bar as

usual .
12 D raw curves on coordi n ate paper showin g the variatio n in

.
hardn ess an d tou ghn ess with the reheatin g temperature as

determin ed by the results of this experim en t P ost this on the .
bulletin board , an d exhibit the results of the tests to an in structor .
Q u eri e s a D raw curves

. . in I n dia ink on coordin ate paper
showin g the variation in hardn ess an d toughn ess with the

reheatin g temperature as determin ed by the results of this
experim en t S how in color on the sam e sheet a curve of hard
.
n ess again st a n n ealin g temperature derived fro m E xperim e n t
N o 17
. D iscuss reaso n s for sim ilarities or di ffere n ces in the
.
results of E xperim en ts N o s 1 7 an d 2 0 . .
b M ake up an equilibrium diagram for steel on coord in ate

.
paper in light black lin es followin g Fig 2 3 page 1 3 1 P lot on

,
.
,
.
this diagram the toughn ess of all the fragm en ts tested by the
laboratory squads as posted on the bulletin board D raw con .
tour lin es of equal toughn ess in red

T O O L M A KI N G
Ob j ect The object of this experimen t is to apply the

.
kn owledge gain ed in previous experimen ts in makin g a cen ter

pu n ch an d a cold chisel .
G en e ral E xpl an atio n Importan t as are application s of the

.
complex alloys kn own as high speed steels there are n ow -

, ,
an d doubtless always will be e n orm ous n u mbers of tools m achin e , ,
parts an d structural mem bers which are made of plain carb on

,
steels E ven som e very heavy duty tools will con tin ue to be
.
-
m ade of the simpler ca rbo n steels sin ce they c an be harden ed ,
to a m uch higher degree than c an the m odern high speed t ools -

,
which latter are pre emin en t for m ost m etal cuttin g purposes
-
n o t because of their i n tri n sic hard n ess but because of their ,
ability to retain their m oderate hardn ess when cuttin g so fast

that the sharp edge is heated to an ann ealin g temperature .
A m o n g m akers an d ven dors simple carbon tool steels are

” ”
-
,
classed by grade an d temper The word grade is qual

,
.
ified by m an y adjectives som e w ith m ore or less special or ,
cryptic m ean in gs but in gen eral i t has to do with the process

, , ,
an d care with which the steel is m ade .
The more importan t grades may therefore be listed as , ,
Crucible steel ,
Open hearth steel

-
,
B essem er steel .
The grade adopted for a particular tool depen ds upon the pre
c ision an d life expected of the in tr umen t an d th e cost of th e ,
tool maker s labor Crucible steels are used for such thin gs as
-
’
.
fin e edged tool san d saws fin e sprin gs rock drills precisio n tool

-
, , ,
parts an d high speed weavin g m achin ery parts Car an d wagon

,
-
.
1 62
TOOL MA KI N G 163
sprin gs heavy machin ery an d locom otive parts c an be m ade

,
am ply stro n g of good ope n hearth steel w hi le sledges picks an d

-
, ,
other coarse batterin g han d tools c an be satisfactorily m ade of

,
-
B essem er billets .
Just w hy a crucible steel should be better than an open

hearth steel of the sam e an alysis has been productive of much
argum en t an d it is still a con tested poin t especially by open
, ,
hearth steel makers M etcalf thin k s it proven that the lower

.
oxygen an d ni trogen con ten t of crucible steels makes them

superior to the other grades .
The temp er of a steel refers to the carbon con ten t of the

m ate r ial This shou l d preferably be n oted by poin ts but
.
” , ,
un fortun ately a 53 poin t steel (co n tain in g per cen t of car

”
-
,
b on ) m ay loca ll y be called som ethin g lik e N o 3 temper . .
A list of the approximate carbo n co n ten t an d temperin g heats

favored for man y tools an d m achin e parts is appen ded taken
” ,
,
larg ely from Bu llen s S teel an d its Heat Treatm e n t ,

Chapter ,
X VI .
C b
ar on P e r C en t . T l oo s . T mp i
e er n g H eat .
Possessin g ex t me h ar
re d n ess n i cu tt i g dg T u gh n e e . o n ess a s li g h t f c t
a or
Lath e t oo s l f t mp or d g f gi g
e er e un or n s .
Lath t e oo s l f c hill d ll
or e ro s . .
B r ass —
w o r kin g to ols . .
G en er al lath e tools
G en er al slo tter t o ols . .
R z
a or s .
D wi g t immi g
ra n , r n an d cu tti g n
S c ale p ivo ts . .
Fil es
Ball r ac es . .
c mbi d wi th m t u gh
o ne so e o n ess
Twi t d ill ” s r s
S m ll t p a a s
Sc w d th e a
. .
re di g di an r n es .
1 64 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP IV
C ar b on P er C en t . T l o o s. T mp er in g Heat
e .
Cu tl y er . .
Le ath er
Jeweller s r o lls an d di
’
es . .
i i g d ci cul
M ll n an r ar
W d w ki g d f
oo -
or n an -
or m i n gtools . .
Sm ll p u ch
a n es .
‘
S mall sp r in gs .
T u gh
o n ess an d cu tti g dg b u t qu l c
n e e a o e a on s id i
er at on s
B r oa ch es .
La ge m illi g cu ll
r n er s .
wg S aw s a es .
Sp i g r n s .
R c k d ch li g d i ll
o an an n e n r s .
L g cu tti g d t i mm i g di
ar e n an r n es .
G d cu tti g dg b t t u gh
oo n e i mp t t f c t
e, u o n ess an or an a or
H d ch i l an se s .
Ch ippi g c hi l n se s .
P u ch n es . .
B l ki g p u ch d di
an n n es an es . .
D r op d ies for c o ld w or k .
S mall sh ear kn iv es . .
T u gh t
o ools for wi th stan di g n sh o ck s
La g e c h i
r sels .
H a mm er s .
F or gin g d ie
H mma er
B il —
om k er a er s
’
tools . .
T ra ck l y
-
a er s
’
tools .
66 E X P E RIM E N TAL GR O U P I V
brief outlin e of the various steps in the process an d sub mit it to

an in structor for O K . .
b P la n the work an d m ake out two slips o n e calli n g for the

.
,
comp lete list of special apparatus required an d the seco n d callin g ,
for all the su pplies desired P rocure the se thin gs of the stock
.
keeper sign i n g an d leavi n g your slip as a receipt

,
.
c M ake good sharp tools of fin ished appearan ce an d with

.
, , , ,
the correct hardn ess an d toughn ess S ubmit them to th e .
i n structor for testin g an d O K .
Q uerie s a Write up the experim en t after the style of the

. .
others in this book beginn i n g with the S p ecial A pp ar atu s an d

, ,
fin ishin g Wi th detailed P r ocedur e givin g step by step in structio n s

,
for m akin g thi s kin d of tools S how how the proper harden in g.
an d toughe nin g temperatures are to be fou n d .
b When i s i t n ecessary to an n eal a tool after forgi n g ?

.
c I f either of two an alyses would prove satisfactory for a

.
tool but on e required a toughen in g treatm en t some 2 00 C

,
°
.
higher than the other which steel should be used ? Give co g en t

,
reason s .
d I s it better to que n ch an d temper m oderately or to quen ch

.
,
the sam e steel quickly an d temper at a higher heat to give equal

, ,
hardn ess ? Why ?

e O utlin e a heat treatm e n t for a sledge which would p rovide
.
a very hard face un derlain by a tough body

, .
M E T A LL O G RA P H Y OF S TE E LS
O b j e ct The object of th is experim en t is to produce examin e
.
, ,
an d test the various m etar als existin g in harde n ed an d an n ealed
steels.
G en e ral E xp la n ation A n excelle n t paper givin g n otes on

.
t he hi storical developm en t of m etallography h as been written

by B radley S toughton an d w as published as N otes on the “
M etallography of S teel
” ,
in Vol L IV P art E Tran sactio n s of

,
.
, ,
—
the A m erica n S ociety of Civil E n g in eers p ages 3 57 4 2 1 , .
The n am es production an d appearan ces in eutectoid steel of

,
th e various deco mpositio n products ran gin g fro m austen ite to

pearlite have been given in form er experim e n ts I t should be .
born e in min d that the structure as illustrated is that developed , ,
by proper etchin g agen ts as a freshly polished piece of steel

,
appears brightly mirrored at all parts un less it is a very poor ,
piece of m aterial co n tain in g blowholes or specks of slag I t

, ,
.
is on ly n atu ral that differen t etchin g agen ts should attack the

co n stituen ts in various m an n ers an d rates The reagen t in .
uni versal use for steels is an alcoholic solutio n of picric acid ,
m ade up of
P icric acid crystals .
A bsolute alcohol
Fay M icroscopic E xamin atio n of S teel page 1 7 ) r ec om ,
m en ds ni tric acid as bein g superior to picric acid for use on

harden ed steels He uses the followin g solution :
’
N itric acid sp gr ,
. .
A bsolute alcoho l .
E XP E RIM E N TA L GR O UP IV
A
I t is impossible to distin guish excess cem en tite from excess

ferrite by these reagen ts as both of them attack m a ssive crystals
,
but slowly I f the specim en is boiled for five to ten m in utes in a

.
solutio n of sodium picrate cem en tite will be colored black The

, .
reagen t is m ade up by dissolvin g 2 50 gm sodium hydrate .
(N a O H ) in 750 c u c m of water an.d the n

. dissolvi n g 1 5gm ,
.
picric acid crystals in the solution .
I t will perhap s be well to recapitulate an d amplify som ewha t

, ,
the data already presen t ed on steel m etar als in order that the ,
F IG .
30 .
—
P tc ha Au sten it f
e ro m Eu t c t id S t
e o eel . Q u e ch d f
n e ro m
800
°
C i Ic d B i
. n e r ne .
studen t m ay recogn ize the en tities he views in the microscopic

field .
A usten ite has been de fin ed as a solid solutio n of cem en tite
(F e 3 C) in ga mm a iro n I t is stable at various

. tem peratures
depen den t upo n its carbon con tent which m ay be an y am oun t ,
up to the saturated solutio n con tain in g per cen t A usten ite .
is n o t n early as hard as m arten site owin g to its con ten t of th e ,
soft gamm a iron In picric acid it etches slowly an d ir r egu

.
,
—
lar ly som etim es faster an d som etim es slower than m arten site ,
an d will at various tim es appear the darker or the lighter of the
tw o Fig
.
3 (
0 reproduced
.
above ) shows auste n ite to possess th e
F IG .
32 .
- M ar t en s te i (ligh t ar eas ) p ass F IG .
33 .
- Ma t r en s it e (ligh t n ee dl es )
in g i n to T r o o site (dar k ar eas) .
p i gi
ass n n to T r o o sit e (dar k p tc h )
a es .
E u t c t id S t l Q u ch d f
e o ee ,
en e ro m F m pi c e f ro a e o E u t c t id
e o
C t mp d t 75 C Ste l E l c t ic lly W ld d
° °
8 00 .
, e er e a 2 .
e e r a e e .
FI G .
34 .
—S bi or (d ar k p atch es) pass
te FIG .
—C b ar on Steel p er
i P ear li te (wavy str i ati on s)
.
in g n to .
c en t C b O m
ar on . s on d
Li gh t A
.
r eas ar e P at c h es o f F iter r e .
P li t l mi t d p i g i
ear e, a na e ass n n to
p i c f Hyp
,
F ro m a e e o oeu tec sor bit d k d f mle, ar an or ess

ld S t l E l c t ic lly W ld d
.
to ee e r a e e R p d deb y p mi i f m S
ro u ce
y d H T m
er
ll p h”
. ss o n ro av e u r ,
M et a of
d S l
o gr a an ea t r e at en t
I
r o n an t ee .
M E TALL O GRAP H Y OF S TE E LS 17 1
ac ter istic s of a pur e substan ce with the etchin g lin es developed

,
alon g an octahedral cleavage appearin g roughly parallel to the

,
sides of an equilateral trian gle In deed the characteristic .

,
appearan ce of m arten site in a field comprised of various metar als

con sists of these n eedles m ore or less plain ly marked an d in ter
, ,
sec tin g at an a n gle of such as is shown in Fig 33 (see .
page
Troostite is a metar al of doubtful composition but possibly ,
is an un stable m ixture of u n tr an sform ed marten site with sorbite

(q. I t co n tain s m ore or less u n tran sform ed m aterial as it ,
is too hard to be composed en tirely of the soft alpha m odificatio n ,
an d it c an also be tem pered m ore or less without cha n gin g in

—
appearan ce I t etches m ost rapidly a few secon ds in picric
.
acid bein g all that is required to d arken the area I ts n orm al .
appearan ce as rou n ded grain s is given in F ig 33 ; larger patches .
show practically n o re lief in their structure an d a photo ,
graph m erely shows a dark structureless area (S ee Fig 3 2,

. .
page
S orbite is believed to be an early stag e in the form atio n of
pearlite whe n the iro n an d iron carbide origin ally co n s tituti n g
,
the solid solution (austen ite) have had an opportu ni ty to separate

from each other an d the iro n has en tirely passed in to th e alpha
,
m odification but the particles are yet too sm all to be di s tin guish
,
able u n der the m icroscope I t also possibly co n tain s som e

_ .
, ,
in completely tra n sform ed m atter S orbite is softer tou gher

.
, ,
an d etches less quickly tha n troostite an d is habitua ll y asso ,
c iat ed with pear lite A s sorbite is m erely a m ode of aggregatio n

.
,
it has n o place on the equilibrium diagram I ts compo n en ts .
are ten din g to coagulate in to pearlite an d will do so in a fairly ,
short tim e at temperatu res n ear A c l whi ch heat will furn ish ,
th e n ecessary molecular freedom The n o r m al appearan ce of

.
th e substan ce however is the c l oudy mass shown in F ig 34

, , .
( page where the m et ar al has been partially tran sform ed

in to th e stable pearlite .
P earlite is a defin ite co n glom erate of ferrite an d cem en tite

c o n tain in g about six p arts of the form er to on e of the latter .
17 2 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO U P IV
When pure it has a carbo n con ten t of about

,
per cen t .
I t represen ts the complete tran sform atio n of the eutectoid

austen ite accomplished by slow cooli n g of an i ro n carbo n alloy - -
thru the tran sform ation ran ge I f the steel is held at tem .
p er at u r es just below A c l for so m e tim e the thi n lam i n atio n s of ,
cem en tite agglom erate in to fin e globules held in a m atrix of

”
,
“
ferrite Thi s appearan ce is called
.
spheroidal cem en tite ”

gran ular pearlite
Thi s con dition which is shown in
.
or
,
,
Fi g 36 seem s to be a more stable form of aggregation than the

.
,
F IG .
3 6
.
—S p h e o id a
rl C e men t it G a u l P a li t
e, o r r n ar e r e . F ro m a P i ec e Of E u t c to id
e
T ol S teel X I 50
o . .
familiar lam ellar aggreg ate usually called pearlite an d illu s ,
t r ated in F ig 34 page 1 7 0 .
,
.
The m icrographs thus far shown have been m ade from eu tec
t oid steels whose total m ass could resolve itself in to pearlite if the
oppo rtun ity presen ted U n der th e microscope a slowly cooled
.
, ,
lower carbon steel shows more or less prim ary ferrite soft —
, ,
—
white areas of alpha iro n precipitated from the coolin g un der ,
saturated austen ite The balan ce of th e field con sists of darker

—
.
patches of pearlite material of eutectoid compositio n an d

,
con stitution F ig 3 7 shows a coarse grain ed m edi um carbo n

. .
-
,
-
steel magn ified su fficien tly to show the structure of the dar k
17 4 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP I V
ish ed on a broadcloth covered disk with rouge or levigated

-
alum in a .
The begin n er should be very careful to w ash the specim en
FIG 38 . . L ow
- C b
ar on B il P l t
o er a e . FIG .
39
—Same as Fi g
. .
38 . X 40 .
A s R o ll d
e . X 40 . F ro m a C ld Fl g d C
o an e or n er .
FI G 0
—H i g h C b I g
ar on n ot X 75 FI G 4 1 —H igh
C b ar on M u ff C on ase
4 .
. . .
.
bu iz d D i k X C I
.
Car r e s . 1 00 .
an d han ds after rem ovin g on e di sk an d before touchin g its

his
successor D isks when n o t in use should be kept dust free an d
.
, ,
-
moist in a compression top c an or u n der a bell jar ,

.
P o lished specim e n s should be kept in a desiccator over n ight

M E TALL O GRAP H Y OF S TE E LS 17 5
un til their exam i n atio n is e n tirely co mpleted A t that tim e .

,
they should be s tored in a fairly tight drawer en closed in sm all ,
pasteboard pill boxes wrapped in tissue In this co n ditio n

,
.
,
they will rem ain for years with n o appreciable rustin g .
F IG .
42 ,
—P o r ta bl G i di g M ch i
e r n n a ne .
S p ec i al A ppar atu s . The pecial apparatus

s eded
ne is as
follow s :
Five gallon pail for quen chin g bath

-
.
Four in ch watch glas s

-
.
N ic h r om e tipped forceps
-
.
Warm air blower .
S oft han d towel .
S u pplie s . The supplies n eeded are as follows
On epiece g in eutectoid steel 4 in lo n g

-
.
,
. .
Fragm en ts of eutectoid steel fro m E xperim en ts N os

. 19
an d 2 0 .
S ix —
ten sio n test bars of in eutectoid steel machin ed .
, .
M o gr aph y Roo m E quipmen t

etall . The meta llography equip
m en t n eeded is as follows :
E lectric butt welder .
I ce .
S alt .
E m ery wheel .
P olishin g m achin e in cludin g ,
M otor ,
Two fin e em ery wheels ,
Three can vas covered disks -

,
On e broadcloth covered disk -

,
Four bell j ars ,
F our corked E rlen m eyer flasks with suitable abrasive .
E tchin g solutio n s of picric an d n itric acid .
M icroscopic set i n cludi n g ,
B rass m oun ti n g c up ,
Can of B B lead shot ,
Cover glass ,
Can dle lamp with con den sin g len s complete .
M etallographic microscopic set with ,
P la n e glass reflector ,
O culars 5x r o x , , ,
O bjectives 8 mm 1 6 mm ,
.
, .
S cleroscope .
P ro c e d ur e Clamp the bar of é in ch eutectoid steel

. a .
-
in the j aws of the electric welder as directed by the i n structor ,

.
A rran ge a que n chin g bath of iced bri n e directly in fro n t of the

m achin e Turn on the electric curren t an d when the steel
.
,
between the j aws of the welder becom es w hi te hot an d plastic ,
m ove the jaws slowly together Then quickly in terrupt the .
curren t release the jaw grips an d drop the hot bar i n to the
, ,
quen chin g bath .
b S aw o ff that portio n of the steel bar which was en closed in

.
the weldin g m achin e grips an d gri n d a flat surface i in wide on ,

.
78 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP IV
bars ,
subm it it to the in structor for O K M ake up a
an d . .
comp lete list of all the special apparatus an d supplies n eed ed an d ,
draw them from the stock room leavin g the sign ed list as a -
,
receipt P repare the test bars polishin g an d exam in in g the en d

.
,
of each bar to determ in e whether it has respon ded to heat treat

m e n t as predicted .
Test these bars in the ten sio n m achin e in the testi g

j . n
laboratory either drawin g a stress strain curve autographically

,
-
,
or observin g the n ecessary elon gatio n s with an exten som eter .
D etermin e also the hardn ess an d impact stren gth of each b ar

'
en d .
Q u e ri e s a S ketch the.appeara
. n ce of the polished an d etched
weld with proper n otatio n s recordin g the variation s in hard n ess
,
.
b M ake up a n eat tabulatio n of all the metar als of steels

.
,
showi n g the followi n g properties of each as far as determ i n ed or ,
known
M et ar al .
E quilibrium ran ge .
Con stitutio n .
Composition .
E tchi n g characteristics .
M icroscopic appeara n ce .
P hysical properties :
H ardn e ss ,
E lastic lim it ,
U ltim ate stren gth ,
E lo n gatio n .
M ode of productio n in sm all pieces of eutectoid steel

O n quen chin g ,
O n an n ealin g or temperin g .
c . Figure the composition of pearlite ,

in percen tage of ferrite
an d cemen tite .
(1 Why does a steel co n tai n in g

.
—0 50 per cen t carbo n .
show a larger area of prim ary crystals th an does an other c o n

tain in g 5 + 0 50 per ce n t carbo n ?.
M E TALLO GRAP H Y OF S TE E LS 79
6 Why should an eutectic structure be fin e grain ed ?

.
D ouble que chi n g is so m etim es used in coarsely crystalli n e

f . n
bars to raise the elastic limit an d ten sile stren gth O utli n e a
.
heat treatm en t program by which the sam e result could be

e ffected without the dan ger of harden i n g cracks which would
,
a lm ost assuredly appear on double quen chin g in an y but low or

m edium carbon steels .
G ive a full expla n atio n of the cha n ges which take place in
g .
pieces of carbon steels of the followin g com positio n durin g heatin g

an d coolin g :
per cen t carbo n

.
CA S E -CA R B U R IZ IN G
Ob j ec t The object of t h is experim en t is to study the c em en

.
t ation of a mild steel bar .
G en er al E xplan atio n
*
Cem en tatio n processes i n clude
.
those which en rich the surface of wrought iro n or low — carbo n

steel to various depths by the additio n of cem en tite (F eg C) .
The m ethod co n sists of heatin g a carbo n aceous substan ce in

close co n tact with the iro n to be carburized in a suitable c on ,
t ain er From the iro n carbo n equilibrium diagram it is evide n t

.
-
,
that A c l is the mi n im um temperature at which true cemen tatio n

c an proceed ; graphitic carbo n will di ffuse i n to iro n at lower t em
p e r a t u r es tha n thi s by reaso n of the forces due to a di fferen ce in

co n cen tratio n an d if it does com bin e with the iro n the carbide
, ,
produced can n ot en ter i n to solid solutio n u n til A c l is exceeded .
O therwise the properties of a m ore highly carburized steel are

—
lackin g the added cem en tite does n o t form in creasin gly large
areas of pearlite but remain s as a fin e m eshwork of free crystals
,
wherever form ed .
A ppare n tly the m ost obvious variatio n in cemen ted m etal is

,
the depth to which the carburization exten ds On thi s basis .
has grown a disti n ctio n between total cem en tation where the ,
“
piece is i n ten ded to be wholly tran sform ed in to a high carbo n
”
steel an d partial cem en tatio n where the process is fran kly
, ,
-
lim ited to the production of a thi n hard case overlyi n g the orig ,
i n al low carbo n tough m aterial A s a m atter of fact the term

-
,
.
,
Th i xpl “ti s e an a c d d f m l g ticl by th u th pp

o n is on en se ro a on er ar e e a or a ear
in g in X V I, M t llu gic l d Ch mic l E g i i g 38 5 T h g t

e a r a an e a n n eer n , . e r ea au
th o r ity th e m tt f c c bu izi g i G i li tt i T h C m t ti f I
”
,
on a er o ase- ar r n s o , e e en a on o r on
an d St l ee .
82 E XP E RIM E N TAL G RO UP I V
of mm while an y portio n m ore than this di sta n ce fro m a

.
,
carbo n co n tact will be absolutely u n altered E viden tly the .
deeper carbon ized layers so easily produced in prac ti ce m ust be

explain ed in som e other way .
Without dwellin g at len gth upo n the various other possibili

ties we may accept it as defin itely proven that carbo n m on oxide
,
(CO ) is the m ost active cem en tin g m aterial existin g in the

ordin ary carbon izin g box an d fortun ately the most easily con ,
trolled .
In teraction between the oxygen of the air occluded in the

charcoal pores an d en trapped in the cem en tation box with the
heated carbon produces quan tities of carbo n zlioxide (C02 ) at
low temperatures A t the temperature of ordin ary cemen tatio n
— over 1 000 C —m ost of the carbo n dioxide gas decomposes
.
°
,
.
if in con tact with an excess of carbon form in g carbon mo n o xide ,
( )
C O This. i s i n dicated by the reversible reactio n
C + CO z 2 CO .
The iesultin g gas has a very sm all proportio n of carbo n dioxide

th e actual am ou n ts of each gas in equilibrium varyi n g with the
temperature an d pressure These co n dition s of equilibriumm ay .
be n oted in a short han d way by sayin g th at there exists an

,
-
,
equilibrium i n the system C : CO C02 The gas resultin g .
from this equilibrium particularly the carbon mon oxide easily

, ,
di ffuses in to the hot iron an d reacts with it formin g iro n c ar ,
bide which i s imm ediately absorbed in to the solid so lutio n

,
austen ite The reactio n m ay be

.
2 CO + 3F e F e3 C + CO z .
The dioxide form ed at this poin t di ffuses outward to a region

of lower con cen trati on while the CO C02 diff usin g in ward will
,
form m ore iro n carbide on its way to the cen ter of the p iece of
metal if dem an ded by the state of the system A usteni te ,
CO C02 existi n g at that particular locality

,
The carbo n .
di oxide escapi n g from the stee l is imm ediately regen era ted by
CAS E C ARB U R IZIN G
-
183
the excess of hot carbo n to a co n dition represen ted by the eq uilib

r ium of th e system C CO C02 .
I t is clearly seen that carburization will cease when the

relative con cen tration of the gases in the packin g represen ted by
C CO C02 equals that existin g in the steel whi ch is r ep r e ,
sen ted by A usten ite CO COQ A s a m atter of fact the

.
m axim um carbo n co n cen tratio n in a case harde n ed article -
n ever reaches thi s theoretical am ou n t sim ply because the proc ,
ess is in terrupted lo n g before equilibrium is estab lished .
O f all the solid cem en ts wood charcoal is the best ; first

, ,
because it is pure an d therefore m ain tain s the purity of the

,
product ; an d seco n d it is of sim ple compositio n an d therefore

,
-
,
the carburizin g reactio n s are n o t complicated by variable an d

un kn own factors This allows its u se with certain ty of con trol ;
'
the results c an be predicted with con siderable accuracy The

’
greatest disadvan tages are the slow speed of the cem en t an d the
”
phen om en o n of exhaustion both of which n ow seem to be due
,
to the lim ited am ou n t of carbon mo n oxide form ed in the box .
In order to in crease the speed of the cem e n t it is n ecessary to add ,
o n e third to on e half u n used charcoal to every packi n g or better

- -
, ,
to m ix in to the charcoal in the first place so m e 4 0 per cen t

of powdered witherite (B aCOg) The latter procedure r ecom
.
,
m en ded by Caro n in 1 8 6 1 is especially valuable in in creasin g

,
th e e ffi cacy of the cem en t by brin g in g a large am ou n t of gas to

the cemen tatio n chamber in the followin g m a n n er :
B a C03 B aO + CO g ,
C 02 + C 2 CO .
The first reaction goes toward the left at lower temperatures

CO 2 bein g rapidly absorbed upo n exposure to the air S uch a .
c om bin ation has th e added advan tage therefore of bein g in ex , ,
h au stib le ; it is largely used today an d all thin gs co n sidered is

, ,
the best solid cem en t for partial cem en tatio n .
In n um erable preparation s have been recomm en ded an d are

o n the m arket for use as solid cem e n ts but there are o n ly som e ,
typ es of simp le cem en t s at presen t well kn own whose e ffi cacy

, ,
is a maximu m from all poin ts of view an d the ad di tion of other ,
in gredien ts in n o wise in cr ease their efiicacy (Giolitti The Ce

men tatio n of I ro n an d S teel ” page U n fortu n ately
,
,
“
Caro n s cem en t requires co n si derable tim e to produce its deep
’
”
seated carbonization s M ore rapid cem en ts are m ade of
.
m an y mixtures of sawdust charcoal bo n e lampblack tar an d

, , , ,
various hydrocarbo n s alkalin e an d alkalin e earth carbon ates an d

,
cyan ides ferro an d ferri cyan ides ; together with homeopathi c

,
-
proportion s of n umberless other substan ces all more or less in ert ,

.
S uch compoun ds ac t by virtue of the large quan tities of hydro

carbon s o r cyan ides which are evolved on heatin g ; they exhaust
rapidly give very irregular an d n on u n iform carbo n pen etra
,
-
tion s with a rapid discon tin uous rise from the n on cem en ted
,
-
core to the thin excessively high carbo n con cen tration s at the
,
-
outside The variable quan tities of complex gaseous m ixtures

.
evolved in the cem en tation box preclude even a m oderately

close co n trol of the process an d r esult in a n on uni form product
'
-
,
con tain in g a hard brittle case badly addicted to exfoliation

,
.
In cem e n tatio n as well as other processes the sim plest combi n a ,
tio n s are m an aged with di fficulty while an y such variabl e an d ,
complex m ixtures as are produced by the destructive distillatio n

of organ ic m aterials are absolutely u n co n trollable .
The use of a m olten bath of carburizin g m aterials presen ts a

’
great m an y apparen t advan tages as to ease of manipulation an d

cheapn ess of product The m aterials composin g these b ath s
.
-
are usually cyan ides or cyan ogen compoun ds all highly poison ous ,
.
The chem ical reaction s occurrin g in such baths have n o t been

studied with precision but it seem s that the cyan ogen (CN ) 2
,
decomposes in con tact with the iron yieldin g carbon which is ,
absorbed in to the surface layers of the m etal The tim e of .
cem en tation is so short however that the carbide thus form ed

, ,
has little chan ce to pen etrate in to the m etal an d the result is a ,
very thin zo n e to mm ) of hypereutectoid steel D eeper

. .
zon es result in very brittle an d higher carbo n mu ffs whi ch are

liable to split off when quen ched i e exfoliate ” ,
. .
,
.
S i n ce carbo n m o n oxide gas is the a ctive cem en tation agen t

o 1 2 2 5
0 3 MM .
FIG 44.
— C c t ti D p th D i g
. on en r a on e a r am
f B
o C bu iz d wi th E thyl
ar ar r e ene .
5 H u C °
ot 5 rs a 10 0 .
N Fi -
l i h b
46 i “ 3 to ave
p d Cm
OT E 4 gs n c u s ve ee n
d f m G
.
i io lo t t en t a t i o n o f
S l
re ro uce ro .e
Ir o n an d p mi i f h M G
t ee
"
b y er ss o n o t e c r aw
Hi ll B k C
,
oo o .
C AS E -
CA R B U R IZIN G 18 7
Fig . an d the correspo n din di agram —

g co ce tratio depth
n n n ,
Fig 44 (reproduced from Giolitti Fig

. which were produced
,
.
°
by a four hour cem en tatio n in ethylen e at 1 0 50 C
-
,
.
The mechan ism of thi s action is n o t quite clear but it is ,
p ossible that the hydrocarbon s decompose so rapidly upo n

en terin g the steel that a deposit of carbon is form ed o n the out
side of the steel m uch m ore rapidly than it c an di ffuse in to the
m etal .This lavish depositio n of carb on eviden tly con tin ues as
th e gases pen etrate further the direct actio n of the decom posin g
,
gases bein g in ten sified by the presen ce of the excess of carbo n

deposited on the surf a ce of the sam ple as well as bein g possibly
rein forced by the di ff usion of the carbo n bodily in to the steel
n siderable factor in this in sta n ce owin g to the fin e
(perhaps a co
subdivision an d in timate con tact of the sooty deposit) F or
‘
the se reaso n s a high carbon co n cen tratio n is obtain ed with a zo n e

of xA u steni te of co n siderable thickn ess (1 mm l .
-
I t is therefore eviden t that the best results (from a p ractica l

stan dpoin t) may be attain ed by a proper mixture of carbon m on
oxide an d on e of the g ases of Type II These actually do pro .
duce most desirable results called Type III givin g rise to c ar

, ,
b u r iz ed cases of varyi n g thick n esses ap proxim atin g eutectoid

compositio n at the exterior u n derlain by steel of co n stan tly an d
,
u n iformly decreasin g carbo n co n ten t m er gin g i n to the un aff ected

,
core The characteristics of this class of carburized zon es are

.
illustrated in the micro g raph Fig 4 5 (reproduced from Fig

,
. .
142 ,
Giolitti) , an d the con cen tration depth dia gram F ig 4 6 -
, .
(reproduced from Giolitti F ig ,

.
Z o n es of Type III are doub tl ess produced in the followi n g

m an n er : The hydrocarbon s in con tact with the outer layer of
the iro n deco mpose depositin g free carbo n T hi s carbo n con
, .
tinu ally rege n erates the CO 2 di ff usin g outward an d the resultin g ,
CO really acts as a vehicle tran sportin g the carbon to deeper

,
an d deeper regio n s where it could n o t possibly pen etrate by so lid

,
di ffusio n on accou n t of tim e an d temp erature limitatio n s .
V ery im portan t adva n ces have rece n tly been made in the
co n struc tion of furn aces for the practice of cem en tatio n with so lid
F IG .
45.
—M ic c ti
r o se on
l
of
'
E dg e of Bar
C ar b u r iz ed wi th G io lit ti s
’
Mixed
C e men t . 2 Hu o r s at 1 000
°
C .
50 X .
19 0 E XPE RIM E N TAL GRO UP I V

Three rou n d g in bars of -
. 20 -
poi n t c arbo n steel ,
6 in . lon g .
Can of carburizer .
Lab oratory E quipmen t . The laboratory equipmen t n eeded

is as follows :
P ipe vise .
Ice .
E m ery wheel with wire buffin g brush .
Impact m achin e .
S cleroscope .
G as furn ace at 1 000 C with temperature regulator 0

.
, .
M lo gr aph y Roo m E quipm en t

etal . The m etallography room
e quipm en t n eeded is as follows
complete
P olishi n g m achi n e ,
v E xperim en t . N o 22
M icroscopic set co mplete
. .
E tchin g solutio n of picric or n itric acid .
Pr o c ed ur e ake a carburizin g box for the g in roun d

. a . M -
.
test pieces as follows : On either en d of a piece of 2 in gas pipe -

.
,
4 in lon g screw a sleeve an d in to the sleeve a plug

.
, On e of the ,
.
—
p lugs should have a in pyrometer hole in its cen ter . .
b P ack the box by placin g about 3 in of the so lid carburizer

. .
in the botto m an d then sta n din g the three test ba r s equidista n t

,
from each other an d the walls Fill the rem ain der of the box .
with the carbon aceous m at erial screw in the top plug an d in ,
m —
sert the asbestos protected ther o couple (E xperim en t N o 7 ) .
thr u the pyro m eter hole well toward the cen ter of the m ass .
L ute the hole shut with asbestos stri n g .
P lace this box in a harde n in g furn ace held at 1 000 C

°
c . .
with a temperature regulator The temperature of the pieces .
in the carburizin g box should be held at a con stan t m axi mum for
three hours On e squad m ember should give his e n tire tim e to
.
the furn ace con trol readin g an d plottin g the tempera ture in the
,
box an d of the furn ace at short in tervals Cool in the furn ace . .
CAS E CAR B U R IZIN G
- 19 l
d the f ollowin g laboratory period open the box ob serve

. In , ,
the con dition of the bars an d clean them with a wire buffin g ,
brush B reak three pieces from the en d of on e bar in the impact

.
m achi n e accordin g to procedure f E xperim en t N o 1 7 takin g

, ,
.
,
the average result as the toughn ess G rin d o n e en d of the frag .
m en ts an d explore the area carefully for variation s in hardn ess .
P reserve on e fragm en t to exhibit the coarsen ess of the frac

ture an d paste a label aroun d it givin g its properties an d
,
'
history .
6 P olish on e en d of an other fragm en t (p rocedure d an d 6

.
,
Ex peri m en t N o etch (procedure d E xperim en t N o

.
,
.
an d examin e u n der the mi croscope (procedure f an d g E xp er i ,
m en t N o S ke tch the appearan ce of the mi croscopic field

.
accordin g to procedure 1 E xperimen t N o 1 1 or photograph ,

.
, .
With the aid of the in structor es tim ate the carbon co n ten t of ,
the case an d sketch an approximate co n cen tratio n depth dia

,
-
gram like Fi g 4 6 ,
. .
f R. efi n e the grai n of the two re m ain i n g pieces by a n n ea lin g
at the proper temperature accordin g to E xperim en t N o 1 7 ,

. .
Test on e of the ann ealed pieces as in procedure 03 above ,

.
g Harde
. n the case o n the re m a in in g piece by quen chin g in
oil from the proper tem perature accordin g to E xperim en t N o ,
.
1 8 an d 1 Test the piece as i procedure d above

9 n .
,
.
h M oun t represen tative fragm en ts by thrustin g them thru

.
sm all holes in a sheet of cardboard A dd a tabulation of the .
d ata an d a copy of the sketches an d temperature curves obtain ed

durin g the experim en t P ost the whole on the bul l etin board .
for examin ation by the various squads .
N O E T — E ach squad should have in dividual in struction s as

to time temperature an d agen t of cemen tation In this w ay
, , ,
.
th e fin al results c an be examin ed by all studen ts an d will exhibit

‘
how the properties of case carburized bars vary with th e c on -
dition s A suggested program of such variatio n s is as follows

.
I To show the effect of con stan cy of temperature

. . U se
Caron s cemen t ’
.
19 2 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR OUP IV
Sq u ad I H t th h u t C i h d c t ll d
ea r ee o rs a 1 000
°
n an - on r o e o v fu c
en rna e
H t th h u t C i h d i g fu c quipp d
,
S qu ad
. . .
°
2 ea r ee o rs a 1 00 0 n ar en n rna e e e
wi th u t m tic t mp tu c t l
,
. .
a o a e er a re on r o
S qu d 3 H t th h u t l c t ic t ub fu c
.
°
a C i ea r ee o rs a 1 000 n an e e r e rna e
S qu d 4 H t th h u i v fu c p u p ly cill ti g th
,
. . .
a ea r ee o rs n o en r na e r o se os a n e
t mp tu f m9 t C
.
°
e er a re ro 00 o 1 000 .
II To show the effect of varyin g the carburiz in g a gen t

.
Compare the work of S quad 2 wi th

S qu ad 5 U s c r u h d c h c oal ly—th u n i fii iddl
e s e ar on r -
n on -
n r e
S qu ad 6 U th same mat i l f t S qu ad 5 h a u d it o c
. . .
se e er a a er s se n e
S qu ad 7 U th am mate i l af t S qu ad 5 a d 6 C ct a dr u m
. .
se e s e r a er n onn e
c bu izi g by pip p
. .
of CO t o t h e ar r n b ox a g-in e, a n d ass a ver y slo w s t r ea m .
i
o f gas at all t m es
Squ d P ck b cu dc c c c p ip
.
a 8 a th e ar s in r she h ar oal, o n n e t a g-in e to t h e
u pp y p ig
.
u
.
air s l , an d ass a ver y slo w s tr eam of air th r th e b ox , star t n

w b v c d
h en t h e ar s h a e r ea h e t h e es r e t em er at r e f ew d i d p u A cubic
c i i u qui d
.
en t me t er s o f gas p er m n t e is all t h at is r e re
S qu d i ub c ik c u d i ic b ic k p ck g
.
a U s e a n n e rt s s t an e l e r sh e s l a r for a a in
9
p w u i
.
an d ass a slo st r eam o f C O t h r t h e b ox at all t mes

P c k S qu d w
.
S qu d a IO a as . a 9 , b u t u se a slo st r eam of n atur al gas .
III To show the effe ct of temperature

.
Compare the work of S quad 2 wi th

S qu ad 1 1
°
. W ki g
or n in x c tly
e a th e sa me way as Squ ad 2, e xc p t e at
8 00 C .
IV To show the e ffe ct of time

.
Compare the work of S quad 2 with

S qu ad 1 W k i g i x c tly th
2 or n n e a e sa me w ay as S a qu d xc p t th t th
2, e e a e
t i g h u ld b c pi c t k f m
.
h ea n ti u d
s o ly e on n e on 1 % h o r s, an d th e u e es a en ro
th e h t c t i
o d c ld i i
on a n er an oo e n a r .
Q u e ri e s a Why is it impossib l e to produce a bar of un i

. .
form carbon co n ten t edge to cen ter by the m ethod of total ,
cem en tatio n ?
b I f a piece of wrought iro n were exposed to a co n tin ual
.
stream of c arbo n mo n oxide gas at a temperature above A C1

what would be the ultim ate carbo n co n ten t of the bar ? Why ?
6 S ketch a m odern furn ace for carburizatio n with solid
.
cemen t .
d D iscuss the e ffect of temperature var l ation duri n g carburi

.
z ation o n the properties of the resulti n g bar .
6 D iscuss the e ffect of tim e at the c ar b u n z mg heat o n the

.
p rop erties of the resultin g bar .

C O RR O S I O N
O b j ect The object of this experimen t is to stu dy the c or

.
r o sion of steel .
G en eral E xpla n a ti on
l
I t is a m atter of un iversal experien ce
.
><
that dry m etal does n o t rust A ll scien tific hypotheses as to

‘
th e n ature of corrosio n require the prese n ce of water whi ch we ,
will assum e to be the rai n surface or groun d water A ll terres , ,

.
trial water is impure co n tain i n g a greater or less proportio n of

,
other m atter ; that is to say it is a solution of organ ic an d ,
i n organ ic matter I t is well therefore first to con sider the prop

.
, ,
er ties of solutio n s .
I f a quan tity of soluble salt is placed in pure water it will ,
en ter in to solution at a certain rate The m olecules of the solid .
te n d to distribute them selves am on g the molecules of the liqui d

equi — spa tially The speed of solution progre sively dim in ishes
.
s
owi n g to a back pressure called osm otic pressure exerted by

-
the molecules whi ch have go n e in to solutio n un til when th e sat ,
u r ation poi n t is reached th e solutio n pressure is exactly bala n ced
by the osm otic pressure an d an y molecules which may go i n to,
s olution will be replaced by others comin g out of solution The .
system is on e of balan ced activity or equilibrium ,

.
A rrhen ius first poin ted out the fact that the molecule s of
i n organ ic salts acids or bases in aqueous solution are dissociated
, ,
when en terin g in to a solution The main argum en ts for this .
th eory were drawn from a study of osmotic pressure .
O smotic pressure m ay be m easured by suitable apparatus ,
an d for an organ ic solutio n such as sugar in water it has bee n , ,
T he b t u th i t y c i is Cu hm an an d G ar d T he C i
”
es a or on o r r os o n s n er , or r os on
an d P v ti f I
r eser a on o r on an d St l ee .
C O RRO SI ON 95
foun d to obey the gas law s In other words osm otic pres sure
.
,
varies as the absolute tempera ture an d as the con cen tration of

,
molecules ; in fact the osm otic p ressure is exactly equal to the

,
pressure it would exert w ere the substan ce a gas at the sam e

volume an d temperature I n organi c substan ces however ex
. .
,
hibit an os m otic pressure two three or four tim es as much as

, ,
the sam e m olecular co n cen tratio n of org an ic substan ces A gai n .

,
if a certai n co n cen tratio n of su g ar depresses the freezin g— poin t

or the vapor pressure of a solutio n an am oun t equal to o n e un it ,
the sam e m olecular co n cen tratio n of salt (N aCl) will depress

it two u ni ts ; while barium chloride (B aClg ) will depress it three
un its.
These various facts were explain ed by A rrheni us by the

as sumptio n that the sugar m olecule e n ters the so lutio n as such ,
but that salt e n ters as two disti n ct particles (N a) an d (C1) ,
while B aClg en ters as three : (B a ) (Cl) an d (Cl) , ,

.
I t is un que stion ably true that the dissociated parts of an

in organi c salt are in s om e m an n er di fferen t from elem en tal
m atter . In the case of co mm o n salt (N aCl) the sodium is n o t
in the ato mic state e lse it would viole n tly attack water lib er at
, ,
in g h ydroge n while atom ic chlori n e would color the solutio n

,
an d give a characteristic odor N o n e of these thin gs happen

.
when salt goes in to solutio n This h as been explain ed by the

.
theory that the in stan t the m olecule of salt dissociates the ,
particles becom e io n ized . That is to say the sodium (wh ich ,
is pos sibly o n ly a defin i te aggregate of min ute electrical par

tic les of high i n tri n sic e n ergy but sm all m ass called electro n s
is n o lo n ger an atom but an ion because it co n tain s on e too
man y electro n s an d the chlori n e is n o lon ger atomic but ion ic
,
because it lacks the on e electron attached to the sodium The .
sodium I S thus charged positively w h ile the chlorin e is charged

,
n egatively D u e to the attractio n of the u n lik e charges the

‘
sodium an d chlori n e io n s are co n tin ually reco mbin in g but also ,
—
con tin ually di ssociatin g the system again bein g on e of bal
an ced activity or equilibrium .
A directio n al impetus could eviden tly be given these wan der

in gion s by i mm ersin g a pair of pl a tes in to a dissociated solutio n

an d m ai n tain i n g a positiv e charge on the on e an d a n egative
charge on the o ther The first would attract the n egatively

.
charged ion an d vice versa This experimen t is easily per:

,
.
formed with apparatus as shown in Fig 4 7 . .
The battery sen ds a con stan t supply of positive particles of

electricity to the copper plate an d an equal supply of n egative ,
particles to the iron In solution the molecules of sulfuric acid

.
,
(s O4 ) are dissociated in to three io n s which may be n oted .
+ +
H
( ) ( )
H (504 )
The hydro g en io n s po sitively charged an d free to m ove will
, ,
be pulled toward th e iro n plate an d pushed away from the copper
R esist an c e
eaker W i th
lfi H 8 0 4 S olutlon
2
FIG .
47.
—E l c t ly i e ro s s of In o ga ic S lu tio
r n o ns .
plate an d will con tin uously com e in to con tact with the n ega tive
,
iro n electrode F or sim ilar reaso n s we expect the

. io n s
to simultan eously reach the positive copp er electrode A s soo n .
as the hydro g en ion touches the an ode a certain am oun t of ,
electricity is n eutralized an d the hydrogen n ow becom es atomic

, ,
unites with a seco n d atom form in g molecules of hydrogen gas , ,
which gather in bubbles on the surface of the m etal an d e scape

from the solution .
The (804 ) i on on com in g in to co n tact wi th the electrode

, ,
an d losi n g its electrical charge becom es a chemical e n tity of
extrem e ac tivity attacki n g the m etal with whi ch it is in con tact

,
formin g copper sulfate Cu SO 4 which bei n g soluble en ters

, , ,
t icles of electricity n eutralized On the han d the hydrogen

.
plates out on the copper accum ulatin g in gas bubbles

, .
I t will be n oted that the curren t flowin g in this system

“
rapidly drops away from its i n itial value an d the cell is then
said to be polarized ” This is prin cipally due to the fact
.
,
that the hydrogen film collectin g on the copper is a poor c on

ductor of electricity like all gases and its presen ce largely in creases
the resistan ce of the circuit With a co n stan t co n tact electro
.
m otive force the curren t passin g will n ecessarily vary with th e

,
total resistan ce .
I t was foun d in E xperimen t 6 that a mere differen ce in physi

c al co n stitutio n existin g betwee n two m etals w as su fficien t to
i n duce a co n tact poten tial at their join t In this con n ection on e

.
c an easily dem o n strate a flow of curre n t in an electrolyte with ,
the co n sequen t corrosion of on e of the electrodes in duced by the ,
co n tact poten tial existin g betw een a harden ed an d an an n ealed

wire of exactly the sam e chemic al composition In deed our .
,
study of the m icroscopic con stitution of steels has dem on strated

the essen tial n on hom ogen eity even of pure iron carbon alloys
- -
.
P ractically all comm ercial iro n s have additio n al discon tin uities
,
of structure due to slag or scale in clusion s segregatio n s of ele ,
m en ts or physically strain ed spots or portion s

,
E ach border .
area of such a disco n tin uity will be the seat of con tact electro
m otive force causin g di fferen ces of poten tial at va n ous portion s
,
of the metallic surface .
On e can easily explain the replacem en t of m etal from solutio n

on this basis . S uppose a rod of comm ercial iro n to be imm ersed
in a solution of copper sulfate Con sider the action of two
.
i n fini tesim al areas of differen t poten tial (Fig .
The copp er ion will be attracted to the n egatively charged

area com e in to electrical con tact an d plate out as a m etal
, .
The 8 04 ion will be attracted to the positively charged area ,
come in to electrical con tact the charges n eutralize an d the

, ,
8 04 becom es ch emically active immediately attacki n g the iron

,
fo r min g iron sulfate which bein g soluble en ters the solution

, , ,
an d is dissociated In this m an n er all the copper in the solution

.
,
C O RR O SI O N 19 9
will even tually be replaced by metallic iron This method is in .
exten sive use in copper min in g districts to recover the copper

from the min e waters an d in deed to recover copper leached
, , ,
from low g rade tailin g dumps by rain water

-
.
In case the iro n is dipped in very dilute salt or acid solutio n s

( p
ta water ) t h e case is so m ewhat di ffere n t S uppose the solutio n .
to be a weak solution of sulfuric acid H z SO 4 A s discussed ,

.
above differen t surface poten tials would cause a migration of

,
the ion s the hydrogen platin g out as a gas film an d a corre

, ,
sp on d in g quan tity of iro n sulfate bein g form ed The action is .
I r on R od
F IG .
49
—E l c t ly t ic C
. e ro or r os on i .
polariz ed however owin g to the n on con ductin g gas

, ,
-
film o fferin g a very large resistan ce to th e electrical in terchan ge .
This is n o t the case if iron replaces copper as the copper plate is ,
an excelle n t electrical co n ductor an d is porous en ough to allow ,
th e pen etratio n of iron an d sulfate ion s .
I ron in the purest water will be taken in to solutio n slowly ,
o win g to the fact that even chemically pure water is slightly

+
dissociated in to (H ) an d The result of the in terchan ge
is ferrous hydrate ,
—rust P olariz atio n in this case is very q uick
.
an d the actio n is exceedin gly slow .
P olarizatio n is pos sibly som ewhat aki n to the so called -
p assive state of m etals whi ch is merely a temporary sup

,
00 E XPE RIM E N TAL GRO UP IV
pression of their expected action (chiefly as far as solution p r e s

sure is co n cern ed ) caused by dippin g the m etal piece in a stron g
oxidizer such as chrom ic acid chrom ates or stron g fumi n g
, , ,
ni tric acid. The passive state of metals is n o t yet explain ed ,
but it m ay be that the actio n of the oxidizer chan ges F e ++
(assu m ed to be active ) to F
i n (assumed to be passive) .
M uch work on the preven tio n of corrosio n h as been do n e with

the hope of discoverin g som e method of makin g the metal
p er man en tly passive .
The m echan ism of the rustin g of iron in groun d water m ay

n o w be illustrated in the followi ng experim en t G roun d water is .
R esistanc e
6 Vo t l
B atter y
B eaker W lth
1% Sl Sl
a t o ution
F IG .
50 .
—M ch i m f C
e an s o o r r os o ni .
a complex solutio n of min eral salts with more or less oxygen an d

—
carbo n ic acid in solu tio n in gen eral it is an oxidizi n g substan ce ,
.
In the experim en t in order to hasten the actio n two bars of

, ,
iro n are used for electrodes to represen t areas of differen t poten

tial the co n tact electro m otive force is replaced by a battery
,
-
,
an d the grou n d water represe n ted by a 1 per ce n t salt solutio n .
The salt in solution is dissociated in to a sodium catio n an d a

chlori n e an io n the form er of which is attracted to the n egatively
,
charged electrode an d the chlori n e to the other On com in g

‘
,
.
in to electrical con tact the chlorin e becomes a chemical atom ,
extrem ely corrosive an d attacks th e iron accordin g to the fol

, ,
l owin g equatio n :
F e + CI3 F eCl3 .
2 02 E XP E RIM E N TAL GROUP IV
7 .The sti m ulati n g or depolarizi n g e ff ects of certai n coa ti n gs
app lied to iro n an d steel with the object of protecti n g the m etal .
8 The e ffect of i n den tatio n s scratches or other i n juries

.
,
which becom e cen ters of corro sion .
9 .The e ffect of extra n eous or stray curre n ts escaped fro m

high poten tial circui ts
-
.
F a c tor s which Inh ib it Corr o si on I In m ost cases the . .

,
reverse of the co n ditio n s which stim ulate corrosion .
2 .Con tact with certain substan ces in solutio n such as ,
chrom ic acid an d its soluble salts which produce a passive c on ,
dition .
3 .A lka li n e solutio n s of all ki n ds where the co n ce n tra t io

,
n
of hydroxy l ion s is su ffi cien tly hi gh But thi s protection m ay .
be overcom e in very stro n g boilin g solution s .
.
—
4 Co n tact with m ore electro positive m etals .
M uch m atter regardi n g corrosion is n ow bein g published ,
both by i n terested corporatio n s an d disin terested scien tists The .
results of short tim e tests seldom form a basis for co mpari so n

-
on accou n t of the extrem e co m plexity of the reactio n s an d the ,
di fficulty of adequately co n trollin g the in fluen ci n g factors Thi s .
c an be seen fro m a co n sideratio n of the followi n g list of factors
a ff ectin g the rate of corrosion prepared an d discussed by Frie n d :

,
1 .
Qua n tity of dissolved oxygen in water .
2 rea of exposed m etal

. A .
3 S uperficial
. area of water .
P- D epth of iin m er sion .
m P ressure of oxyge n .
h
R ate of m otion of water
C .
\ P
I
artial imm ersio n .
P hysical co n dition of iron

O
O .
O L ight
\
.
‘
10 Tem perature
. .
I I P resen ce of rust
. .
I
3 . Biological in fluen ces .
CO RR O SION 203
On e very beautiful experim en t called the fer r oxyl test

has been developed by Walker to show the actual migration of
iron ion s away from the solid bar The reagen t fer r oxyl is a .
gelati n e which co n tain s two delicate i n dicators ; phen olphthalein

an d potassium ferricya n ide th e form er of which will turn pin k
,
in the presen ce of the basic ion (O H) an d the latter turn s blue

_
in the presen ce of iro n

I f then a piece of iro n is imm ersed in the gelatin e the p res
, ,
en ce of a pin k area will in dicate a n egative n ode whil e the ,
presen ce of a blue zon e will in dicate a positive n ode : iron is

bein g corroded at this poin t The gelatin e is presen t m erely to
.
o ff er greater resistan ce to the migration of the ion s i e to fix ,

. .
,
the reaction .
S uch substan ces as litm us phenolphthalein m ethyl ora n ge

, , ,
an d potassium ferricyan ide are called in dicators because they

show the presen ce of slight traces of certain reagen ts P hen ol .
phthalein for in stan ce is a very weak acid a com pou n d of

, , ,
phen ol (carbolic acid) an d n aphthalic acid (an other coal — tar

derivative) ; it is n o t di ssociated in a n eutral solutio n an d is , ,
t herefore colorless However if a soluble base is added a

,
.
, ,
th c salt is fo r m ed with the positive ion from the base which ,
th alic salt d oes dissociate when the characteristic rose colored

,
-
th alic ion imm edi ately colors the solutio n P hen olph thalein .
is thus an i n dicator of hydroxyl io n s i e of bases to a dilutio n ,

. .
, ,
of I part in 3 million .
—
H om ogen eous stee1 free from seg rega tio n an d physical
—
strain s u n doubtedly is a better rust resistan t material than an -
im p ure poorly m ade article There is re aso n to believe how

,
.
,
ever that the best wrought iron is a superior m aterial ; perhaps

,
because of the m echan ical protection afforded by the in ert slag

in clusion s Busy iron (such as rails an d pipe carryin g runn in g
.
water) usually last better than otherwise perhaps because

, ,
the m echani cal forces break up an d spread the n odes so that

localized pittin g is im possible I t is also kn own that spo n gy .
rust is electro n egative to iro n an d therefore accelerates c or

-
, ,
r osio n ; kn owi n g this , the en gin eer should in sist u p o n thoro

cleaning before pain tin g or repain tin g a m etallic structure .
M ill scale (F o n the othe r han d is electro positive to iro n ,

-
,
an d is therefore an in hibitor ; could iro n be so treated that th e

, ,
rustin g would form the m agn etic oxide the corrosion problem ,
would be solved as far as ferrous m aterials are co n cern ed The

,
.
corrosion in boilers or hot water system s is ordin arily combated

by han gin g slabs of zin c in the b oiler } The trouble with thi s r
.
practic e is : First the di fficulty of gettin g a good durable

, , ,
electrical co n tact between the m etals ; seco n d the protectio n ,
o ffered by the zin c is localized ; and third it is un econ omic , ,
to burn zin c to save iro n A bett er w ay to con trol such c o r .
r osion is to eli mi n ate the oxygen from the feed an d circulatin g
water (which is the biggest culprit in this case ) by boilin g it in

an open top co n tain er before i n jectin g it i n to the system
-
.
S p e c ial A ppar atu s . The special apparatus required is as

follows :
D irect curren t amm eter I o ohm resistan ce
-
,
-
.
M illivoltm eter .
Four 2 so c c beakers -
. .
Two test tubes with perfor ated corks

-
,
.
g-
in rou
. n d m etal rods as follows :
On e of copper
Five of m ild steel ,
Twe of zin c .
r z m p l ece of steel wire

-
. .
Han d towel .
-
gram trip balan ce an d weights .
S uppli e s . The supplies required are as follows

N
S ugar soluti on ,
10
.
S ulfuri c acid solution an d 2 5 per c en t .
Copper sulfate solution I per cen t ,

.
P otassium bichrom ate 1 0 per cen t ,

.
206 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO U P I V
f Clea n a.n other steel rod as in procedure e an d dip the en d
of it in a 1 per cen t copper sulfate solution for five secon ds .
R em ove an d wipe off quickly R epeat the operation dippin g .

,
deeper an d deeper with subsequen t i mm ersion s u n til a visible

’
copper plate is fo r m ed on the en d which cann ot be wiped ,
o ff .
g Clea . n a n other rod as i n procedure 6 an d i m m erse for a n ,
hour in a 1 0 per cen t solutio n of potassium bichrom ate R emove .

,
wash an d dry on a c lean cloth Then repeat procedure f un til a .
d eposit of similar den sity is ac quired .
k A ssem ble the apparatus as shown In Fig so page 2 00 to

. .
, ,
show the electrolytic theory of corrosion of iron .
R un a little fer r ox yl i n to the bottom of tw

'
z . o beakers an d ,
place in ice water to solidify Cool the balan ce of the reagen t .
n early to the solidificatio n poi n t Clean several iron fragm en ts .

,
such as a n eedle a ben t case n ail a thin black she et etc as in

, , ,
.
,
procedure e place them on the fer r oxy l bed an d cover w ith the
, ,
reagen t Co ol th e whole u n til it gels an d set away to b e exam

.
-
,
in ed on the morrow .
j Clea
. n s m all pieces of ti n n ed galva n ized an d ter n e plates ; , ,
dip them i n to just fluid fer r oxyl to give a thin film On the sur
-
‘
face of the m etal S et away to be exam in ed on the morrow

. .
k Fill two beak ers with a 2 pe r c en t solution of N aCl In

‘
.
.
o n e of them place an iro n an d a zin c electrode n o t in elec tr i ca l ,
con n ection ; an d in the other sin iilar electrodes co n n ected by a , e
con ductor A ll ow the cells to stan d overnight an d exam in e

.
,
-
.
'
l Clean an d weigh two piec es of I 6 gage m etal 1 X 2

.
-
,
on e of mild steel an d the other of pure i n g ot iro n

,
Imm er se .
these in 2 5 per cen t sulfuric acid for on e hour wash d r y \an d -

, , ,
r e weigh
-
.
Q u er i e s a D iscuss .a n.
y variatio n n oted fro m t h e exp ected
results of procedure I) c an d k , ,
.
b What does procedure a in di cate as to the io n i z ation of

'
sugar in solution ?
P resen t the experim en tal data of proce dure d an d e xp lain
‘
6 .
th e reason for a steady decrease in curren t .

C O RRO SI ON 207
d .What does procedure e di sclose as to the solutio n pressure

of iron in pure water ?
.e D iscuss the results of procedure f an d g .
f
. S ketch a n d explai n the results of the f er r oxy l tests . G ive
the chemistry of the ferricyan ide in dication for ferrous iron .
g . D iscuss fully the results of procedure 1

,
3 explai n in g the
chemical reaction s in both cases an d th e comp osition of the en d

,
products .
12 What would happen if a piece of lead were imm ersed In a

.
copper sulfate solution ? Why ?

.1 E xplain why a g ravity cell is n o t polariz ed an d how
it m ain tain s a n early con stan t electrom otive force .
j What i flue ce should purity of the iron have upon cor

"
. n n
r o sion ? Why should cast iron be such a g ood rust resistin g -
mate rial as to be used in w a ter pIp es? f

E X PE RI M EN TA L G RO U P V
FO RE WO RD T 0 T HE S T U DE N T
T he two fo l lowi n g experim en ts ar e an in troductio n in to the

m eta llurgy of cast iro n . E vide n tly they could be exten ded
co n siderab ly in case a studen t wished to specialize in this
p articular bran ch of metallurgy M a n y p rob lem s could be
.
in vestigated bearin g up on the comp ositio n of mol din g san d ,
its p roper p rep aration an d m an ipulation an d the applicatio n

’
an d o p eratio n of the various styles of moldin g machin es .
M uch of these an d other problem s of the iron fou n der are best
studied in the foun dry itse l f however as moldin g c o re ma kin g
, , ,
an d me l tin g troubles are there in ten sified .

2 10 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP V
Lab orato ry E qu ipm en t . The laboratory equipm en t n eeded

as follows :
’
M older s ben ch .
Four sn ap flasks with bottom an d top boards .
Four weights .
B room .
Pr oc e d ur e in s tructor to examin e the san d which

. a . A sk an ,
has been lef t from th e previous day s work in a n eat pile n ear the ’
m oldi n g ben ch This san d will be som ewhat too dry for use
. .
S hov e l the old san d in to a n ew pile spri n klin g the old pile with
”
.
.
,
,
water from tim e to tim e as instructed R e shovel (or c u t ) .

-
the san d at least three tim es m ore to reduce it to a un iforml y

damp co n ditio n P repare a few shovelsful of un used san d for
.
facin g in a similar m ann er .
I) U se the iro n follow board furn ished by th e stock clerk

. .
P lace it o n the m oldin g ben ch cleats exten di ng away from th e ,

i
m old er T h e brass pattern will fit in place an d is m ad e to cast

. .
from the un der side two test bars % in by in by 1 2 in lon g .

,
. .
‘
.
The pattern also form s the skim gate an d runn ers P lace the
.
.
chill y o k es in their p r oper place on the follow board P lac e t h e

”
.
drag or lower half of th e flask upside down over th e follow

,
’
bo a rd, pin s thru cleats .
‘
”
S ift the faci n g san d thru a fin e r id d le to c over the whole
‘
c .
pattern som e 2 in deep an d tuck in gen tl y with the han ds .

,
.
S hovel the drag full of old san d ramm in g it arou n d the edge of ,
the flask with the chisel edge of the rammer but t en d in clin in g ,
-
toward th e cen ter R oun d off the rem ain der of the san d with
.
the han ds an d butt r am the en tire surface vigo rously

,
-
.
‘
d S crape o ff the excess san d to a level with the edge of the

.
flask with a strik e or straight edge sp rin kle on a little loose ,

r
,
dry san d awith the han ds and rub the bottom board to a fir m
.
bearin g .
e G rip the e n tire assem bl age of follow board dra g an d bot

.
, ,
tom board an d turn it upside d own ,

roll over R emove
the fo llow b o ar d by liftin g ver tically b low off an y loose san d with
y
, ,
M OLDI N G 1
a bellows A sk an in structor to in spect the con ditio n of th e

.
surface before proceedin g .
S pri n kle a little fin e dry parti ng sa n d eve n ly over the

f
.
, ,
e n tire surface pl ace the cope or upper half of the flask on the
, ,
drag p in thru cleats an d place a gate stick in the proper

, ,
position .
g
. R epeat procedures 6 d an d e in the cope ; B efore th e cope , ,
is rolled over rem ove en ough san d alo n gside the gate stick to
,
allow the fir e clay pourin g basin to be properly em bedded with

-
,
d raw the gate stick an d rou n d an d smooth all edges pattin g

, ,
down the san d with the fin gers .
h The cope is n ow upside down on the ben ch beside the drag

. . .
B evel th e gate hole at the partin g Withdraw the pattern by .
liftin g it ver tically without r app in g S prues run n ers an d skim

,
.
,
gates n eed n o t be cut as the pattern is con structed to form them .
The chills of course are to be left in p osition embedded in the

, , ,
san d B e particularly careful to remove the last bit of loose

.
san d in the mold M ark the m old by m akin g on e or m ore small

.
co n ical den ts in the san d so that the fin ished bars wil l have dis ,
tin guishin g m arks for iden tificatio n F in ish an y imperfectio n s .
by hand or slick replace the cope on the drag removin g the

, ,
top board L ift the bottom board flask an d mold to the floor
.
, ,
where it c an be poured an d place a flat cast iron weight on the ,

-
cope to ho l d th e partin g tigh t shut .
‘
.i E ach squad m ember shall m ake a m old in dividually callin g
-
,
u po n an in structor to in spect an d grade his work at the en d of
procedure 12 A t the en d the flasks should be shook out

.
” ,
-
,
that is the san d return ed to the origi n al pile an d the floor

, ,
clean ed up .
Q u er i es a S ketch
. an d describe a moldin g machin e
. .
b S ketch an d describe the m echan ical arran gem en t used in

.
vibrators to produce the rapid slight jarrin g eff ect , , .
.6 Why is it n ecessary to peen r am with a tool in c lin ed t oward -
th e cen t er of the flask ?

d D escribe a m ethod for exact co n trol of th e m oisture in
.
mo ldin g san d .
2 12 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP
e . D iscuss th e lim itation s of m oldin g . F or in stan ce , why

are column s usually of built structural shapes ? What portio n
of th e foun dry field has the m an ufacture of stampin gs
appropriated ? What methods are employed to cheap en an d
expe di te quan tity productio n ? ”
f G
. ive specificatio n s of san d for m ol din g stove plate ; gen -
eral machin e parts ; brass ; steel .

2 14 E XP E RIM E N TAL GRO UP V
°
at 1 z 8o C (co n tainin g
. per cen t C per cen t Fe ) n aturally
,
e n riched the rem ain in g m other liquor in carbon by withdrawin g

—
a high iron alloy from the m elt I t is easy to see therefore
.
, ,
that the composition of the m other m elt m ust slide down the
liquidus with decreasin g temperature u n til the eutectic poin t
per cen t C ) is reached .
The variatio n in the carbo n con ten t of the progressivel y

'
solidifyin g austeni te is n ot usually so well appreciated Just .
after the first crystal of per cen t austenite has form ed it ,
fin ds itself in an u n stable co n ditio n at a slightly lower tempera

ture The
. per cen t austen ite is n o lo n ger the saturated
solution but it m ust co n tin uously absorb carbo n from its su r
,
roun din gs becomin g higher an d higher in carbon co n ten t to

,
-
m atch that of the co n tin ually solidifyin g austen ite In this .
way (if tim e be give n duri n g a l w coolin g) the already solid

'
auste n ite is absorbin g carbon from the mother liquor an d the ,
whole solid n o m atter at what tim e its parts have been born h as
, ,
a compositio n which s lides down the solidus to the m axim um

solubility ,
per cen t C arrivin g there at exactly the sam e
,
tim e an d temperature as does the moth er liquor at the eutectic .
A t this i n sta n t the mixture co n tain s prim ary crystals approx

,
im atin g per cen t austeni te an d eutectic m other liquor of

,
4 3
. per ce n t carbo n The. te m perature wi ll re m ain c on sta n tly
at I I 30 un til the m other liquor h as soli dified in to an eutec tic
°
m ixture of per cen t austen ite an d cem en tite cem en tin g the ,
p r im a r v crystals toge ther i n to o n e solid m ass The radiati n g .
heat I S en tirely supplied at t his temperature by the laten t he a t '
of solidification of these two compon en ts .
A further coolin g of the en tirely solid iro n wi ll brin g further

chan g es A s the temperature falls the saturation solubility of
.
,
iron carbide in iron co n tin ually decreases The primary massive .
crystals of austen ite an d the lam ellar eutectic auste n ite m ust
,
both progressively eject this excess of cemen tite This ejectio n .
is con tin uous un til a tem perature of 7 2 0 C is reached when th e °

.
,
co n stitution of the m etal is m ade up of per cen t austeni te .

,
cemen tite borderin g this austen ite (havin g been preci pitated
CO MP O SI TI ON OF C AS T IR ON 2 15
therefrom) an d l amellar cem en tite of the origin a l eutectic

which m ight be called eutectic cem en 7 2 0 C the tite.
” At
°
.
,
rem ain in g p er cen t austen ite breaks up in to pear lite ; an d n o

further chan ge should take p lace other than a coagulation of ,
the like con stituen ts in to favored areas .
S uch is the con stitutio n of the purest w hi te cast iron an d it is ,
illustrated in Fig 51 by Wust I t seems however that if more

. .
, ,
than about per cen t of carbo n is presen t in the alloy the ,
cem en tite acts as a very un stable com poun d especially at ,
FI G .
51 . Wh i t C
- e ast I r on . (Wu st ).
t em peratures l ower than 0

C On even m oderately slow
1 1 00 .
coolin g th e iro n carbide breaks up in to ferrite an d graphi te

, ,
th e latter accu mulatin g in lo n g greasy flakes fi llin g in a , ,
m etallic n etwork with a lubrican t void of ten acity These , .
flakes give gray iro n its characteristic color an d fracture an d ,
th e other physical p roperties are strictly depen den t upon t h e

d isco n tin uity of the m etalli c aggregate .
Fig 52 by B oylston shows th e c on stitution of thi s iron to

.
, ,
be really a low carbo n steel in tersected by graphite flakes

-
,
.
In term e di ate stages in the decompositio n of cem en tite in to

grap hi te an d ferrite ar e som etim es en coun tered an d are te r m ed ,
2 16 E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP V
m ottled iron s. Fig 53 by Wust shows their con stitution so

.
, ,
clearly that discussion would be superfluous .
52 .
—
G yC ra ast Ir o n .
(B oyls
t on )
FI G .
53 . M d It
o ttle on .
(Wu st ) .
I t is easy to see that the physical properties such as stren gth ,
shrin kage etc

,
are prim arily depen den t upo n the amount ‘
of
E XP E RIM E N TAL GR O UP V
an d con sequen tly should be kept as low as possible (less than

p e r ce n t ) in good gray fou n dry iro n s .
M an gan ese cou n teract s the action of sulfur by formin g

m an g an ese sulfide an d should always be presen t to thi s exten t
, .
The man g an ese su lfide readily liquates an d m ay burn at the

surface of a qui et m elt thus elim in atin g the sulfur from the iron
, .
E xcess of m an gan ese above the su lfur requirem en t form s a

double carbide with iron an d thus in creases the combin e d c ar
,
b on ; m ore than I p er cen t man gan ese a ffects the m echan ical
properties of the iron directl y by alterin g the characteristics of
th e pearlite.
P hosphorus probab ly for ms a solid solution with ferrite ,
in creasin g fluidity an d producin g cold shortn ess I ts e ff ect is -

.
m uch m asked by other impurities however I f it is kept below

,
.
per cen t it will hardly aff ect the stren gth of the m aterial ;
,
if thin castin g s are the p rime co n sideration upwards of 1 per ,
cen t m ay be used .
N um berless an al yses of iro n s have bee n given as r ecom

men ded practice for this or that service S ome of them show .
such sm all variation s between various classes of castin gs as to

be well within the limit of error of meltin g samplin g an d an alysis ,
.
The stren gth an d adaptabil ity of castin gs depen ds to such a

great exten t upon moldin g meltin g pourin g an d an n ealin g
, ,
practice that it is dan gerous if n o t foo lish for the en gin eer to
, ,
specify an alyses within n arro w limits E ven if th e foun drym an .
luckily furn ishes the proper an alysis th e castin gs could easily ,
be of in ferior grade due to oth er causes than the con flictin g

in fluen ce of the half do ze n con stituen ts of the alloy F or in for
-
.
m ation on this subject the studen t should first read T Turn er s

’
”
.
book on Cast I ron an d his article in the Journ al of the I ron an d

S teel I n stitute volum e I of 1 886 or an other paper on the
,
A n alysis of M achin ery I ro n s

” ,
I 5 M etallurgical an d Chemical
,
E n gin eerin g 683 an d the n turn to the P roceedin gs of the

, ,
A merican F oun d r ym en s A sso ciation

’
.
S pe c i al A ppar atu s The special apparatus n eeded is as

.
follows
C O MPO SI TI ON OF C AS T IRON 2 19
S et of m older s tools ’
S quare poin ted shove l

-
.
S prin klin g c an .
B en ch ramm er .
S trike .
Fin e rid dle .
B ellows .
S lick an d spoon .
Three iron follow boards with brass patter n c hi ll s , ,

an d
gate sticks complete .
m g trip balan ce an d weights

. .
Op tical pyr ometer .
C l osed en d ob servation tube

-
.
S hrin k age gage .
Co ld cut .
G raphite electro d e for stirri n g r o d .
S uppli es . The supp lies n eeded are asfo llows
Three fir e clay p ourin g basin s

-
.
M oldin g san d preferably stove plate sa n d

,
-
.
White cast iro n in small pieces of the followin g an a l

,
y sis
C ,
per cen t
S i, per cen t .
P ,
per cen t .
S
M n
as low as possible .
G ray charcoal iron ,

in sm all pieces ,
followin g an al
y sis
C , per cen t .
S i, per cen t .
P, per cen t .
S, as low as possible .
M n, per cen t .
220 E PX E R IM E N T A L GR O UP V
P owdered an d an alysed alloys as follows
P yrrhotite .
Ferro silicon -
.
F erro man gan ese-

.
Ferro phosphorus -
.
Lab orator y E quipmen t . The laboratory equipmen t ne ed ed is

as follow s :
’
M older s ben ch .
Three sn ap flasks with bottom an d top boards , .
Three weights .
B room .
P latform scales .
Tiltin g crucible furn ace with an n ealed crucib l e , .
Therm it welder crucible clay lin ed ,

.
- —
Cast iron pig m old .
E m ery wheel with wire buffer .
Impact machin e .
S cleroscope .
A n vil .
S ledge .
Pr oc e d u r e Compute the am ou n t of iron n ecessary to pour

. a .
t hree m olds such as were m ade i n E xpe ri men t N o 2 5 F igure . .
the con stituen ts n ecessary to m ake iron of the com positio n r e

qui red by the in structor weigh an d charge in to an an n ealed ,
graphite crucible in a tiltin g crucible furn ace S tart the gas .
flam e gradually in creasin g the temperature to a m aximu m

, ,
with a reducin g flam e .
b M ake up three test bar m olds as directed in experim en t

.
-
N o 2 5 p rocedure a to 12 in clusive
.
,
P lace on e of the m olds ,
.
di rectly u n dern eath the open in g in the bottom of a th ermit

welder cru cible an d the whole so placed that the furn ace on
, .
,
tiltin g will pour a stream of metal which will strike the side of
,
the welder crucible an d from this be de livered t o the pourin g

,
2 22 E XP E RIM E N TA L GRO UP V
out th e castin gs an d chills S aw an d grin d off the

S hake
'
6 . .
sprues an d brush off the san d with wire bu ff er M easure the

,
.
shrin kage by assemblin g the bar an d its correspon din g chi ll on

the proper follow board an d slip the wedge shaped shrin kage gage ,
-
between the en d of the bar an d the c hi ll u n til it comes in co n tact

with each un der n o pressure other than its own weight R ead
,
.
th e m ark at the upper surface of th e bar for the m easure of

shri n kage .
B reak the bars in a bea m testin g m achi n e in the S tre n gth

f .
-
of M aterials L aboratory accordin g to directio n s O bserve the ,

.
fracture for size of grai n color an d segregation ,

.
g Take
. three of the bars which show close results in the above
test an d test in the impact machin e after procedure f E xp er i

, , ,
m en t N o 1 7 . .
12 E xp lore the hardn ess of these three bars with a sclero

.
scope .
i O bserve an d sketch the depth of c hi ll by splittin g the e n ds

.
of the bar o the a vil with a cold cu t

n n — .
j M etallurgical
. stude n ts should polish etch a n d exa m in e the , ,
m etal un der the m icroscope after E xperim en t N o 2 2 ,

. .
k A ll sprue s gates bars an d fragmen ts should be rese r ved

.
, , .
N T E
ach squad should have in dividual in struction s as
O E .
to the an alysis of iron to be tested In thi s w ay the fin al results .
c an be exami n ed by all stu d en t s an d will e xhibit how the prop , ,
er ties of cast iro n vary with the co mpositio n A suggested pro .
gram of such variation s is as follows :

S quad 1 . M elt the white cast iro n an d test without addi
tion s .
S quad elt the gray cast iro n an d test without addition s

2 . M .
S quad 3 M elt the gray cast iro n an d stir con tin uously for
.
,
an hour with thin iro n wire .
S quad 4 A dd per cen t silicon as ferr o si lico n to the

.
-
metal from S quad 1 These addi tion s in every case should be .
m ade within ten min utes of the tim e of pourin g D rill a ho l e in .
the en d of a graphite electrode put in the weighed amoun t of

'
,
C O MP O SI TI ON OF C AS T IRON 223
powdered alloy an d hold in place with a wad of paper U se

,
.
this electrode as a stirrin g rod ; the paper will char an d the alloy ,
will be in troduced below the surface of the molten metal in this

man n er .
S quad 5 A dd 1 5 p er cen t silico n as ferro silicon to the

'
-
. .
metal of S quad 2 .
S quad 6 A dd e n ough sulfur as pyrrhotite to coun teract

.
the silicon in the metal of S quad 4 .
S quad 7 A dd . p er cen t sulfur as pyrrhotite to th e

gray cast iron .
S quad 8 A dd 1 per cen t phosphorus as ferro phosphoru s

.
-
to the white cast iron .
S quad 9 A dd 1 per cen t phosphorus to the g ray cast

.
iron.
S quad 1 0 A dd 1 p er cen t man g an ese to the white cast

.
iro n
.
S quad 1 1 A d d 1 p er cen t m an gan ese to the g ray cast

.
iron.
S quad 1 2 A dd 1 p er cen t man g an ese to the m eta l from

.
S quad 6 .
Q u er i es a M a k e up a n eat tabulation of the properties

. .
of the cast iron in vestigated an d post it on the p rop er bulletin

,
board .
b M ake a tabulation of the results of a ll squ ads in terpretin g

.
_
,
d discussing the data fully .
c .How could the iro n s be tested for fluidity ?

d How c an a whi te iro n be chan g ed in to a g ray iron by a heat
.
treatmen t ?
e A utom obi l e c l in ders are to be made of the fo ll o wi n g com
.
y ~
p osit io n :
p er cen t
per cen t
to p ercen t
to per cen t
foun d rym an has th e three fo ll owin g iron s available
2 24 E XPE RIM E N TAL GRO UP
I r on II
Calculate the n um ber of poun ds of each he must use in order

to m ake the required an alysis allowin g
, per cen t gain in
sulfur from the coke in the cupola an d ,
per cen t loss in si lico n
due to oxidatio n durin g m eltin g .
226 APP E N DIX A
an d whatever the uni ts used to express thi s quan tity the e ,

s
m asses will be proportion al to the abstract n um bers represen tin g

the weight of the substan ces app earin g in the balan ced equa
tio n i e the reactin g weights computed on a scale in which
,
. .
, ,
the weight of th e hydrogen atom is un ity The reactin g weight .

s
are usually n oted in arabic n um erals below the sym bol of th e

m olecule the above chemical equation completed t o show the
,
weight relation bein g

2 H 2 + 02 2 H 2 0 + I I O, 1 2 0
4
W ei gh ts The followin g list of approximate a tomic

A to mi c .
weights will therefore be useful : , ,
E l e m en t . S ym b l
o .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E L E M E N TARY M E TALLURGI C AL C AL C ULA TI O N S 22 7
additio n to the term s atom ic weight an d reactin g weight

In
”
the chemist uses the term m olecular weight Thi s den otes “ .
,
the abstract n umber form ed by addin g together the atomic

weights of the atom s co n stitutin g the m olecule In thi s m ann er .
the m olecular weight of sulfuric acid (Hz S O4 ) is fou n d to be ,
as follows
H2 = 2 atom s at I 2
S = 1 atom at
=
O4 4 atom s at 1 6 =6
4
H 2 8 04 1 m olecule at
The n um ber m er ely m ean s that the m olecule of sulfuric
acid weighs tim es as m uch as o n e atom of hydrogen In .
other words the weight of the m olecule of sulfuric acid is

,
if the weight of an atom of hydrogen is taken as u ni ty Thi s .
abstract n um ber represen tin g the molecular weight is used quite

often an d the abbreviatio n m ol h as been proposed fo r it
,
.
The u n it of weight is usually prefixed as follows : on e g ram ,
m ol of sulfuric acid is gram s of th e pure material S im ilarly .
on e oz m ol of water would weigh 1 8 oz ; three kg m ols of water

.
-
. .
-
,
k
54 g ; etc . .
Illu str ative Pr ob lem In workin g problem s n umerical or

.
,
otherwise the studen t should cultivate the habit of p r o cedin g

,
carefully st ep by step rather than tryin g to arrive at the con

,
c lu sion in o n e gra n d leap .
S tep 1 R ead the problem carefully an d un dersta n din gly

. .
Wha t weight of 502 c an be formed by the combustio n of

1 0 0 kg of pyrite F eS z ?
. A pparen tly the co mpou n d splits
,
up an d the sulfur at least burn s in a supply of oxygen to

, ,
fo r m su lfurous acid an hydride D isregardi n g whatever may .
happen to the iro n which is eviden tly the in ten t of the query
, ,
proceed to
S tep 2 S ymbolize th e chemical reactio n
.
The compoun d sp lits up : F 8 8 2 F e + S z i h eat z z ,

‘
The su lfur burn s : S z j Oz

-
8 02 t heat -
.
228 APP E N DIX A
Thi s is m erely an abbreviated qu alitative statem en t of what

happen s This should n ext be adjusted so that the quan tities
.
balan ce an d the two reaction s added together

,
.
S tep 3 B alan ce the equatio n s

.
F 6 8 2 = F C + S 2 dz h eat ,
82 2 02 2 8 02 :: l h eat .
Chec k th e work by addin g the n umber of atom s on both sides of

the equality sign s A d d the equation s can cellin g out ter m s
.
,
alike on bo th sides
F 6 82 + $ 2 + 2 02 Fe + $ 2 + 2 502 z iz h eat .
S tep 4 . Check the equatio n by atom s
F 6 8 2 + 2 02 F e + 2 8 02 i h eat .
I F 6 8 2 m ol with 1 atom Fe on the left ; 1 ato m Fe on the right :

1 F 6 8 2 111 01 with 2 atom s S on the left ; 2 mols 8 02 each with 1
atom S on right .
2 02 mols total 4 atoms

,
on left ; 2 m ols 502 each with 2 atom s
O on right .
The equatio n of the chem ical re action is eviden tly correctly

written P roceed to
.
S tep 5
“
R e read the problem an d decide upon the n ext
-
.
,
procedure What weight of 8 02 c an be form ed by the c om

”
.
b u stion of 1 00 kg of F eS g ? E viden tly weight is required

. .
Weights vary as the m olecular or reactin g weights The am oun t .
of heat evolved or absorbed seem s n o t to be requi red in the

solutio n of the problem an d it will therefore be di sregarded
, , ,
hereafter .
S tep 6 Compute the reactin g weights

.
On e F 6 52 has 1 Fe atom at
2 S atom s at
1 F 6 8 2 m olecule at
230 APP E N DIX A
fashion in which an expert wou l d subco n sciously so lve such a

.
problem an d it is in sisted that all problem s assign ed in this

,
course be attacked by the be gin n er in the same mann er The .
wordi n g of the thought processes n eed n o t be written out at

len gth but all problem s to receive credit m ust be solved in an
,
orderly m ann er followin g the above example co n den sed in to

som ewhat the followin g styl e :
Co n d en sed S olu tio n .
P roblem .
— Fi n d the weight of metal required for the pro
ductio n of gram m ol of its oxide
-
.
A ssum ed m etal : A l A ssum ed oxide : A l2 03

.
P rocess
—
—
AllO z A 12 03 :l: h eat
B alan ced equatio n 4A l+ 302 2 A 12 03 J: h eat :
Check 1 0 ato m s 1 0 ato m s OK . .
R eactin g weights 4A I= 4 atom s at

O = O ato m s at 6 6
3 2 1 9
In A l2 o3 are A 12 = 2 atom s at
atom s at 1 6 48
2 m ols A 12 03 at
Complete equation 4A l 302 2A 12 03 z t h eat
Check O K .
The problem asks how m uch m etal to give gram m ol of oxide ;-
xA l to give gm A 1
.
2 03 .
The equation says A l gives A 12 03 .
D ivide the two

x
when ce
E L E M E N TARY M E TALLURGI C AL C AL C ULATI ON S 231
A n swer : gram s of A l will form gm mo l A 12 03 .

-
.
I s the an swer reason able ?

The problem asks how much A 12 in A l2 03 .
l
2 X 27 1
. O K
. .
u ri E xpa d the above co n de n sed statem en t i n to

Q e e s a n. .
the form of the illustrative problem given just precedi n g it .
b H ow m uch oxide is form ed from

. lb of som e metal ? .
c How m an y poun ds of oxygen are required to burn

. t on
of a m etal ?
N O TE —U se the co n den sed solutio n step by step for queries
, ,
b an d c .
T h e Volume Rel ation

The volum e relation expre ssed in a
.
chemical reaction in volvmg gaseous m aterials follows from

A vo g adro s law : E qual volum es of gas u n der like tem perature
’
an d pressure co n tain the sam e n um ber of m olecules

” A n other .
way of statin g thi s law is that the volum e of a gas is proportio n al

to the n u mber of molecules presen t or m ore sim ply that all , ,
gaseous molecules n o matter what their c omp o sition or weight

, .
,
occupy the sam e space (temperature an d pressure rem ain in g the

sam e) B e careful to n ote that the m olecule of the gaseous ele
.
m en ts n early always co n tai n s m ore than on e atom usually two , .
We therefore write
Z H2 + O2 2 H2 0 +
rather than
E 2 +0
because the form er equatio n states a reactio n between two stable

gases whose m olecular formul ae are H 2 an d 02 respectively , .
T he latter equatio n states a reactio n in volvin g atom ic oxygen ,
which is in capable o f con tin ued free existen ce an d therefore , , ,
represen ts n o stable substan ce .
Furtherm ore sin ce the form er equation in volves molecular

,
formul ae of gases we c an im m ediately com pute that two volum es

,
of hydrogen burn i n g in on e volume of oxygen will produce two

232 APP E N DIX A
volumes of steam This volum e of steam produced is predicate d

.
on the co n ditio n that the heat gen erated by the com bustio n
uni ts) has radiated i n to cold surroun din gs an d the ,
product of the reaction has cooled down to the tem perature an d

pressure of the ori gin al hydro g en an d oxygen A s is the c ase .
with weight un its these volum e u n its c an be called an y c on

,
ven ien t uni t such as the volum e of a gaseous m olecule or a cubic

, ,
foot or a cubic meter or the volum e of a gram m o i or an y

, ,
-
,
thin g else The un it volum es are usually expressed in R om an

.
n um erals placed above the symbol ; the complete chemical

equation showin g the vol ume relation bein g
II I II
2 H2 + O2 2 H2 O +
Con servation of volum e is n o t existen t as is con serv ation of ,
weight ; therefore it is n o t possible to check this s tep by addin g

the volum es on either side of the equality sign I t will be n oticed .
however that the volum e u n it is the sam e as the coeffi cien t

,
n um eral of each form ula represe n ti n g gaseous m olecules
Q u e ri es N O TE These queries are to be worked out an d

-
.
recorded step by step after the m e thod of the co n den sed solution ,
page 2 30 .
a How m an y cubic feet of steam at 1 00 C an d 1 atm os

°
. .
,
p h er e will result fro m the co m bustio n of c u f t etha ne . .

,
C2 H 6 m easured at the sam e temperature an d pressure ?

,
b How m an y cubic m eters of oxy gen are required to burn

.
c u m of ethan e if both reage n ts an d products are m e a ured

. .
,
s
at 80 F an d 2 7 in of m ercury ?
°
. .
c What is the total volum e of all the products of combustion

.
of w i n of etha n e if all gases are m easured at th e sam e

.
,
temperature an d pressure ?
d I f air is a mixture of gaseous m olecules in the ratio of 2 1
.
m olecules of 02 to 7 9 m olecules of N 2 how m uch air m easured , ,
at stan dard co n di tion s will be required to burn 1 000 cu ft ,

. .
of m ethan e CH4 measured at 0 C an d 7 60 mm Hg

, ,
°
. . .
H eat E volutio n The third set of quan titative data given

.
'
234 APP E N DI X A
resp on din g to larger un its of mass such as the kg lb , . .
oz .
oz or lb. which last by the way is the B ritish
.
, ,
thermal uni t
In the above calorim eter experim e n t the un it of weight—kg , .
— was the sam e thruout therefore the equation is correc tly

; ,
written as
H2 + 02 H2 O + I kg—C
°
2 2 .
k
4 g +3 k = 6 kg
2 g 3 . . .
A slo n g as the Cen tigrade therm om eter is used the n u mber of ,
heat un its will be correct for the reactin g weights of

the substan ces in volved The kin d of heat uni t in that case .
,
depen ds on ly upo n the uni t of mass used in the computation .
Thus 4 lb of hydrogen burn in g in 1 6 lb of oxygen will evolve

,
. .
lb C uni ts of heat ; 3 2 gram s of oxyg en burn ed in

°
-
. .
m
°
hydrogen will evolve g C un its of heat Co n versely .
- . .
,
°
3 6 oz of water
. will absorb 1 o z C u n its of heat on b ec o m .
-
.
in g dissociated .
The figure does n ot r emain tr u e if the F ahr e n he it

therm ometer 15 used because the F ahren heit degree represen ts
,
—
o n ly 3 that absolute di fferen ce in temperature whi ch the Cen
°
tigr ad e degree den otes The lb F for in stan ce whi ch Is that
. . .
, ,
°
am o un t o f heat w hi ch raises on e pou n d of water 1 F is o n ly 3
’
.
,
°
the quan tity of heat as that represen ted by the lb C the latter .
-
.
bein g that am oun t of heat whi ch raises 1 lb of water 1 C I ti s . .
clear therefore that while the combustion of 4 lb of H 2 will

, ,
.
raise lb of water 1 C the s ame quan tity of heat will

.
°
.
,
°
raise lb of water 1 F . .
T h er mo ch emi c al D ata S in ce the amou n t of heat absorbed .
or evolved by c h emic al reaction s cann ot be predicted a pr ior i it

_
,
is n ecessary to furn ish a list of calorimetric results The fol .
lowin g heats of form atio n are abstracted from a m ore complete

list in P art I of Richards M e tallurgical Calculation s an d are
,
” , ,
‘
arran ged in e ach class accordin g to the atomic weight of th e b asic r
“
elemen t A ll heat un its are for d eg rees Cen tigrade an d on the
.
b asi s fr om an d at zero
.
” .
,
E L E M E N TARY M E TALLURGI C AL CA L C ULATI ON S 235
RE ACT I O N RE ACT I N G WE IGH S T
Alumin ates
3 C3 ~
+ 2A 1+ 302 "
f
' --
l 54 .
2 70 .
5
B o r at es
4N a + 8B + 7 02 2 N agB4O 7 + 9 X 8
2 8 =
+ 4 4 04
2 2
C bid
ar es
Ca + 2 C Ca C —62 2 50
C b ar o n at es
g + 2 C + 302 g COa l
2M - 2M -
4N + a 2C + 3O2 l 2 N a2C03 - 2 + 24 +9 6 =
9 2I2
2 Ca + 2 C + 302 2 Ca CO 3 +
2 N a + H2 + 2 C + 3O2 2 N aH CO a 46 + 1 68
Hyd r at es
2A l+ 302 + 3H2 = 2 A I(O H) 3 +

N 2+ 5H2 + 02 2N H40H + I 7 7 , 000 28 70
Ca + 02 + H2 2 =
Hyd c b g r o ar on ases
C 11 CH + 2 2 4 2 (methan e)
2 C + 3H2 C2H 6+ (eth an e)
2C + 2 H2 C2H4 1 I ,
2 50 (eth ylen e)
6 C + 3H2 G eH e“
(b en z en e)
2 C + H2 C2H2 (ac etylen e)
N 2 + 3H2 2N H + 0 (gas)
O xid es
2 H2 O2 = 2 H2O (gas)
2C O2 = 2 CO (gas)
C O2 = CO2 (gas)
s
4N a+ 02 = 2 N a20
2M 0 = 2 M gO
g+ 2
2 A l2 + 3O2 = 2 A 1203 + 7 8
Si
'
O2 = S iO2 = 60
28 .
3+ 32 3 .
1 )
+50 = 2 P205 1 24
4 2
S 02 = SO2 (gas ) l 32 = -
4K 02 = 2 K20 1 56 4 +
2 Ca Oz = 2 CaO
2 Fe 02 = 2 F eO III . 6+
4 Fe 2 23 2 +
F e + 2 0 = F e 304
3 2
4 Cu + O2 = 2 Cu2O +
236 APP E N DIX
R E A CT I O N R
E ACT IN G WE IG S
HT
O xid es
2 Cu O2 = 2 Cu O
22 n O 2 = 2 Zn O
2 Pb O2 = 2 Pb O 4 14 4 + 4
Pb O2 = Pb 02 207 . 2 + 2
S ilicate s
4N a —
l S i + 30
2 (N a2O ) (S io2) + 6
2 2
92 . 6
2 Ca + 2 S i+ 302 = 2 (CaO ) 80 . 8
6Ca + 2 S i+5O2
= . 2
2 Fe + 2 S + 3 02 i 2 (FeO ) . 2
22h 2 8 i+ 3 02 2 (Z n O ) (S io2)
4
S u lfat es
H 2 + S + 2 02 = H28 04 + 2 + 32 .
C + s+ 2 o2
—
a C a S O4 + 3 I
--
F e l S l 2 02 Fe S O 4 +
C u + S + 2 O2 Cu S O 4 +
Z n + S + 2 02 Z n S O4 + 2 —
—
l3 2 . 1 =
+ 4 I 6I
6 .
S ulfid es :
H2 + S = H2S + (gas) 2 + 32 . I 34 .
Fe+ S F eS + 2 4 , 000 87 .
2 Cu + s Cu2s l -
—
Cu l S -
Cu s+ 95 .
65 97
Pb + s = P b S +
T h er mal Calc ulati on examp l e take thi s problem . A s an ,
R equired the n um ber of poun ds of carbon to be burn ed to

raise the temperature of 1 00 lb of water from 4 0 F to 2 00 F ” .
°
.
°
.
S tep I How m an y heat un its are required to heat the water ?

.
A ssume the heat un it m ost n early fitti n g the co n dition s of th e

problem i e lb —F ,
. .
,
.
°
.
Temperature at en d 2 00
°
F .
Temperature at begin n in g
In crease
Weight of water heate d .
° °
Heat un its required 1 00 lb . 1 60 F . lb .
-
F .
2 38 APP E N DIX A
This result gives the m in im um am oun t of carbon theoreticall y

required on the basis that the product of combustion (CO 2 ) is
, ,
cooled to 0 C P ractically con siderably more would be n eeded

°
.
,
to furn ish the heat carried away by the carbon dioxide escapin g
—
at a somewhat higher temperature at least as great as 2 00 F °
the temp erature of th e absorben t in thi s problem .
Q u er i e s N O T E — These are
. to be so l ved an d recorded step
by step .
a How m an y g1 n C of heat wi ll be evolved in ch an gin g

°
-
. . .
1 0 gm Fe in to each of its o xides ?

.
b H ow man y lb F wil l be evo l ved in burn in g 1 2 lb C O

°
-
. . . .
tO CO 2 ?
c . The reaction
2 H2 + O2 2 H2 O + 1 20 (gas)
-
is on the basis that the resultin g steam is cooled to 0 C an d °

.
rem ain s gaseous at that temperature What will be the heat .
evolution of the reactio n on th e basis that the resultin g steam is

°
cooled to 0 C an d con den ses in to water if the con den sa tion of
.
,
1 k g steam at 0 C in to water at 0 C evo lves ° ° °

. kg C un its
. . .
-
.
of laten t heat ?
d Fi gure the heat evolutio n of the sam e equation product
.
,
°
solid at 0 C if the laten t heat of fusion of 1 lb of ice is 1 44 B t u
.
,
. . . .
D ecomposition of Compou n d s A ll the therm al equivalen t s .
listed above corresp on d to the f orm ation of the c ompoun d from

its elem en tary con stituen ts The great n umber of ordin ary .
reaction s are between compo un ds rather than elemen ts In ,

.
order to fin d the n et heat e ff ect of such reaction s it is eviden tly ,
n ecessary to compute the in put of heat n eces sary to decompose
the reagen ts in to their co n stituen t elem en ts an d deduct t hi s ,
amoun t from the total heat evolved upon their reassembly .
F or example to evaluate the balan ced reaction ,
CO F e2 03 CO 2 2 F eO
first compute the am oun t of heat n ecessary to decomp ose th e

reagents in to their compon e n ts as follows ,
E LE M E N TARY M E TA L LURGI C A L C AL C ULATI ON S 239
S tep Tr an sp ose from the tabulation of therm ochemical

1 .
data the reaction s

2 CO 2 C + 02
2 F e2 03 4 F e + 3O 2 39 1 ,
2 00 .
These equation s state that it requires an in put of heat

u n its to decompose 2 m ols of CO an d heat un its to ,
decompose 2 m ols of F e2 03 E viden tly to decompose 1 m ol of .
CO wi ll require an d 1 m o l of F e2 03 will require
o r a total of heat u n its to decompose the reagen ts in to

their compon en ts C F e an d O 2 , ,
.
S wp 2 N ow after this decompositio n has been e ffected

.
, ,
the atom s recom bin e in a n ew array stated in the followin g ,
equation s :
evolving a total of heat u n its (The origi n al equation .
i n volves the productio n of on e mo l of CO 2 an d two m ols of

F eO so the heat figures in the above may be added directly
,
as they stan d ) .
S tep 3 S ub tract the i nput from the output

. .
In put
E volutio n
B alan ce evolved
The complete equa tion should then read .
CO + F e2 03 CO 2 2 F eO
The sign would have to be min us in case the in put were greater
than the output in which case the si gn ifican ce would be that
, ,
the equatio n absor bs heat or is en dotherm ic , .
Q u er i es a Write the complete equation for the combustio n

. .
of
‘
the gaseous hydrocarbo ns .
b How much heat will be evo l ved by the combustio n of on e

.
kg of these hy drocarbon s ?
.
24 0 APP E N DIX A
c How much heat is evolved in the reaction of water

. on
calcium carbide form in g acetylen e ? ,
d How m uch heat is evolved in the

. therm it reactio n
F e2 03 2A l A 12 03 : h ea t
2 F e :l .
G ases less otherwise expressly stated ga ses are m easured

. U n ,
by volum e at stan dard con ditio n s of tem perature (the fr eez mg

poin t of water ; 0 C or 3 2 F ) an d p ressure (on e atm osphere :
° °
. .
,
7 60 mm or in of.m ercury ; or lb per sq . S hould . .
the volum e be desired un der an y other circum stan ces the laws ,
of G ay L ussac an d of B oyle are applied ; viz that th e volum e .

,
of a gas varies dir ectly with the absolute temperature an d ,
in ver sely with the absolute pressure R em em ber particularly .
that the absolu te temperatures are used in figurin g the volum e

—
of gases an d that absol u te zero is 2 7 3 C
,
°
.
F or in stan ce required the volume of ,

c u ft of gas at . .
°
5 00 C an d .
,
i n pressure . .
71 3 “
S olutio n . V olum e required X X 54 5 cu . ft .
2 73 2 9 -5
N ote that the above solutio n c an be m ade by m ultiplyin g the

origin al volum e by two fractio n s on e fraction m ade up of the ,
in itial an d fin al temperatures an d the other made up of the ,
in itial an d fin al pressures Trouble with such problem s n eed .
n ever be experie n ced if the tem peratures are carefully reduced
to the sam e therm om etric scale in degrees above absolute zero ,
an d then are arran ged in a fractio n in such a m a n n er as to
in cr ease the volum e in case the fin al tem perature of the gas is

higher than the origi n al Then carefully reduce the pressures .
to the sam e n otatio n (in ches of m ercury poun ds per square i n ch , ,
or what n o t) an d arran ge the i n itial an d fin al pressure in to a

pressure fractio n ” so as to decr ease the result in case the
fin al pressure of the gas is gr eater than the origin a l 01 vice .
versa in either case

,
.
Q u e ri e s a I f the pressure of 1 atm osphere is equal to

. . .
that of 7 60 mm of m ercury or to lb per sq in figure the

.
,
. . .
,
24 2 APP E N DIX A
molecular omposition be kn own or of an y mixture of gases if

c ,
the percen tage compositio n by volum e is dete r mi n ed .
Illu str ative P rob lem F igure the weight of carbon mon ox
”
.
ide (CO) in kilogram s per cubic m eter at stan dard co n ditio n s

, ,
.
S tep 1 Kg mol vol CO occupies

. cu m (B y rule
.
- -
. . .
above)
kg mol CO .
- weighs 28 kg .
S tep 2 . On e kg m ol vol
.
- -
. weighs 1 kg -mol
. .
cu . m weighs
. 28 kg .
when ce 1 cu m weighs . . kg . A n swer .
Compute a table givin g the form ula m olecular

Q u er i es . a .
,
weight weight per cubic meter in kilogram s an d weight per

, ,
cubic foot in oun ces of each of the followin g gases :
Water vapor
Carbo n m o n oxide
Carbon dioxide .
gram m ol vol has been carefully determin ed to be

b A
.
- -
.
liters What per cen t of error is i n volved in assumin g I kg m ol

. .
-
vol to be
. c u m ? What per Ce n t erro r is in volved in assu m
. .
in g 1 oz mol vol to be . c u ft
-
if 1 me t er =
-
in an d 1 kg
. . .
,
. .
*
equals lb .
A good w ay to re mem b er th e mass c v i f ct

on er s on a or is as f ollo w Ths: er e ar e
thr ee t on s in g en er al u se :
X
1 met r ic t on :
2 2 04 lb . 1 000 kg .
wh c en e 1 kg . lb .
N o te th at th e last two dig i t s ar e mer el yi n ter ch g d an e in th e c ase o f lon g an d .
metr ic t on s .
E LE M E N TARY M E TA L LURGI CA L CA L C ULA T ION S 24 3
c . G iven the fact that air is a of approximately mixture

2 1 per ce n t oxyge n an d 7 9 per ce n t n itroge n by volum e what is ,
its weight per cubic foot in pou n ds ? In o un ces ? What is its

weight per cubic meter in kilogram s ?
d F rom th e above data compute the percen tage co mposi
.
,
tion of air by weight .
e A p roducer gas has the followin g co mpositio n by volum e

.
CO 24 p er cen t
C02 4
H2 14
CH4 3
N2 55
How much does it weigh per cubic meter ?

f .How m a n y cubic feet would 9 0 lb of this gas occupy if .
heated to 2 35 C an d placed u n der 2 atm ospheres pressure ?

°
.
,
Pr ob lems in Comb u stion The relatio n between volume an d

.
weight is very importan t as it is the starti n g poin t of a n umber

of calculatio n s n ecessary for desi gn in g boilers furn aces flues or , ,
stacks I t permits the computation of the amoun t of air n ec

.
essary to provide for the com bustio n of an y fuel should the ,
an alysis of the latter be kn own I t also en ables on e to compute

.
th e am ou n t an d a n alysis of the flue gases produced if the amou n t

of excess air is kn own or vice versa , .
A ir f or Comb ustio n Given an an thracite coa l of th e fol low

.
in g co mpositio n by weight :
,
C per cen t
H2
02 2 5
S
H2 0 I . 0
A sh
required the cubic feet of air required for complete combustion

per pou n d of coal u n der forced draft a l lowin g 50 per cen t excess
, .
,
244 APP E N DIX A
S tep 1 . The reactio n s i n volved ar e
= CO 2 +
97, 2 00
44
2 H 2 O + 1 1 6, 1 2 0
3 6
—S O2 + 6 2 60
9 ,
S tep 2 . Fin d from these reaction s the weight of oxyge n

n eeded for the combustio n of 1 lb of coal by the m ethods of the
.
,
illustrative problem on page 227 The work is here co n den sed

.
to
a . 02 for lb C ; . . C : O2 = 12
b O2. for lb H 2 ; . 2 H2 :O 2 =
4
6 . 02 for lb S ;
. S
S olvi n g these proportio n s a

t :
lb .
=0 lb
y . 2 00 .
z =0 . 010 lb .
N et oxygen required 1b .
S tep 3 . S om e
oxygen is already co n tain ed in the co al, an d
. a
large excess is provided .
N et O2
required
L ess O 2 in coal .
A ctual requirem en t
A d d 50 per ce n t excess
Total O2 furn ished lb .
S tep 4 . The problem (read it carefully) calls for cubic feet .
Oz .
- —
mol vol . O2
weighs 3 2 oz . an d occupies cu . ft .
Total 02 given weighs oz . an d occupies x cu . ft .

APP E N DIX A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 per cen t
per cen t . Check .
Q u er i es Compute the vo lum e of air at 2 0 C an d 7 00

. a .
°
.
mm n ecessary to burn 1 00 lb of the producer gas men tio n ed in

. .
the query page 2 4 3 allo win g 2 5 per cen t excess

, , .
b Compute the an alysis of the products of the combustio n of

.
this p roducer gas by volume .
c A . lon g fl ame bitumin ous coal slack co n tain in g

-
p e r
cen t of moistur e suitable for pulverizin g is first dried an d ,
crushed The ultima t e a n alysis then shows

.
per cen t
per cen t .
The coal is then in jected in to a cemen t ki ln with the exact

amou n t of air for combustion Compute the volum e of air .
n ecessary .
d Compute the an alysis of the products of the co mbustio n

. .
e A n a n thracite coal co n tai n s by a n alysis

.
Carbon
Hydrogen .
O xygen
A sh
E L E M E N TARY M E TA L LURGI C AL C AL C ULATI ON S 24 7
It is burn ed un der a boiler producin g ashes which weigh 1 0

per cen t of the weight of the coal used (A ssum e the ashes to .
co n tai n all the ash of the coal with en ough u n burn ed carbo n to
m ak e up the balan ce ) The dr y chimn ey gases an alyze
.
per cen t
02 4 3 . by volume .
How much excess air is e n teri g the n box ? fi e

r -
T otal H eat of Co mb u stion I t should be eviden t that the

.
t o tal heat evolved in the combustio n of an y qua n tity of a n alyzed

fuel can easily be determi n ed by fi guri n g the heat resulti n g from
—
burn in g its co n stituents carbon hydro g en sulf ur or an y
, , ,
—
other combustible con tain ed in un it quan tity of the fuel ih the
.
ma n n er previously outlin ed on page 2 36 On e poin t should be .
carefully n oted however in figuri n g the total heat of comb us

, ,
tio n from an u l tim ate a n alysis of a solid fuel showi n g oxyg en .
This oxyg en appears to be already combin ed with carbon an d

hydrogen in the volatile hydrocarbo n s of the coal in such a
m a nn er that it may be assumed (as a close approxim atio n to the
actual facts) that it exists as water (H2 O ) F or thi s reaso n all .
,
the hydro g en shown in the an alysis is n o t available for heat

production The . available hydrogen is therefore that , ,
amoun t shown by the an alysis l ess that quan tity n ecessary to

satisfy the oxy gen also presen t The am ou n t of carbon available
.
is also reduced by that un co n su med portio n en terin g the ashes .
Illu str ative P rob lem F igure the heat of combustion of the
.
an thracite coa l men tio n ed on page 2 4 3 if the dried ashes am oun t

,
to 6 p er cen t of the origin a l coal .
S tep 1 . Copy the an alysis for referen ce .
p er cen t
C heck it .
248 APP E N DIX A
S tep 2 . Figure the available hydrogen an d carbo n in 1 lb .
of the coal .
02 presen t 5 lb .
From the equatio n 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O + 1 20
4 + 3 2 36
it seem s that the oxygen will require 1

7; as much hydrogen to sa t
isfy it weight for weight

,
.
Hydrogen combin ed 7, 5 lb 1
.
Hydroge n available = 0 0 2 5 lb pre sen t mi n us . . lb .
combin ed lb .
In a like m an n er ,
A shes produced
A sh from a n alysis
Carbo n in ashes
Carbo n in an alysis
A vailable carbo n lb .
S tep 3 . Figure the heat r esultin g from the combus tion of

each of the co n stituen ts . B e careful to use the available quan
tities .
a . lb H 2
. H2 O at lh . 639 lb .
-
°
C .
°
b . lb C . CO 2 at lb . lh .
- C .
°
c . lb . S 502 at 1b . 22 lb .
-
C .
Total heat from 1 lb coal

. lb .
-
°
C .
X i; gives
°
lb .
-
F . B tu . . .
A n swer .
S tep 4 . I s it reason able ?

A n thracite coal is n early pure carbon .
P ure carbon gives 8, 1 00 1b .
12
Therefore the an swer is reason able .

50 APP E N DIX A
tion s are very easily m ade con sistin g m erely of weighin g the
,
sample before an d after certain defin ite heatin g procedures .
The total heat of combustion c an be figured withi n limits

from a proxim ate an alysis by the use of G ou tal s fo r mula ’
in gm C per gram = 8 2 C + kV
°
Calo r ific power .
- . .
Where C is the percen tage of fixed carbo n ,
V is th e percen tage of volatile hydrocarbo n s an d ,
la is a factor figured by in terpolatio n in th e followin g

table :
Illu str ative E xample . What is the calorific power of a co al

c on tain in g
V olatile hydrocarbon s per cen t
Fixed carbon .
M oisture
A sh .
S tep 1 . Figu re a value for
F ixed carbon
Volatile hydrocarbon s
Total fuel matter .

5
Volatile hydrocarbon s 5
Total fuel matter
E L E M E N TARY M E T ALLURGI C AL C AL C ULATI ON S 2 51
S tep 2 . Fi gure a value for k by in terp olation
A diff eren ce of + 0 0 7 m akes a di fferen ce of

when ce +0 0 54 makes a di fferen ce of in k
V
Then when an d k 14 5
C+ V
an d the correction s +0 0 54 an d
V
Th en f
1 0 1 04 k 1 28 8
C V
S tep 3 . In sert these values in G ou tal s

’
formula .
Calo r ific power 8 2 X 86 7 . x
7 1 09 + I 2 94
84 0 3 calories per gram of coal . A n swer .
S tep 4 Is it reason able ? D irect calorim etric experim e n ts

”
.
(see Hof m an ,
G en eral M etallurgy page 1 1 4 ) gave the value ,
8 4 04 for this coal T his is n o t as good a check as it appears to

.
be i n asmuch as the bomb c alor irn eter co n den ses all the water
,
vapor from the hydro g en reaction i n to a liquid This bomb .
calorimeter value (which is easily obtain ed an d is u n iversally

used for coal valuation ) must therefore be decreased by 60 6 5 , ,
.
calories for every gram of m oisture formed in the bom b in ,
order to give results comparable with those derived by c om

putation from an alyses These latter are on the basis of
.
2 H 2 O + O2 2 H2 O + 1 (
gas ) .
G fo r mula may be of prim e use if app lied to coals from

o u tal s
’
a certain field whose characteristics are kn own an d for which a

, ,
new list of values for k m ay be derived from experien ce This .
formula an d the accompan yi n g values of the con stan t m ay give

quite divergen t results however if used in discrimin ately for
, ,
coals from di ffer en t region s .

252 APP E N DIX A
Q i
u er es a. Figure the calorific
. value of on e of each of the
several types of A m erican coals listed on page 1 7 7 Hofman
”
G eneral M etallurgy by usin g the p roxim ate an alysis an d
,
,
,
,
G ou tal s fo r m ula
’
Compute the percen tage error in each case
. .
High T emper atur e R eactio n s A ll the figures given for the .
heat evolution of the various reactio n s listed on page 2 35 ,
are correct o n ly in case th e reagen ts are ori gin ally at 0 C an d °

.
,
°
the products are cooled to 0 C The heat abstracted by the .
cold cal orimeter from th e hot products of the reaction is

therefore in cluded in the figures represen tin g the heat eff ect ;
in other words the reaction s proceed
,
from an d at zero ” .
I t should therefore be apparen t that in case the products of

, ,
an y reactio n (such as the chimn ey g ases from a boiler settin g )
leave the focus at a hi gher temperature than 0 C the sen sible °

.
,
heat whi ch they carry away with them must be deducted from
the theoretical m axim um therm al equivalen t Conversely an y .
,
heat br ought in by reagen ts at temperatures above 0 C should °

.
“
be add ed to the heat evolved by the reaction as such on the basis
of from an d at zero ” .
,
We therefore co n struct the gen eral statem en t th at

, ,
“
The heat evolved by an y reaction equals the heat of the
”
reaction from an d at zero plus the heat in the reag en ts , ,
min us the heat carried away by the products .
“
The use of this rule presupposes a kn owledge of the am oun t
of heat required to raise the temperature of va r ious bodies in ,
other words the sp ecific heat

,
.
S pecific H eat The amoun t of heat required to raise uni t

.
m ass of a body thru un it temperature is called the specific

heat of th e body Thus the specific heat of water is 1 gm C -
°
—
. .
,
.
per gram or more simply on e calory Water requires m ore ,

.
heat to raise its temperature than an y of the comm on substan ces ,
whose specific heats therefore are expressed by fraction al ab

, ,
stract n umbers F or in stan ce the followin g short table tak en

”
.
,
from Watson A Text B ook of P hysics

, page 2 33 gives , ,
the specific heat of som e comm on substan ces at room tem

p er at u r es :
254 APP E N D IX A
that is to say for the total heat the m ean specific heat m ust be
, ,
mul tiplied by t .
The followin g tables of m ean specific heats of gases are

abstracted from m ore exten sive lists in Vol I Ri chards M etal
”
.
, ,
lur gic al Calculation s an d the values are true either for calories ,
per liter kg C per c u m or oz C per cu it

,
.
-
°
. . .
,
.
-
°
. . .
G AS M E AN S PE CIF IC HE AT
A ir . . 0 .
30 3 + 0 . 0000 2 7 t
Car b on d iox id e, CO 2 . .
+0 . 000 2 2 t
Car b on mo n o x id e , CO 0 .
30 3 + 0 . 0000 2 7t
y
E th len e, C2H4 . .
+0 . 000 3t
Hyd g ro en , H2 0 30 3 + 0 0000 2 7 t
ulfid HS
. . .
Hyd g ro en s e, 2 +0 . 000 1 5t
N it g ro en , N 2 . . 0 .
30 3 + 0 . 0000 2 7 t
Metha n e, CH 4 . . 0 38 + 0 . 000 2 2 t
O xyg en , O2 0 30 3 + 0 0000 2 7 t
SO
. . . . .
S ulfur d ioxid e, 2 +0 . 000 3t
+0 . 000 1 5t
The followi n g specific heats of solids are for calories per gram ;
°
C per kg ; or lb C per lb
°
kg .
- . . .
- . .
S UB S T A N C E M A N S PE C IF I C H E AT E
Alu mi a A 1 0 n ,
8 + 8 7 6t
2 0 . 20 1 0 . 0000
A timo y S b
n n 4 86 +
, 84t 0 . 0 0 . 00000
C b
ar on , C . 0 . 2 14 2 +0 000 1 66t
id Cu
.
C pp
o er so l +0 0000 17 8t
tCu —
,
. .
,
n
ce
.
C ppo er mat t e , 47 p er O . 211 0 . 0000 366t
Cop p er sulfid e, Cu2S . . O . 1 1 26 +0 . 00009 t
H e mat it e, F e203 O 000 1 88t
+0 . 0000 2 5t
Lead , so l id P b ,
. 0 . 029 2 +0 . 0000 1 9 t
L ime, CaO 0 1 7 1 5+ 0 0000 7 t
a
CO
. . . .
L imeston e, C
—
3 . .
0 00000 2 7 5t
.
0 . 1 833 +0 . 0000 7 7 t
Slag copp er blast

, +0 . 0000 30 2 t
0 . 09 0 6 + 0 . 0000 44t
Aillustratio n of the u se of this table the total sen sible

s an ,
° °
h eat above 0 C in 1 cu ft of air at 40 C is .
,
. . .
)
°
X 40 40 oz .
-
C .
E LE M E N TARY M E TALLURGI C AL C AL C ULATI ON S 2 55
The seco n d factor in the specific heat is n o t of m uch im

por tan ce at low temperatures but figure for i n stan ce the sen si , , ,
ble heat in 1 lb of carbo n at 1 000 C I t is .

0
.
°
142 X lb .
-
C .
N et H eat Comb us ti on
The practical u se of such com
of .
p u t atio n s m ay be illustrated as follows : S uppose the an thracite .
coal wh ose compositio n has been given on page 2 43 is burn ed ,
un der a boiler producin g 6 per cen t ashes ; the air n ecessary

for complete com bustio n with 50 per cen t excess en ters the fir e
box at 4 0 C ; an d the products of the com bustion leave the
°
.
boiler settin g at 2 00 C How much heat would then be °

.
available for steam gen eratio n ?

S tep 1 Obtain the am oun t of heat of the reaction s fro m an d
1
.
at zero Heat of combustion from page 2 4 8 7 7 0 8 lb C per lb

.
,
.
-
°
. .
S tep 2 O btain the sen sible heat brought in by the air fur
.
n ish ed fo r com bustio n by virtue of its bein g at som e tempera ,

°
ture above 0 C .
The am oun t of air provided from page 2 4 5 c u ft , ,

.
M ean specific heat of air from tab 1e = + 0 0000 2 7 t , .
F or the ran ge 0 to 40 C , X 4 0)
°
.
Total heat in 1 cu ft of air from 0 C to 4 0 C . .

,
°
.
°
.
X 40 ) X 4 0
° °
oz .
-
C . oz .
-
C .
°
To tal heat in c u ft . . oz .
-
C .
R educe to sam e un it as S tep 1

-g
1 57 lb .
-
°
C .
S tep 3 the sen sible heat taken out by the smoke

. Obtain
leavin g at Con den sin g the detailed operation s of S tep 2 ,
an d obtain in g the an alysis of the flue gases fro m p age 2 4 5 .
( )
°
CD2 . cu . ft X . 0 .
37 X 2 00 2 00 oz - . C .
H2O . X 2 00 ) 2 00 34 6
X 2 00 ) 2 00 9
O2 . . X 2 00 ) 2 00 89 1
N 2 . X 00 )
2 2 00 =
°
Total heat in gases oz .
-
C .
°
846 lb . C .
256 APP E N DIX A
S tep 4 pply the gen eral statem en t of high temperature

. A -
reaction s The n et heat available is that evolved by the equa

.
tion from an d at zero plus that heat brought In by the hot air
, ,
min us that taken away by the flue gases .
°
N et heat 77 0 8 + 1 57 84 6 7 9
0 1 1b .
-
C . A n swer .
Regen er ative P rin ciple The advan tage of usin g heated air .
in a furn ace is easily seen as it cou n terbalan ces in part th e heat,
carried up the chimn ey whi ch latter c an am oun t to a very large

,
am ou n t of the total heat gen erated in the fir e box u n less -

,
special care is taken to keep the stack temperature low The .
temperature of the gases l eavin g a furn ace must be Som ewhat

higher than the temperature required for the operatio n s goin g
o n within In o ther words a steel m eltin g furn ace must be at
.
,
all tim es co n siderab ly hotter tha n the liquid m etal (which m elts
at 1 530 C or l ess) in order that an y heat m ay flow fro m the

°
.
heatin g atmosphere to th e m elti n g slag an d m etal Flue .
ga ses at 1 600 C or more carry an en ormous am ou n t of sen si

°
.
ble heat an d thi s would be en tirely wasted if passed directly

,
to the chimn ey S iemen s regen erative system (see M ills

.
’
,
M aterials of Co n struc tio n —

pages 38 6 39 1 ) utilizes this heat ,
by passin g the hot waste gases thru a brick check erwork ,
cooli n g the temperature to 800 C or less This heat thus °

. .
reclaim ed an d stored in the hot brickwork is return ed to the

furn ace by reversin g the gas stream Cold air or producer gas .
n o w go in the opposi te directio n arrivi n g at th e furn ace ports in ,
highly superheated co n ditio n .
Q u er i es a The producer gas whose an alysis appears on

. .
page 2 4 3 is burn ed in 2 0 per cen t excess air in an op en hearth -
fur n acef The gas an d air are both preheated an d en ter the
°
furn ace at 1 000 C The products of com bustio n leave the
.
°
furn ace at 1 650 C What is the n et heat effect of the com
.
b u stion ?
b Hot air at 800 C from the stoves is blown i n to a blast
.
°
.
furn ace m eetin g in can descen t carbo n at the tuyeres at 1 580 C

,
°
.
The CO form ed leaves the focus at 1 7 00 C What is the n et °

.
258 APP E N D IX A
S tep 4 . S olve the equation for t .
2
Tran sposin g ,
0 00 67 2 t
. 1 5 . 2 3z l 1
This is a quadratic of the form ax

2
+ bx = c whose solution is
t = 31 7 5
°
S ubstitutin g , an d solvin g , C .
S tep 5 I s it reason able ?

.
“
This temperature seems very high , in a smuch as Burgess o n
pag e 4 56 of M easurem en t of High Temperatures gives the ,
,
° °
temperature of the carbon arc as 3 500 C i 1 50 an d 2 2 00 to .
,
2 300 C for the temperature of the oxy hydrogen flam e (page

°
.
-
The solution has been checked over an d there appear to ,
be n o n um erical errors .
The trouble may be in the value for th e specific heat of water .
Th is physical data has been determin ed for moderate tempera

ture as most con tain ers becom e p ermeable to gases at temper
,
ature n ear or above 1 000 C I t is quite possible therefore °

.
, ,
that the form ula for m ean specific h eat should have a third term
in t which would largely in crease the am oun t of heat required
2
,
to heat the gas at temperatures higher than 1 000 C

°
.
A gain it m ay be possible that the reaction between hydroge n

,
an d oxyge n is n o t complete at such high temperatures as exist
- —
in th e oxy hydrogen fl am e in other words perhaps on ly about ,
75 per ce n t of the gas fed to the fla m e co m bi n es T hi s of cou r se .

, ,
would c u t d own th e heat evolved an d con sequen tly would , , ,
largely reduce the calorific in ten sity .
Q u e ri e s a What .is the

. m axim u m te m perature attain able
in burn i n g hydrogen in dry air ?
b The producer gas whose an alysis app ears on page 2 4 3 is
.
,
burn ed in 2 0 per cen t excess air in an open hearth furn ace B oth -
.
air an d gas en ter cold What is the maximum temperature

.
attain able in the furn ace ? Would it m elt steel ?

c. In case the producer gas an d air of query b were p re
E LE M E N TARY M E T ALLURGI C AL C AL C ULA TI ON S 2 59
°
hea ted to 1 000 C by regen erative checkerwork what would
.
,
be the m aximum temperature attai n able in the fu r n ace ?

d S uppose an ope n hearth steel pla n t had available a supply
.
-
of n atural gas of the compositio n shown on page 2 4 9 This gas .
cann ot be preheated because th e hydrocarbo n s would d ecom

po se an d chok e up the checkerwork with carbon I t is there .
,
°
fore burn ed cold an d o n ly the air preheated to 1 000 C What
, ,
.
would be the maxim um temperat ure attain able in this case ?

Cemen tatio n In d ex P ortlan d cem en t has been defin ed by
.
A P M ills
. .M aterials of Co n structio n p 9 2 ) as a fin ely ,
.
pulverized product resultin g from the calcin ation to in cipien t

fusion of an in tim ate artificial m ixture of argillaceous an d c al
c ar eou s m aterials
” The relative proportio n of the various
.
con stituen ts lies within n arrow lim it s for the researches of S B ,

. .
an d W B N ewberry show the essen tial co n stituen ts to be the

. .
tri calcr um silicate

-
an d the di calcium alumi n ate -
the compou n d (CaO) 3 SiO2 the ratio of base to acid by

In ,
weight is had from the atomic weights a s follows : ,
B ASE AC ID
,
CaO S iO2 ==60 3 .
(CaO ) 3 1 68 3
= w ei h t S iO2 = 1 68 3
B ase :A c id g ( O) 3
Ca weight .
Wei ght CaO (weight S iOz ) t . S iO 2 .
—S imilarly in the compoun d

'
the weight ratio is

B ase A c id = weight (CaO) 2 weight A 12 03 =
when ce
Weight C210 (Welgh t A l2 03 ) I I X W t A l2 o3 . .
260 APP E N DIX A
The relative am oun ts of lim e silica an d alumin a required to ,
m ake a proper m ixture for cem en t must therefore bear the , ,
relation
CaO S iO 2 + A 12 03 ,
in order that the two essen tial co n stituen ts may have su ffi cien t
m aterial for their form ation The form ula m erely states that .
the n um ber of poun ds of CaO provided in the slurry e n tering

the cem en t ki ln must be equal to tim es the n umber of pou n ds
of silica plus tim es the n umber of poun ds of alumin a .
A ll the rocks or slags available for the ma n ufacture of cem en t

carry a co n siderable am oun t of other oxides Within limits the .
,
m ost importan t of these m agn esium oxide (M gO) is co mm o n ly , ,
regarded as bein g able to replace the basic calcium oxide (CaO ) ,
m olecule for m olecule whi le the iro n oxide (F 6 2 03) m olecule acts
‘
.
as an acid an d is the equivalen t of the alum in a m olecule (A 12 03 )

, .
O ther compou n ds in the raw m aterials are purpos ely kept low ,
an d for the purposes of this co mputatio n will be disregarded ,

.
—
O n the basis of replacem e n t m olecule for molecule p r m ore ,
—
properly radical for radical on e M gO weighin g hydroge n
,
atom s will replace on e Cao weighin g hydrogen atom s O r in .
larger u ni ts lb M gO will replace

,
lb CaO ; that is to
. .
56 . I
s ay , 1 lb . M gO will replace lb .
,
or lb . CaO . S tated in
4 0 -3
other words the base M gO is tim es as e ff ective poun d for
, ,
pou n d as CaO an d the m agn esia con ten t of th e con crete fo r min g
‘
, ,
m aterials will replace the usual base (CaO ) in that proportio n .
The form ula in cludin g this statem e n t then becom es

CaO + 1 4 M gO = . S iO 2 + 1 . 1 A l2 03 .
Followin g a similar train of reaso n i n g it is foun d that if iro n ,
oxide will replace alum in um oxide m olecule for m olecule then , ,
F e2 03 :A l2 03 = 1 59 6 .
The relation whi ch must fin ally exi st is expressed by the

.
equatio n
CaO + M = 8 S iO2 + 1
1 .
4 gO 2 . . 1 A 12 03 + O 7 F 6 2 03 . .
62 AP P E N DIX A
pare this an alysis with the average figures given on page 1 2 7 of

M ills M aterials of Co n structio n
” D iscuss the probable e ffect .
of discrepan cies .
b A ccordin g to the latest researches of the G eophysic al

.
L aboratory the essen tial co n stituen ts of a cem en t are tri

,
calcium si lica te an d tri calcium alumin ate Figure a formula .
similar to E ckel s rule on this basis ’

.
c Compute the relative am oun ts of slag an d limeston e by

.
this n ew rule assum in g a cem en tatio n in dex equal to on e

,
d R epeat a for this cem e n t

. .
Fur n ac e Ch ar ges A n importan t duty devolvin g up on th e

.
smelter metallurgist is that of computin g the furn ace charge or

burden ” This operation co n sists in assemblin g in form ation as
.
to the compositio n an d relative amou n ts of the vario us ores avail

able th eco mpositio n o f the fuel an d flux on han d an d in c ombin
, ,
in g these various substa n ces at the chargin g floor so that they .
shall i ssue from the furn ace in the form of a m etallic material con
tain in g practically all the values an d of a slag holdin g the wa ste ,
substan ces which can n ot be co n verted in to a gas an d volatilized

”
.
(S ee M il l s M aterials of Co n structio n pp 2 7 7
, In the ,
.
,
case of a blast furn ace the com positio n of the Slag matte or , , ,
m etal tapp ed from the crucible depen ds n o t on ly upon the c om

positio n of the ore but also to a large exten t upo n the tempera
,
ture an d atmo sphere existin g in the furn ace ; that is to say ,
upon the amoun t an d ki n d of fuel which is burn ed the quan tity ,
an d temperature of the air blown in an d the speed with which ,
the charge passes thru the combustio n zon e F or these rea

‘
son s it is n o t possible to predict the furn ace operation a pr ior i

, ,
but on e must m ake certain assumption s regardin g the expected

action of the furn ace born e out by past experien ce with its
,
operation .
Illu str ative E xampl e The method may best be illustrated

“
.
b y a particular case S upp ose it is the duty of a reverberatory

.
furn ace in a copper work s (see M ills M ateria l s of Con str uc

,
”
tion p 551 ) to sm elt roasted co n cen trates or calcin e (v p
.
,
, . .
1 3 ) of the followi n g co mpositio n

E L E M E N TARY M E TA L LURGI C AL C AL C ULATI ON S 263
per cen t
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
an d flue dust recovered from the smoke pipes an d dust chambers

co n tain in g :
Cu per cen t
8 102 “
F eO
S
A 12 03
CaO . .
The relative am ou n ts of these two materials available is deter

min ed by the production o f the allied smelter departm en ts an d ‘
,
for the purposes of this problem m ay be expre ssed as follows :

For every 7 0 lb of calcin e smelted 30 lb of flue dust must also
.
,
.
be charged A sm all but un kn own am ou n t of lim eston e whi ch

.
,
may be called X poun ds wil l be added to brin g the slag to the

,
proper composition The composition of the lim eston e avail

.
able is
per cen t
P ast expe r ien ce with the operatio n of these furn aces smeltin g
ca l cin e an d flue dust will in dicate the production of a molten
”
a ll oy of iron an d copper sulfides called matte of approx , ,
imately the following compositio n
Cu
264 APP E N DI X A
an d that 9 6 per ce n t of the copper charged will be recovered in

this matte the remain in g 4 per cen t b emg lost in the slag or
,
by dustin g The weight of the matte produced c an be imm e

.
di ately co mputed .
Copper from calcin e per cen t of 70 lb .
Copper from flue dust = 8 . 1 per cen t of 30 lb .
Total copper charged

Total copper recove r e d =
9 6 per cen t of lb . lb .
Weight of m atte at 30 per cen t Cu

.
30
The am ou n t of the iro n oxide required to furn ish the iron for
the matt e should also be computed as follows
I ron required for matte 37 per cen t of 1b .
8
I ron oxr d e to fu r n lsh lbl S I ron — —X
7 I .
The above procedure for obtain in g the weight of the matte is

much superior to the oft recomm e n ded schem e of assum in g that
-
all the sulfur charged to a reverbera t ory furn ace will en ter the
matte prim arily as Cu2 S while an y excess sulfur will en ter in
,
combin ation with iro n as FeS This is an u n safe assumption .

,
however for sulfu r is such a volatile elem en t that even in the

,
reverberatory which is ordi n a r ily r un with a n eutra l atmos

,
h er e as a sim ple m elti n g furn ace a large an d u n certain am oun t

p ,
of th e sulfur is elimin ated in the sm oke .
A balan ce of the materials may then be con structed as follows
MATE RIALS B ALAN CE

Ch ar ge s To lb . M at t e To Sl ag To G as
70 lb c lci
. a ne :
Cu per c en t lb . Cu
S io2
FeO 40 5 .
S
A l203 6 I
CaO
266 A PP E N DIX A
Calcin e 7 0 lb .
F lue dust 30 lb .
Lim esto n e lb .
The mixture is practically self fluxin g without the lim e rock -

.
In deed the roastin g practice (page 1 3) is so regulated that all

,
the iron n o t n eeded to form a matte will be oxidized from the

sulfide con di tio n so that it wi ll actually go i n to the slag as a base ,
thus replacin g the CaO as much as possible A lo n ger an d m ore .
perfect roast could have m ade a m atte with less iron an d cor
respon din gly h igher copper when the slag would absorb the
,
excess iron However econ omic co n ditio n s will govern such

.
,
factors as the tim e an d degree of roastin g grade of matt e(that ,
is its copper con ten t) an d the silicate degree of the slag The
, ,
.
studen t will n otice that in copper smelti n g the iro n con t ai n ed ,
in the ore is regarded as an im purity is elim in ated in the slag , ,
an d wasted ; while in iro n smeltin g on the c on trary every

, , , (
effort is made to save the iron recoverin g it as m etal ,

.
In gen eral then the solutio n of problem s relatin g to furn ace

, ,
charges m ay best be e ffected by co n structin g a balan ce She et

showin g the origin an d expected disposition of each con stituen t
m aki n g up the tota l burden E c o n oml c c on 51d er ation s will fix
.
the relative proportion s of the various ores available an d the , '
an alysis of the m etallic product To obtain this result, fo r mer .
experien ce will in dicate the required amou n t of fuel an d the ratio

of acid to base in the slag A lgebraic solutio n will be reli ed upo n
to obtain the u n kn own am oun t of flux or to evaluate other vari
ables existin g in the problem .
1 g
Q u er ie s . 0 A he m.atite ore of the followi n g co m posi tio n
H2 0 per cen t
S iO z
A 12 03 3 5
F e2 03 .
75 5
M nO I 0
IS to be sm elted in a blast furn ace producin g a pig w1th

E LE M E N TARY M E TALLURGI C AL C AL C ULAT I ON S 267
Fe
M n
C
Si
usin g 1 lb of coke of the followin g composition for every

.
of pig iron produced
S lO z . per cen t
CaO . .
H2 0 . .
F eO
A n eu tral slag (essen tially a lim e silicate with the ratio

acid per ce n t
required for this particular pig iron an d ,
base 52 5 per ce n t
.
is attain ed by chargin g lim esto n e of
S iO . per cen t
M gO
CaO
C02 . .
A ssumin g that all the F e2 03 of the ore will be reduced an d fur

n ish the iro n for the pig iro n while the iro n oxide in the coke
,
ash wi l l en t er the slag figure the weight of ore required to pro

,
duce 1 00 lb of pig iro n

. .
.6 Co n struct a balan ce sheet of the furn ace charg e r ep r e ,
sen tin g the am oun t of limeston e charged by X .
.6 Compute the pou n ds of lim esto n e n eeded for 1 00 lb of .
pig iron R egard A 12 03 as an acid an d equal molecule for

.
, ,
m olecule to S lO z ; an d compute the other oxides to their Cao

,
equivalen t .
.d The silicon an d man gan ese of the pig iro n may be regarded
as bein g reduced by carbo n formin g CO How m uch C is used
,
.
in thi s m an n er an d how m uch en ters the pig iro n as such ?

,
.6 A ir blown in at the tuyeres burn s the balan ce of the C

2 68 APPE N DI X A
in the coke to CO A ssumin g dry air at stan dard con dition s

.
,
an d blowi n g in 1 0 per ce n t excess how m uch air m ust be charged ?

,
f .A ssu m e that all of the iro n oxide has bee n reduced by C O ;

that the C02 of the limeston e an d all m oisture has been driven
o ff u n deco mposed ; what is the percen tage compositio n by ,
volum e of the gas at the top of the furn ace ? How m an y cubic
,
feet of this gas m easured at stan dard con ditio n s would be

, ,
‘
fo r m ed per 1 00 lb of pig iro n produced ?

.
How m uch heat is absorbed in reduci n g the elem e n ts c o n

g .
t ain ed in the pig iro n ? How much heat could be evolved by

the total com bustio n of the carbo n ? What is the heat e fficien cy
of the furn ace on this basis ?
It What percen tage of the total calorific power of the coke
.
is recovered in the top gas ?

27 0 APP E N DIX B
mi n imum of m etal con sisten t with the n ecess ary stren gth rigidi ty ,
an d m ass accor din g to pri n ciples of S tre n gth of M aterials an d

,
M echan ics For example econ omi cal specification s will n o t

.
,
call for steel or alum in um where cast iron would serve : N either
would they call for an expen sive grade of gray iro n when Wh ite ,
iron would satisfy the requirem en ts .
The tim e an d labor required to m ake t hi s mold c an be greatly

in creased by unin tellige n t or careless design s In fact design s
.
.
,
actually im possible to produce are n o t un comm o n but the piece ,
could easily be co n structed by payin g heed to cer tain un alterable

limitation s of moldin g ; I t should be rem embered that very
slight chan ges in design c an alter the en tire method of m oldin g ,
an d the co n seque n t cost of productio n A tten tion will be called .
to poi n ts wherein the design depen ds upon methods of moldin g ,
an d vice versa .
The third variable me n tion ed above n am ely the risk of, , ,
securi n g an u n soun d castin g wi ll be discussed un der the ,
D efects of Castin gs on pa g e 2 84 M an y of these are caused .
by faulty desi gn .
M old in g In gen eral a castin g is m ade by pourin g m olten

.
,
metal i n t o a m old the m old bei n g m ade of refractory m aterial

,
such as san d or loam its in terior shape determin in g the shape of

,
the poured m etal after so lidifyin g S om e molds are m ade of

”
.
metal an d produce die castin gs but they will n o t be con sid -

,
ered here as their use is rather specialized

,
.
M ost comm o n ly the cavity in the m old is shaped by r am
min g up
” ,
m oldin g san d in side a flask an d arou n d a wood or

m etal pattern whi ch becom es embedded in the san d an d which
'
, , ,
whe n rem oved leaves a cavity of the required shape A n

,
.
extrem ely sim ple form of m old for example would be that for , ,
m a kin g a rec tan gular block 4 X 8 in an d 2 in thick usin g a on e ,

.
,
.
,
piece pattern This would be molded en tirely within the drag

.
,
or lower half of the flask con tain in g th e mold sin ce it has a flat ,
top an d straight sides an d c an therefore be easily removed A , , .
pattern such as the above is called a fl at back an d the order -

,
of op eration s in m oldin g it would be as follows :

F O UN DRY PRA CTI C E 27 1
1 .
P lace the
board on t h e be n ch m old
the cleats exte n din g ,
away from the m older to preve n t tippin g whe n turnin g over .
2 P lace the pattern o n the m old board top side down

. ,
.
3 P lace
.
the drag upside dow n over the m old board an d pat
tern with the pin s exte n din g down wards on either side of the
,
board .
4 S ift
.
so m e facin g sa n d over the pattern u n til it is covered ,
usi n g a fin e riddle .
FIG .
55 . S c t i on
- e th r u M ld C
a o i g
o n t a nin a R ct
e ul P
an g ar at ter n .
'
A b otto m b d
o ar E p a t t er n
d
. .
B r ag. F spr u e .
C c op e G g at e
b
.
i
.
D p a r t in g , or jo nt . H p ou r i n g asin , o r ski m g at e .
5 Tuck
. the riddled sa n d arou n d the edge of the pattern with
the fin gers .
6 S hovel the drag full of old san d

. .
7 R am
. arou n d the i n side edge of th e flask with the pee n or
sharp e d ge of the rammer butt en d in c lin i n g toward the ce n ter ,
of the flask .
8 Bu tt r am en tire surface usin g more san d if n ecessary to

.
-
,
fill th e flask .
9 S crape.o ff a n y surplus sa n d with a strik e .

27 2 APP E N DIX B
10 . Throw a little loose san d on the flat surface .
11 . P lace the bottom board on the drag an d rub it to a ,

fir m
beari n g
12 . R oll over
the drag brin gin g the pattern up ,
.
13 R em ove the m atch plate or m old board

. .
14 B r ush the surface with a soft brush or use a bellows

.
,
.
1 5 S prin kle partin g sa n d over the sa n d to separate the cope

.
an d drag portio n s of the m old .
16 Blow the excess of partin g san d from the surface of th e

.
pattern (In case a two piece pattern were used the upper half
.
-
,
would here be placed on the lower half ) .
17 P lace the cope on the drag with pi n s fittin g in to ears o n

.
,
th e o ther half .
18 P lace a gate stick in position exten din g a slight

.
,
distan ce in to the drag .
19 R epeat operation s 4 an d 9 in the cope

. .
20 P rick ven t holes wh ere n eeded

. .
21 R em ove the ga t e stick from the san d

. .
22 L ift the cope from the drag an d place it at on e side

.
, ,
bottom up .
23 S mooth off an y rough places appearin g on the san d sur

.
faces with a slick or other han d tools .
24 B evel the gate hole at the join t an d ream the top i n to a

.
bell shape for pourin g (In som e cases a skim gate wou ld
-
.
,
“
be advisable H Fig .
,
.
2 5 Withdraw the patte rn u smg a draw n ail an d rappin g iro n

.
,
.
26 Cut a sprue from th e gate hole to the mold in the top

.
surface of the drag usin g a sprue cutter

,
.
27 Fin ish by han d an y imperfection s on the surface of the

.
mold .
28 R eplace the cope on the drag

. .
29 P lace the m old in positio n to be poured

. .
3 0 U n
. lock an d re m ove the flask .
3 1 P lace
. a flat cast iro n weight on the cope
-
to hold t h e sa n d
down an d to preven t a r un out -
.
The skill required of the molder in performin g th e above oper

27 4 APP E N DIX B
Fig 56 requires a thre epart flask or else a two part flask an d a

.
,
-
,
-
false cheek P ulleys with m ore than on e sheave require as m an y

.
cheeks as there are sheaves .
M oldi n g is also complicated by setti n g of gaggers an d

”
soldiers to support overhan gin g bodi es of san d by the fr e ,
i
quen t n ecessity for dryin g the m old or skin dryi n g the surfaces -
.
by the use of b lackin gs an d special facin gs by special fo r m s 01 ,
pourin g gates by the placin g of sh r in kh ead s an d risers an d b y

, ,
the placi n g of cores O ften tim es pattern s m ust be placed wi th a

.
certai n surface on th e bottom in order to receive the purest iro n

(impurities rise to the top ) but if th is is n o t required the pattern
, ,
is placed in whatever positio n will allow the m old to be m ade by
FIG .
56 .
—Sh v Pull y P
ea e e a t t er n in Th r ee- p ar t Fl kas .
the simplest m ethod Thi s requires g ood judgm en t o n the part

.
of themolder .
To illustrate som e of the variatio n s of moldi n g from the order

of operatio n s on page 2 7 1 co n sider the moldin g of a cyli n der
6 in in diam eter an d 1 2 in lon g
. This cylin der c an be m olded . .
in several ways each of whi ch illustrates a m oldi n g method in

,
comm on use sin ce most shapes are m odificatio n s or combin ation s

,
of cyli n ders an d rectan gles Where several m ethods are possible .
such con sideratio n s as the weight of the castin g th e equipmen t ,
at han d the finish require d an d the n umber of on e ki n d required

, ,
will determ in e the best m ethod to use for an y given pattern .
P robably th e simplest w ay of m oldin g the cylin der o n its

side is by th e split pattern method in whi ch the cylin drical ,
pattern is split in to upper an d lower halves pin s exte n din g down ,

F O UN DRY PRA CT I C E
from th e upper half en gagin g holes in the lower half The half .
of the pattern whi ch goes in the drag is placed flat on the mold
board an d the drag ramm ed up as in operation s 1 to 1 3 page 2 7 1
, ,
.
A fter turn in g over the drag the upper half of the pattern is ,
placed on the lower held in position by th e p in s an d the mold

, ,
is fini shed as in operation s 1 7 to 3 1 .
A n other comm on m ethod of mol din g thi s cyl in der is the

beddi n g in m ethod The drag is placed on the mold b oard .
in an upright positio n ramm ed full struck off even with its top
, ,
edge an d the on e piece pattern is then bedded in to its part in g

,
-
lin e Fig 57 by scoopin g out a suffi cien t space tuckin g the san d
,
.
, ,
firmly aro un d the sides an d e n ds of the pattern an d patchin g ,
F IG .
57
—P
. a t t er n th at is B dd d
e e In .
the broken partin g by han d This method is crude but it saves .

,
tu r n in g the drag an d is much used in E n glan d where heavy

,
iro n flasks are the r ule .
A n other comm o n m ethod of brin gi n g the partin g lin e of the

pattern to a level with the join t between the cop e an d drag is ,
to place wedges between the mold board an d the edges of the

drag holdi n g it up to a height equal to that whi ch the pattern
,
is to project in to t he cope The pattern is then placed in p osi .
tion on the mold board Fig 58 an d the drag rammed up T h e ,

.
,
.
drag is turn ed over the excess san d on the top stru ck off an d the
’
parting m ade The disadvan tage of this method lies main ly in

.
the extra work required in makin g a good partin g .
The method of copin g down is also frequen tly used In .
this the drag is rammed up with the pattern in place exactly as

,
27 6 APP E N DIX B
In operation s 1 to 1 4 page 2 7 1 To perm it the pattern to be

, .
withdrawn the san d is the n c u t away from aroun d the pattern

,
do wn to its exact cen ter its partin g lin e m akin g as gradual a

, ,
slope as possib le as shown in Fig 59 The surface is slicked

,
. .
,
F IG .
58 . W dg i g U p
e n .
F IG .
59 . C pi g D
o n o wn .
A , s e c t io n t h d
ru r ag , p at t er n in p o sit io n.
B , si d e of c o pe .
partin g san d dusted on an d the cope ramm ed as usual Thi s

,
.
method leaves a body of san d han gin g down from the cope hen ce ,
its n am e
.
M ol d i n g with a M atc h The fifth m ethod of moldin g the

”
.
cy lin der employs the use of a mat c h an d is commonly used ,

27 8 APP E N DIX B
profiled to correspon d with the desired con tour of the surface of

the casti n g an d is attached to a sweep fin ger which rot ates
,
about a vertical spin dle fi r m ly set in a block in the floor The .
m old is shaped by turn i n g the board aroun d the vertical spin dle
as a cen ter its edge or en d impartin g the desired co n tour to the
"
surfaces of the material of which the mold is made Cas tin gs .
that are irregular in shape c an be partially made in thi s m an n er ,
an d the bal an ce of the mold made with smaller pattern

n ieces
” .
M an y m olds are swept in l oam in stead of in sa n d t h e loam ,
bein g swept again st a rou ghly con structed brick backin g which
takes th e place of a flask The mold is then baked causin g the
.
,
loam to adh ere firm ly to the brick .
M o ld in g S an d M oldin g san d must possess qualities which

.
will en able it to be tempered an d to retain a defini te shape in the

m old .I t must resist fusion must have p erm eabilit y to pe r mi t
,
the ready escape of gases an d must be capable of bein g retem

,
pered an d used a n umber of tim es These qualities depen d upo n .
its chemical compositio n an d physical con stitutio n S an ds from .
differen t localities possess these qua lities to differe n t degrees .
A lso di ffere n t classes of w ork require di fferen t san ds T h e .
coarsen ess an d the con stituen cy required for an y given Work

depen d upon the size an d weight of the castin g s upon the t ern ,
p er atu r e of the m olte n m etals upo n the len gth o,

f tim e it wil l take ‘
the metal to cool upon the degree of fin i sh desired etc S an d

, ,
.
as it com es from the pit must be burn ed to destroy vegetable

an d a n im al li fe The color of san d which is r eddish yell ow befo re
.
,
-
use chan ges to black after use (Whe n san d becomes wo rn

,
.
out t hat is loses its bo n d or cohesio n thru rep eated use ; it

, ,
should be replaced ) S an d for steel castin gs must be more

.
refractory than san d for Cast iron due to the higher temp er ,
atures in volved S an d for brass work n eed be less so

. .
Fac i n gs O ften tim es san d can n ot be used for the surface of

.
a mold without further treatmen t due to its t en den cy to fuse ,

"
with the iro n u n der prolon ged heat , an d also due t o itsi nability
t o for m as sm ooth or fin ished a surface as desired o n th eca sti n g
.
F O UN DRY PRA CT I C E 27 9
of the mold A facin g material then becomes n ecessary I t is

. .
either mixed with the san d that is used n ext to the pattern or ,
pain ted or dusted on the surface of th e mold or both D iff eren t ,

.
facin gs are are used for differen t purposes Co mmo n faci n gs are .
sea coal w hi ch is a special g rade of bitumin ous coal grou n d an d

-
, , ,
screen ed to the required fin en ess ; p lumbago which is a form of ,
graphi te ; coke an d charcoa l blackin g compoun ds ; talc or

soapston e ; an d gas house carbon Certain mixtures an d cer
-
.
tain amoun ts of the above are used depen din g upo n the temp er ,
atures dealt with the kin d of san d used the duratio n of the
, ,
in ten se heat whether the mold is s kin dried dry san d or green
,
-
,
-
,
san d an d the fin ish required on the surface of the castin g

,
.
Cavities in castin gs are formed by cores usually

‘
Co r es .
,
m ade at th e ben ch with a speci al grade of san d called core

san d ” . This is mixed with a ”
bin der an d is molded to ,
shape in wood or m etal core boxes the in teriors of whi ch are ,
shaped so as to produce the require d forms Cores are some .
tim es built upo n special form s or drums T he cores are then .
bak ed in core oven s to ren der them hard an d to fix their

-
shape Core san d has di fferen t qualities from moldin g san d an d

.
,
selectio n of the right san d is importan t The bin ders comm on ly .
used are wheat flour rye meal powdered r osin lin seed oil an d
, , , ,
glue prepar ed in various ways an d used in various proportio n s

, ,
.
Cores must be ven ted to allow the ready escape of gases Wax .
tapers ; whi ch m elt an d leave ven t holes when the core is baked ,
ar e often in serted when m oldin g the core These are used

'
especially in thin cores an d where it would otherwise be d ifficult

,
to lead a ven t aroun d a corn er as for examp le in l ocomotive , , ,
cylin der p orts

”
.
I he location of cores in the m old is usually determ in ed by th e

c o re prin ts on the pattern where th ey :are usually p ain ted ,
r ed o r xb lack When set in m olds cor es must be supported on

‘
-
.
,
the bottom sides an d top either by co r e prin ts Or by Chaplets

, ,
.
Chapl ets come in va rious form s to fit again st flat co nvex or

“
.
, ,
con cave s urfaces an d for both ligh t an d heavy work Som e

"
~
typ esf come in assorted sizes an d some types are adjustable to ,

280 APP E N DIX B
suit an y required height M ost chaplets are tinn ed to fuse .
rea di ly in to the m olten iron .
D iff er en t C as ses of
l M l r ee —
o s G n san d M olds These are
d . .
molds m ade from m oist an d tempered san d an d n o t dried by

artificial m ean s M ost sm all castin gs are m olded in green san d
. .
D r y san d M olds
-
Where a very stron g m old is required
.
,
either to resist erosion by the iron when pourin g or to m ain tain ,
its shape ag ain st a high fluid pressure the san d is mixed with a -
,
bin din g material an d the fin ished mold is baked in a mo ld oven .
This process is simi lar to th at used in bakin g cores E xam ples .
of work cast in these m olds are : steam an d gas en gin e cyli n ders -
,
air co mpressor an d hydraulic cylin ders prin tin g press cylin ders ,
-
an d rolls an vil blocks e n gin e beds an d S imilar heavy casti n gs

, ,
.
S kin dr ied M olds

-
These molds are dry on th e surface on ly
.
,
bein g a comp romise between green san d m olds an d dry san d - -
molds They are m ade of green san d without a bin der an d

"
.
.
,
the dryin g is e ffected by gas or oil fl am es either placed in posi

tio n or played on th e differen t surfaces by workmen M ost .
medi um an d heavy mo l ds whi ch do n o t require a complete dry

in g are skin dried the p rocess m aterially stren g then in g the san d
,
walls .
B ench M olds These are sm all mo l ds whose siz e m ak es it

.
most con veni en t to m old them on a ben ch .
F loor M olds The majority of molds are m ade in flasks

.
which rest on the floor In larg e floor work the copes con tain
”
ribs an d cross ribs or chucks for the p urp ose of supportin g
, ,
,
the larg e areas of san d con tain ed in them These ribs are c u t .
away where it is n ecessary to allow pattern s to p roject in to the

cope Care must be taken in placin g the pattern to see that it
.
does n ot come too n ear such ribs In floor work where it is .

,
often possible to mold several pieces in the same flask n icety ,
of judgmen t is required in determin in g which pieces c an go

together in this mann er .
P it M olds O ften a pit dug in the floor serves the pu r p o se of a

.
drag the cheek an d cope bein g the on l y parts of the flask r e

,
quired This saves expen se especially in extra large wo r k I f

.
,
.
282 APP E N DIX B
Wh ere a mold is such that the pattern is di ffi cult to draw by

han d without in jury to the mold an d the co n sequen t fini shin g ,
tim e is the largest factor in the m akin g of the m old either a ,
S p lit P attern or R oll over M achin e is used depen din g on the a

,
shape of the pattern F or description of each type of m ach in e .
see F oun dry P ractice by P alm er ,

.
G en eral F ou n d ry E quipment B esides the moldin g opera .
tion s the elem en ts of foun dry work in volve

,
1
. The han dlin g of raw an d fin ished material s .
2
. The meltin g an d pourin g of the m etals .
3. The clea nin g of the castin g s after they have cooled .
The equipm en t n ecessary for the foregoin g in cludes

1
. S uitable cran es hoists an d riggin g for han dlin g the raw,
m ateri als molds ladles an d the fin ished castin g s

, ,
.
2. A cupola for m eltin g the iro n with equipm en t for fur ,
n ishin g a suitable air blast an d ladles for di stributin g iro n to all

-
,
p arts of the floor .
3. R attlers or tum b l i n g barre l s p ic klin g vats an d t oo l s for , ,
cleanin g the castin gs by han d .
Importan t poin ts to above equipm en t are as follows

Cr an es The old fashio n ed jib cran es operated by a han d
.
- -
,
win ch limited in app lication an d useless beyo n d the radius of

, ,
the cran e ar m have been displaced by the travelin g cran e of

,
either the han d or electric type The importan t requirem en t for .
a satisfactory cran e aside from its ability to safely carry the

,
weight is a delicate an d sen sitive con trol The han dlin g of

,
.
green san d molds requires gradual stoppin g an d st artin g with

-
,
n o shocks an d the safe carryin g an d pou r in g of molten m etal

,
dem an ds the ability to operate at very slow speeds on either a ,
light or heavy load .
R iggin g The riggin g required depen ds upon th e class

.
of work bein g don e an d g en erally con sists of chain s slin g s

, , ,
yo k es etc
,
.
T he Cn pola F or meltin g iron ; on e of two types of furn aces

.
m ay be used either the cupola or the reverberatory or air

, ,
furn ace The more comm on cupola is an upright cylin drical

.
FO U N DRY PRA CT I C E 28 3
shaft furn ace open at the top an d bottom an d lin ed with fire
, ,
brick I t is provided with a chargin g door at about th e middle

.
-
of its height There are . tuyeres n ear the bottom thru ,
which air is blown which con sum es the fuel charged an d m elts
the iro n The shell is formed of separate rin gs of boiler plate
.
-
,
with an gles riveted at in tervals to the in terior to suppor t the

fir e brick linin g
- .
The cup ola shell is carried on a cast iro n bed plate rin g sup - -
p orted by cast iron legs The open in g in this rin g is tightly

-
.
closed durin g operatio n by hin g ed doors which are allowed to

open at the en d of th e heat .
M olten iron is rem oved just above the bottom thru the
tap hole -
S lag l s rem oved thru the
. sla g hole on the -
opposite side slightly hi gher than the tap hole Clean in g holes
,
-
.
or doors on each side of the win d box p ermit rem oval of slag or
dirt therefrom P eep holes opposite each tuyere allow the
.
-
m elter to judg e the temperature of the focus .
The space in the cupola con stitutes zo n es as follows ,
1 Crucible zon e or hearth exten din g from the bottom

.
, ,
to the lower row of tuyer es

'
2 Tuyere or combustio n zon e n ext above where the

.
, ,
blast com es in con tact with an d burn s the red hot coke I ts -
.
upper lim it depen ds on th e blast pressure but should be betwee n ,
1 5 in an d 2 4 in above the tuyeres

. . .
3 M elti
. n g zo n e n ext above which is about
, 7 in high ,
. .
4 The. stack exte n di n g fro m t h e m eltin g zon e to the -
chargin g door Its fun ctio n is to co n tain the material allowin g

.
,
it to absorb heat before it reaches the me l tin g zo n e .
B efore startin g the fire for each day s m elt the lin in g of the ’
,
cupola should be in spected an d repaired The bottom doors .
are then closed an d tempered san d is ramm ed on the bottom

, ,
form in g a floor in clin in g toward th e tap hole A fter the first -

.
charge of coke is i gn ited the breast is built aroun d the tap ,
hole Thi s is often do n e by rem ovin g the coke that has fallen
.
in to th e breast open i n g buildin g a wall of the cold coke back of

,
the open in g an d then b uildi n g up a wall of fir e clay th ru

,
-
,
284 APP E N D I X B
which a pm Is Inserted This p in when rem oved leaves the .

, ,
tap hole When the wall of coke is ign ited the breast is baked
-
.
, ,
an d the furn ace is ready for the charge of iro n an d the blast .
The blast pressure should n o t exceed 1 lb per sq in Coke is . . .
most commo n ly used as fuel altho a n thracite is occasion ally ,
used .
L adles L adles vary in size fr om the sm all han d ladles c ar

.
ried by on e man to the large bull ladles havi n g a capacity of

m an y to n s S mall ladles are usually lin ed wi th fir e clay an d the
.
-
larger on es with fir e brick L arge ladles must be provided with

-
.
a m echan ism for tiltin g them for pourin g A ll ladles should .
have their lin in g heated by a gas flam e or coke fir e before receivin g

the m olten iron to preven t both the crackin g of the lin in g an d
,
the chillin g an d spatterin g of the m olten iro n .
B attling or T n rn blin g B ar r els These should be of differe n t .
sizes to sui t differen t kin ds of work with a m echan ism for rotat ,
in g
. The clean in g is do n e by the impact of stars or picks
with which the barrel is filled S om etimes there is used an .
equipmen t for directin g a blast of san d again st the castin gs bein g

tumbled .
P icklin g Vats I t is sometim es n ecessary to pickle castin gs

.
in dilute su lfuric hydrochloric or hydrofluoric acid in order to

,
rem ove green san d scale V ats an d troughs of wood or ston e

-
.
filled with acid are then used Castin gs so treated should always .
be well rin sed in clean water .
Clean in g T ools S m all tools operated by han d or co mpressed

.
air are n ecessary for clean in g th e scale from the outside of cast
in gs an d for breakin g out the core san d from the in teriors
‘
Commo n D ef ects of Ir o n Castin gs The most comm on .
faults of iron castin gs are blowholes spon gin ess shrin k holes , ,
-
,
scabbin ess san d holes floatin g cores co ld shuts cold shot

,
-
, , , ,
strain s shri n kage strain s an d warp These m ay occur even

,
.
though th e m old is in good con dition .
1 B lowholes are probably the m ost commo n defect

. Thes e .
ar e holes in the castin gs caused by im priso n ed gases They are .
often in visible on surface in spection an d ar e most apt to occur

286 A PP E N D IX B
the iro n has solidified at th e s ur fac e thus preven tin g th e l oosen ed ,
san d from floatin g en tirely to the top Thi s leaves it imprison ed .
in the body of th e castin g .
6 F loatin g Cor es are caused by a core of in su fli cien t stren gth

.
to resist the buoyan t eff ect of the molten iro n .
7 C. o ld S hu ts are caused by t h e im perfect u n io n of two or
m ore stre am s of m olten iro n in the m old too cold to coale sce on ,
m eetin g They occur when the iro n must flow som e distan ce
.
thru a thin part of the mold The rem edy is to use iron as
.
hot an d fluid as possible an d to arran g e gates so that the iro n

,
wi ll quickly fil l up the mold .
8 Cold S hot are sm all globu l es of iro n i mperfectly uni ted

.
,
with the rest of the castin g an d hard or imp o ssible to machin e

,
'
They are caused by the splashin g of the iron in pourin g the

, ,
spattered drops becom in g chilled an d droppin g to the bottom of

th e mold S p lashin g is usually caused by a gate d roppin g iro n
.
directly in t o a web or by p ourin g so slowly as to allow the iron

to dribble in ” .
,
The remed y is obvious .
S tr ain s T hi s ter m covers a castin g with warped wal ls

9 . .
due to the outward yielding of th e san d walls of the mold .
This is caused by loose rammin g an d in sufli cien t weights .
10 S hr in kage or In ter n al S tr ain s are caused by un equal rates

.
of coolin g To avoid them arran ge the thi c kn ess of the parts so

.
,
t hat the en tire casti n g wi ll solidify at about the same tim e or ,
else chi ll the thick portion s .
11 War pin g is caused by shrin kage strain s that are suf

.
ficien t to a l ter the shape of the finished casti n g I t is due either .
to a wan t of symmetry in th e design of sectio n al parts an d the ,
con sequen t un equal con tractio n in cooli n g or to dum pin g out the ,
cas tin g from th e san d while still hot an d soft allowin g them to ,
becom e chill ed on on e side by air curren ts or to sag of their own ,
weight .
R ef er en c e on F oun d r y Wo r k E lem e n tary Fou n dry P ra e

” ”
.
tice R ichards ; F ou n dry P ractice Tate an d S ton e ;

,
F oun dry P ractice P alm er ; M etallurgy of I ro n an d S tee l

,
” ,
B radley S toughto n .
G L O S S A RY OF TE R M S IN C OM M ON U SE
AR B OR A b ar or man dr el used as the c en ter on whic h is b uilt a c o r e

.
.
AN N E A L T o so f ten o r r en der d uc tile b y the appl ic ati on o f h eat ei ther

.
wi th or without a c ar b on ac eo u s mat er i al p ac ked ar oun d it .
BAK E D C O RE A d r y san d c or e wh ic h has b een su bj ec ted to heat

.
-
( u su a ll y in an o v en ) t o r en d er it h ar d an d t o fix it s sh ap e .
BA S IN T he p or tion of a c upola in wh ic h the mol ten i r on c ollec ts

. .
B E D C HA R G E T h e fir st c o k e c h ar ged i n to t h e cu p ol a
. .
B E N CH WO RK M olds of su c h siz e that they c an b e made at the b en c h

. .
B IN D E R A b ar of woo d or ir on wi th slotted en ds to r ec eiv e b ol ts

.
,
p lac ed ac r oss a c op e to hold the c ope to the dr ag

‘
B LAST T he supply o f air to the c upola

. .
B O D A b all o f c lay for c losi n g t h e t ap h ole

.
-
.
B O SH S ame as a sw ab See page 2 9 0

. . .
B OT T OM B OARD A b oar d plac ed un der a mol d . .
B LOWH O LE A defec t in a c ast in g c au sed b y gases w hich do n ot esc ape

. .
B RE A K O U T A r u p tur e of a mol d p er mi tt in g metal to flow out at the

”
-
.
jo in t A lso c alled a r un out

.
- .
B RE A S T T h e por tion of the lin in g of a c upola immediately sur r oun di n g

.
th e t ap h ol e
- .
B UC K LE S S wellin gs in the sur fac e of a mol d due to the gen er at ion of

.
steam b el o w t h e s u r f ac e w hi c h c ann o t esc ap e .
CA RRY IN G P LAT E S I r on plates u sed to su ppor t c er tain p ar ts of mol ds

. .
C HAP LE T A p i ec e of metal shap ed in var ious ways plac ed in a mold

.
, ,
t o supp ort a c o r e .
C HAR G E T h e i r on an d fuel plac ed in th e c up ola or air fum ac e

.
-
.
C HE E K Th at p or t ion of a thr ee p ar t mol d b etween the c or e an d the

.
-
dr ag.
C HILL A n i r on sur fac e of a mol d someti mes water c oo led used to c hill
. ,
-
,
t he mol ten ir on r ap id l y an d t h u s p r o d u c e a h ar d su r f ac e .
C H URN IN G S ee P u mp i n g . .
C LAM PIN G BA R A b ar used to t ighten c lamp s on a flask

. .
C LAM P S D evic es for fasten in g c o p es an d dr ags together

. .
C O LD S HUT A n Imp er fec ti on in the c asti n g d ue to the metal en terin g

.
t h e mo l d b y diff er en t spr u es c ool i n g an d f ailin g to u nit e

, , .
C O PE T he upp er half of a mold

. .
287
28 8 APP E N DIX B
C OPE D OWN T b ild p j c ti g b di f d th . f c f th o u ro e n o es o san on e su r a e o e
c p
o t f m
e o f c or t h c t i g w h ic h b l w t h l v l f th j i t
su r a es o n e as n ar e e o e e e o e o n
o f th d g e ra .
C O R A b d y f d i th g
E . d y pl c d i a m l d t f m a
o o san ,
e er r een or r ,
a e n o o or
cavi ty i th c ti g n e as n .
C ORE B ox A b i whic h c f md ox n o r es ar e or e
C OR —
. .
P L AT E Afl ti w h ic h g cE .p l c d f b ki g a r on o n r een o r es ar e a e or a n .
C O R PRI N T T h c avity i m ld i w h ic h th d f th c
E . e n a o n e en s o e o r es ar e
s t
e . T h p j c ti e a p tt whic h f m d l c t th p i t i th
ro e on s on a er n or an o a e e r n s n e
m ldo .
D R A ET Th t p giv i th id f p tt
. whic h b l it t b
e a er en n e s es o a a er n en a e o e
e as ily wi th d w f m th m ld ra n ro e o s .
D RA G T h l w . c t i f th m ld e o er se on o e o .
FA LS C H K A b dy f E d i a m ld cc pyi g th m p i ti
E E . o o san n o ,
o u n e sa e os on
a d p
n f m i g th m f c t i
er or n c h k b t c t i d wi th i t h e sa e un on as a ee ,
u on a n e n e
c p
o d d g
e an lth p t f m th m ra ,
a o se ar a e ro e .
F LA S K T h f m w k f w d . i i w h ic h the d i p ck d
ra e or o oo or r on n e san s a e
whil b i g m ld d a u d t h p t t
e e n o e ro n e a er n .
F LA T B A C K A p t t - with flat f c t t h j i t f th m ld
. a er n a sur a e a e o n o e o .
Th us a fl t b c k p tt a li wh lly wi th i th d g d th j i t f th
-
a a er n es o n e ra . an e o n o e
c p i a pl a
o e s f c n e su r a e .
F LO W O F A c h - l t f m a i t p mi t m tal t fl w away f m
F . an n e c u ro r ser o er e o o ro
it w h i t h i t c t i h i gh t
en as r sen o a er a n e .
G A G G E R S R d f w g ht c t i wi th
. d b t to i g ht
s o r ou or as r on o n e en en a a r
a gl
n d t upp t h a gi g b di f d i m ld
e u se o s or n n o es o san n a o .
G A E T h h l i th c p th w h ich m t l i p u d i t
T . e o em ld n e o e ru e a s o re n o a o .
G R N C O RE A c wh ic h h
EE t b b kd . or e as n o een a e .
G RE E N S AN D O di y m l di g a d w h ic h h t b. b ked r n ar o n s n as n o een a or
g iv th
en o h at t tm er t xc p t b y c et c t wi th m l t m t l i a m ldr ea en e e on a o en e a n o .
G R N S AN D M A CH A f l c p i whic h p tt
EE -
plac d whil T . a se o e n a er n s ar e e e
a d g i b i g m d It bj c t i t v id m ki g diffic lt j i t i
ra s e n a e ch . s o e s o a o a n a u o n n ea
m ld wh
o mb f c ti g
er e a n u t b m d f m th m p at t er o as n s ar e o e a e ro e sa e er n .
J O IN T T h t p t i. f a m l d w h t h c p a d d g c m t g t h
or on o o er e e o e an ra o e o e er .
L OAM A m ix t . f m l di g d d cl y f m k i g l m m ld ur e o o n san an a or a n oa o s .
M E LT I G Z O Th t p t f th cu p l b v t h t y z wh
N N E . a ar o e o a a o e e u er es on e er e
t h m t l fu
e e a ses .
M O LD B OA R Th b d wh ic h p tt Dl id w h .mak i g e o ar on a er n s ar e a en n a
d g ra .
N OW L Al g c E u lly i l m m ld
. ar e o r e, us a n a oa o .
PA R I G T h p l c T N wh ic h th p tt i p li t
. e a e on e a er n s s .
P G GA E A u d g tel di g f m p i g b i i t h c p t a
TE . ro n a ea n ro a ou r n as n n e o e o
b a i i th d g w h c
sn n p el d i t th m l d
ra ,
en e s r u es ea n o e o .
29 0 APP E N DI X B
p er i i c h F i e casti g with su f ce detail q i e fi

l n ear n . n a d hence n s r a re u r n er s n ,
a fi iddl
n er r e .
R mm a d f p u di g a d a u d th p tt
er s u se ori th flas k o n n s n ro n e a er n s n e .
S mall mm a f m pl l gra er s f i re o a e, ar er o n es o r on .
S t ik u d f r c p ff x t
e, se d t w t d f m th t p s fac f a
or s r a e o e r a san no an e ro e o ur e o
c p o d g A b d th i t i p f b i
e or ra . o ar or n s r o ar r on .
G gg a d ldi f
er s an h ldi g a d p c k t soS p g 89 er s or o n s n o e s . ee a e 2 .
B ll w u d t b l w p t i g
e o s d f m th p tt
se o l t b l w loose
o ar n san ro e a er n , a so o o
san d d di t f m f c f m ld
an r ro su r a e o o .
B h osw b A b dl f h mp p i t d at
or s a . d ; b u d wi th twi
un e o e ,
o n e on e en o n ne
at t h th e o U d t qu z w t er . d th dg f th patt b f
se o s ee e a er ar o u n e e e o e er n e or e
d wi g U d al th pply w t b l c k i g t d y d m ld b f d yi g
ra n . se so e a e a n o r san
-
o s e or e r n .
R ppi g a d l mpi g b n f t l; p i t d t
an c ad t t app i g
n ar o s ee o n e a on e en o en er r n
pl t i p t t
a es n; fl tt d a d t d p t th th
a er n s a en e n ur n e u a e o er .
R appi g i u d t t ik
n pp i g b
r on t i g th ru a gat
se h l
o s r e a ra n ar en er n e o e
i
n or d t j ll f c f th p tt
er o ar at m tm a es o e a er n a sa e i e .
D w ws
ra y b lt t h
-
scr edd d oU d t d aw la g w d
r e e-
o s r ea e on on e en . se o r r e oo
or m t l p tte a f m m ld a er n s ro a o .
D w pik st l p i t d t
ra -s de, F r ppi g a d d awi g p at
ee , o n e a on e en . or a n n .
r n
ter n s U d mo tly
. b c h w k f m ll p att s
se s on en or or s a er n .
Sp i g D w N a r n il U d f d wi g mall p att
ra Tw . o ds se or ra n s er n s . o r
j i d by p i g p
o ne tw d d g i p t h p tt r wh
s r n ,
l a d
r ess o u ar an r e a e n en r e e se .
W d G t Pi oo en Sp A d tap d p i
a e d t f m a gate
n , or r ue . r ou n er e n u se o or
t h u t h c p i t w h ic h i
r e o i p u d e n o r on s o re .
G t a e Sp C tt or A h t fba mi ci c ula at th ed g u d
r n e- u er . s ee o r ss, se - r r e e, se
to cu t a ch l i t h d g f m th gat t th m l d
an n e n e ra ro e e o e o .
V t Wi en S t l wi p t
r es . d a d with a h a dl o th e
ee r es, u se o n on e en ,
n n e n
o th u
er dt v t
,
se t m k p f r tio f th encape f ga f mor o a e er o a on s or e es o ses ro
th m l d
e o .
Cl mp u d i m y styl
a s, a d iz i c j u c ti wi th w edge f
se n an es n s es n on n on s, or
h l di g the cop e a d drag tightly tog ether

o n n .
M O LDE R S S M A LL T OOL S
’
(T he f ollo wi g n ar e t ools u su all y fu i r n sh e d an d o w ed n b y the mol de r
h i msel f ) .
T r owelsdiff t tyl a d i z of d f m king the j i t o a

er en s es n s es, u se or a o n n
m l d a d fo fi i h i g
o ,
n d m th i g f c r n s n an s oo n su r a es .
S li k u d f m th i g
c er s, lic ki g p at c h i g b uildi g up a d
se or s oo n or s n ,
n ,
n s n ,
f mi g c
or n t D i ff t t yl
o r n er s, k w b d S lic k
e c . er en s es ar e no n as ea er s,
p o
s o n Slic k d bl d t d a u d n d i ff t ki ds
er s , ou e-en er s, e c .
,
an re se o er en n
of c rv du d t i gh t
e f c an s ra su r a es .
GL O SSARY OF TE RM S IN C O MM O N U SE 29 1
Cor n er T ools , for lic ki n g c or n ers b oth i n side

s ,
id
an d o ut s e
.
P ipe tools , u suall i y c

wi th h a dl
of ast r on , th e ce t r a n e se t v t ic ll y i
er a n n e .
U d f lic k i g i t i r f c yli d i c l f c
se or s n n er o o n r a sur a es .
Fl g t l
an e f st l
oo s , U d f lic ki g fla g
o ee . sep ip c yli d rs
or s n n es o n es o r n e .
H bt l
u oo s , d in c yli d ic l p ti
u se f m ldn rch a hub f p ul
a or on s o o s su s s o
l y w hi c h
e s tar emall t p mi t t h
oo s f p i p lic k
o er e u se o a e s er .
L if t er s , d i l ifti g l
u se n d f m d p plac i th m l d T h
n oose san ro ee es n e o . e
h l f t h l if t r i al
ee o e e used t
s lic k th d p p l c
so f t th l
o s d ha e ee a es a er e o ose san s
been r e m v do e .
A P P E N D IX C
GE N E RA L D IR E CT I O N S FOR W RI TT E N WO R K
M E CHA N I CA L DE TA I S L
P ap e r S tan dard ruled n ote book paper or a prescribed

.
-
equ ivalen t m ust be used For typewritte n work title pages

. .
, ,
an d sketches blan k paper is required Tabulated data an d

,
.
curves should be put on the special form s of paper design ated

for these parts of the report .
In k . A ll exercises S hould be written in dark in k P e n cil .
Sketches are som etimes perm issible in in spection trip an d -
laboratory reports but un less otherwise specified drawi n gs

, , ,
Should be in ked in with In dia in k .
P ag e N u mb eri n g A ll pages should be n um bered in the .
upper right han d corn er I t is well to in dicate also the exp er i

-
.
m en t or series of experim en ts to which a particular page refers .
P ar agr aph In d en tatio n P aragraphs should be i n den ted at .
least I in .
M argi n s The left han d margin should be kept straight

.
-
,
an d flush with the red lin e The right han d m argin m ay be .

-
slightly irregular but S hould n o t be crowded,

.
H eadin g s S ection al headin gs should be placed in the

.
mi ddle of the page an d should be separated by at least two

spaces from the divisio n s between which they occur S ub .
headin gs should appear at the left as in the foregoin g i n structio n ,
sheets an d preferab l y on e space above

, .
F orm ula s an d Ch emi c al E qu atio n s E quatio n s an d for .
By C W P k . . ar ,
A M . .
, Associ ate P r of essor of E n gli h U iv i ty f Ci ci
s ,
n er s o n n n at i .
29 2
294 A PP E N DI X C
cubic cen tim eter

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 com pare (L at con fer)
.
can dlepower
cen tim eter
cubic
chemically pure
degree
for example (L at exemp li grati a)
.
electrom otive force

Figure
Fahren heit
free on board
feet
gallon s
gram
grain s
horsepower
horsepower hour
that is
in dicated horsepower
in ches
the presen t mon th
kilovolt
kilom eters
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 pou n ds
mi n utes
m illim eters
m an uscript
n u m ber
oun ce
rotatio n s per min ute
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 secon ds
specific gravity
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O . square feet
ton s
the prece din g mon th
G E N E R AL DIR E CT I ON S FO R WRI TT E N WO R K 29 5
Fi gu r es figures for dim en sion s distan ces m easures

. U se , , ,
weights degrees (of an gles or temperature ) dates specific

, , ,
gravity an d decim als E xamples are as follows : 4 by 6 ft ;

. .
1 00 y d ; 1 2 gal ; 1 3 o z ;
. .
J an 5; . .
E xception : Figures should n o t be placed at the beginn in g of

a se n ten ce .
S pell out isolated en um eratio n s of on e or two words ; e g

” ”
.
,
.
four propellers twen ty five separate parts

,
-
.
In a compou n d adjective on e elem en t of which is a n um eral

, ,
the figures rather than the word should be used ; e g 2 8 in ch

,
. .
,
-
m ain s a 1 6 pou n d sledge

,
-
.
S ketch es an d O th e r Illu str atio n s Wherever possible a .

,
sketch or a photograph should be used to illustrate th e m ore

di fficult an d the m ore importan t parts of a report These illus .
t r ation s should be placed within the text or in the case of full ,
page sketches an d photographs imm ediately after that part of ,
the text in whi ch they are described E ach figure should be .
gi ven a titl e that will explain its con n ection with the read
in g m atter an d should be desig n ated as
,
Fig et c in
“ . .
,
order that referen ce may be m ad e to it in other parts of th e

report .
Curves In plottin g curves choose th e scale of absciss ae so

.
,
that the largest value reaches n early or quite across the page .
Choose the scale of ordin ates in a sim ilar m ann er A lways .
select the un its so that each graduatio n of the cross sectio n -
paper represen ts a con ven ien t n umber of un its or a con veni en t

fraction al part of a u n it The two scales n eed n o t be alike
.
but in gen eral sim ilar quan tities should have similar scales
, , .
The i n depen den t variables are usually plotted as the ab scissaa

an d the d ep en d en t var iab les as th e ordin ates
‘
A n exceptio n to .
this rule is fou n d in the case of load deform ation curves D efor -
.
29 6 APP E N DIX C
mation s (deflection s elo n gation s) are in variably plotted as

,
absciss a: an d the loads as ordin ates .
When the graph is a calibratio n curve an d it is certain that ,
there is n o error of observation the curve should be a sm ooth ,
lin e passin g thru every poin t In case of other curves always .

,
draw the straight li n e or the smooth curve that most n early

fits all of the poin ts plotted D eviatio n s from the poin ts in .
the curve usually in dicate errors of observation S uch errors .
are corrected by drawin g the curve thru the m ean position

of the poin ts .
Give each curve a title ; e g Cooli n g Curve of P ure I ron . .

,
.
The curve sheet should also co n tain the n ame of the observer ,
the n ames o f his assistan ts the source of the data an d a d esig

'
, ,
n atio n o i the apparatus or m aterial to which the curve applies .
The data an d in form ation given on the curves Should be su fficien t

for the application or in terpretation of the cu r ves without
referen ce to an y other part of the report .
B lack drawin g ink Fren ch curves an d a rulin g p en must be

, ,
used in drawi n g curves The curve should ordin arily be a full

.
lin e but in case two or m ore curves are drawn close to g ether
,
som e distin ctio n should be made in order to avoid co n fusion .
S uch distin ctio n s m ay be m ade clear by broken lin es di ff eren t ,
colored i n ks an d differen t geometrical figures (circles trian gles

, , ,
to in dicate the poin ts of the curve B roken lin es may .
also be used to in dicate hypothetical exten sion s of kn own

curves .
D etail s f or I d en tific atio n of M an uals E ach laboratory .
man ual should co n tain the followin g data :
N ame of studen t .
Course .
S quad n umber .
Con d itio n u sc ript N o man uscrip ts should be sub

of M an .
mitted which co n tain blots i n sertio n s or crossed out passages, ,

-
.
E rasures if an y are n ecessary should be n eat an d in con spicuous

, ,
.
A ll work S hould be carefully revised an d carefu ll y prepar ed in a

29 8 APP E N DIX C
th e various pieces of apparatus should be en umerate d N ew .
an d special pieces may then be described in detail .
In so far as this part of the report deals with particular appa

ratus it S hould be put in the past ten se e g :
, ,
. .
The apparatus used in this test con sisted of the fo llow

in g : etc .
(4 ) Th i
Pr o ced ur e s sectio
. n co n tai n s an accoun t of what
was don e in carryi n g out the successive parts of the test Care .
Should be taken to omit prelimin ary an d n on essen tial opera -
tion s an d to follow the actual order in which the work w as don e

,
.
The n arrative should be imperson al an d should be give n in ,
the past ten se an d the passive voice ; e g .
R eadin gs were taken at in tervals of five min utes etc ,

.
(5) R e s u l ts a S um m. ary of
. results Co n clusio n s drawn
. .
from th e data should be stated briefly an d clearly In som e .
cases it m ay be desirable to compare them with results obtain ed

in other tests .
b Curves (see page

.
6. S ample calculatio n s They may be brief but they S hould

.
,
be typ ical of the mathem atical proces ses in volved (see p age
d D ata
. .
The data shou l d be presen ted on special ruled paper

design ed for the purpo se I t should be arran ged in tabular .
fo r m an d in parallel column s .
()6 S k e t c h es (se e p a g e 2 9
(7 ) O r i gin al D ata R ough n otes
. take n duri n g the test
should be submitted from tim e to tim e as eviden ce of the accuracy
with which observation s were made I f a log book is kept it .
,
ll an swer the purpose .
T h e Writi n g of A b str acts A n abstract summ arizes briefly

.
in co nn ected discourse the gist of a discussio n U nlike th e .
syn opsis which may be m ore or less fragm en tary or dis co n

,
n ec t ed the abstract is a complete composition a min iature

, ,
reproduction of a larger work Comm en t an im portan t feature .

,
of the revi ew is lackin g in the abstract an d the latter form c o n

, ,
tain s little or n o quoted m atter The abstractor usin g his o wn .

,
T HE WRI TI N G OF RE P O R T S AN D A B S T RA CT S 29 9
lan guage an d keepin g the proportion s of the ori gin al restates ,
compactly the m ain poin ts in the discussion The m akin g of an .
’
abstract is thus a test of his ability both to digest an other s
work an d to write clearly an d sm oothly .
For purposes of illustratio n the foregoin g paragrap h may be ,
regarded as an abstract of a S hort lecture on the writin g of

abstracts R oughly speakin g each sen ten ce in the summary
.
.
,
is a con de n sed stateme n t o f the thought in a paragraph or a

sectio n of the lecture The relatio n betwee n the divisio n s of the
.
lo n ger discussio n should therefore be reflected in the co n n ectio n

betwee n the sen ten ces in the summary paragraph A n other .
“
illustratio n is an abstract of the m atter co n tain ed on p 3 1 3
of M aterials of Co n structio n by A P M ills : ,
. .
.
P ar agr aph 3 51 . P ou r in g th e I r on
T h e mol ten i
d f m th c p la t th m ld i h at d
r on is tr an s f er r e ro e u o o e o s n e e
c l y li d l dl f th t p p i g typ S m ll m ld
a -
ne a es o fill d f m h a d
e o -
o ur n e . a o s ar e e ro n
l dl ; f l g c ti g l dl s f fli i t c p ci ty
a es or ar er c i d t c ks
as n s a e o su t c en a a ar e ar r e on ru or
by c A g tl t dy a d u if rm tr m f q i t l g f m tal
r an es . en e, s ea n n o s ea o u e ,
s a -
r ee e
s uffi ci t t fill th ti c avity h uld b g tly p u d i t the m ld which

en o e en re s o e en o re n o o ,
i di ily b k up ft th lidific ti f th ir t llow th

”
s or n ar ro en soo n a er e so a on o e on , o a e
c ti g t c l m
as n ap idly
o oo or e r .
at the be gin n in g of each abstract a co mplete refere n ce

P lace
to the origi n al article The method of n otin g the vo l um e .
n um bers by a n um eral preced in g the n am e of the pub licatio n ,
an d the page n um bers by n u m era l s imm ediate l y followin g the
n a m e of th e pub l icatio n is u n iversal l y u sed in l ega l publica
tio n s is compact an d c lear an d much to be reco mm e n ded

,
.
Wherever possib le page n umbers shou l d be in serted to in dicate

the len gth of the artic le For in stan ce .
,
A itchison L eslie T he Th y f t h C eor o e or r os on i of S teel 1 5 M et al

i g 8 8—
.
, .
lur gical an d Ch mic

e al En gin eer n 9 ,
2 .
The fo llowi n g example is quoted from 20 I

() S cie n ce
A bstracts 1 5 ,
.
Appar atu s for the C ommer ci al Testin g of P er man en t M agn ets B G

B etter idge (9 8 E lec tr ician 2 1 3—2 1 5 N ov 1 7
. . .
. T he man uf ac tur e
, ,
.
,
300 APP E N DIX C
of lar ge nu m b er s o f stee magn ets, for m agn etos an d meter s in th s oun tr y ,

i c l ,
t t k th p l c
o a e e f a eu d o f th ose o r mer ly s p p lie
c i d in G er man y h as n e ess tat e th e ,
d i g f uit b l t ti g pp t u f th m g t T h tw m t i mp t t
es n o s a e es n a ar a s or e a ne s . e o os or an
f t u th m f c t
ea r es eq ui t k
an u a w ( ) th c civ f c d (b)
ur er r e r es o no ar e a e oer e or e an
th m
e re t fl O wi g t th l g
n an ux u m b f m g t t b t t d th
. n o e ar e n er o a ne s o e es e ,
e
a pp tu h u ld ti fy th f ll wi g c diti
ar a s s o ( ) All w f i dividu l
sa s e o o n on on s 1 o o n a
t ti g f m g t
es n o ( ) T h t t h ld t k th mi im m t im t c y t
a ne s . 2 e es s ou a e e n u e o ar r ou .
(3) T h pp t empl y d h ld b a impl

e a ar a us d b t p ibl o e s ou e s s e an ro us as o ss e .
(4) T h i dic t i e b t i d h uld wh v p ib l b di c t di g d

n a on s o a ne s o ,
er e er oss e, e re -
r ea n an
r eadily i t p t d n er th t th pp t c uld b u d b y c mp tiv ly

re e ,
so a e a ar a u s o e se o ar a e
u k ill d p
ns e 5) T h lt
er son s b t i d h ld b
. ccu t p ibl e r esu s o a ne s ou e as a r a e as oss e,
an d h u ld g iv
s o f p ib l th t e as v lu f th m g tic p p t i
ar as o ss e, e r ue a e o e a ne ro er es
o f th m g t e Th a ne th m th d i t
. l ct m g t t e au gi z or s
’
e o s o u se an e e ro a ne o en er e
th t l
e s ee d t t A di c i t t d i
un er es i g p i th m g t ic ci c i t
. s s ro a e n an a r - a n e a ne r u
an d th v l t g ge o t d i t h di c m
a e d m illiv ltm t
en er a e B y th i n e s easur e on a o e er s
u m t f th fl i th m g t d th mg tizi g
.
m th d cc
e o t m
a ur a e eas r e en s o e ux n e a ne ,
an e a ne n
fo c ppli d t it
r e a b e b tai d B y v y i g th xci ti g cu t th
o ,
c an e o ne . ar n e e n r r en e
p p r t i f th m g t
ro e es o b i v ti g t de d it h y t i l p bt i d
a ne c an e n es a e an s s er es s oo o a ne .
fi l d ig c i t d f tw l id m u t d b
’
Th th
e au or s na es n on s s e o o so en o s o n e on a ase c on
t i i g th
an n fl m u i g d vic p p T h tw l g f th h
e u x- eas r n h e e ro er . e o e s o e or ses o e
m g ta ne d t t i t d i th tw l id d t
un er es ar e n ser e p i f gl n e o so en o s an r es on a ar o an es
in an a l u mi m b Th nu gl p t d byase m g tic di t c
. ese an es ar e se ar a e n on - a ne s an e
pi c e es, d i th an p c b tw n a ft i di c h vi g c pp i g
e s a e e een r un s so - r on s a n a o er r n
a tt c h d t it
a e t dg T h di c i c a i d
o s o u er e p i dl m d f c pp e
. e s s rr e on a s n e a e o a o er
ll y
a o Ac b b hi
. ar t hi Sp i dl
on d th
r us th p i p h y s r u n on s n e, an an o er o n e er er
o f th di c e T h p iti
s f th t w
. l id
e dju t b l
os th t v i u
on s o e o so en o s ar e a s a e , so a ar o s
siz f m g t
es o b t t d
a n e s c anT h m g t iz i g f c ppli d i th t t i e es e . e a ne n or e a e n e es s
o b t i d b y m ultiplyi g th m g t iz i g cu t i milli mp b y ui t b l
a ne n e a ne n r r en n a s . a s a e
c t t T h ft i di c i d iv b y m ll m t ; th milliv lt g
on s an . e so - r on s s r en a s a o or e o s en
t d i th di c wh
er a e n m ultipli d b y c
e s t, t giv t h fl i th m g t
en e a on s an ,
e e ux n e a ne
u d n t t
er L i d awi g
es . d illu t ti ne giv f th
r pp t n d s an s ra on s ar e en o e a ar a us, an
th e au th t t th t m t p t
or s a es t t b tc h f m g t f c
a a s ar o er a o r c an es a a o a ne s or o er
civ f c d m c t t f b ut 3 t 4 5 c d p m g t d
”
e or e an re an en e a a ra e o a o 0 o se on s er a ne , an
g te ult wi thi
r es s xt m f p c t
n an e re e er r o r o 2 er en .
aid in the study of a subject it is well to practice

A s an ,
regularly the m akin g of abstracts fro m lectures an d articles .
On e of the best schem es fo r the preservatio n of these summ aries

in a readily accessible form is to take n otes on thin paper c u t ,
slightly less than the page S ize of the text used an d to paste -
,
the sheets i n to the text book at appropriate places I n terleavin g .
paper gumm ed alo n g o n e edge m ay be obtain ed for this purpose

, ,
.
IN D E X
Abb eviati o sr n ,
2 93 A t 57 7
r r es s , ,
0, 1 25
Ab t ac t 9 7
s r s, 2 A h f m c al
s es ro o , 24 7
Accid ts en ,
2 A ig me ts les
ss n n , son s, 3
Acid d fi i ti ,
e n on , 27 qu i 4 er es,
u g ic l 6
metall r a , Atm ph i fu c
os er e, n a r n a e, 10
f c y 7
r e ra tor ,
2 p u f 4
r ess re o ,
2 0
l g 33
s a , At mic w igh t
o 6 e s, 22
Addi ti t m lt on s o e s, meth o d of a ddi gn , Att d c I 4 5

en an e, , ,
2 23 Au t i t 5 68 3
s en e, 1 2, 1 ,
21
A ir , an al s s, yi 2 43 c t i tu t i
on s 68 on , 1
Alpha i r on , 1 26 etc h i g 68
n ,
1
c y t lliz ti
r s a 54 a on , 1 f m ti
or a 5 on , 1 2
h d ar 54 n ess, 1 h d ar 68
n ess, 1
m g t i m 54
a ne s ,
1 i c t i
n as 3 r on , 21
All t p ic m dific ti
o ro 6 o a on s, 12 p h o t Omic r ogr ap h , 1 53 , 1 68
th y h d i g I 54
eor or ar en n , Au gi t e, 35
All y t l h d i g 53
o s ee s, ar en n ,
1
All y y t m 7
o s s e s, 0 B k dc
a e or e, 287
All y c ti tu ti f 7 9
o s, on s on o , B ll c h
a r a es, eat t r eatm en t , 1 63
A lu mi m lti g p i t 5
n a, e n -
o n ,
2 B iu m c b
ar ar o n at e , as c e men tin g g a en t ,
Alu mi t th m ch mi t y
n a es, er o e s r ,
2 35 1 83
Am ph u c m t 34
or o s e en ,
1 B ase, 27 36 ,
Amp h t ic ub t c 33o er s s an es, B m t l th m

ase e a p 5 er o -c o u r es, 1
A n n eali g 3 7 57 n87 ,
1 ,
1 ,
2 B ic f c t y 7
as re ra or ,
2
fu c 9 r n a e, 1 l g 33
s a ,
p c tic I 59
ra e, B i 7 87
as n , 2 1 ,
2
A th ci t
n ly i
ra 43 46 e, an a s s, 2 ,
2 B tt i g t l h t t tm t
a er n oo s, ea r ea en ,
1 65
A t i m y tc h i g 8 3
n on ,
e n , B tt y p i m y 4
a er ,
r ar ,
2 .
l d ll y 7
- ea a o s, 0 B d ch g
e 87 ar e, 2
m lti g p i t 66
e n -
o n , B ddi g i m ld 7 5
e n -
n o s, 2
A vi l h t t tm t 64
n s, ea r ea en ,
1 B ch m ld 8 8 7
en o s, 2 0, 2
App tu c ar a f s, ar e o ,
2 B z ph
en o b ili g p i t 66
en o n e, o n -
o n ,
p l
er son a ,
2 Bt i
e a 6 r on , 1 2
sp ci l 3 e a , h d ar 54 n ess, 1
squ d a ,
2 Bi dn 79
er s,87 2 ,
2
Abr 87
or , 2 B i tu mi u c l ly i 46
no s oa , an a s s, 2
A rc fu c 4 r n a e, 10 B l c k b dy
a o ,
1 12
t mp
e tu 58 er a r e, 2 exp i m t l tt i m t
er en a a a n en , 112
w ld 45e er , Bl t 87
as ,
2
303
304 IN DE X
B l t fu c 9
as r n a e, 1 C l y 33
a or ,
2
ch g 66 ar e, 2 C d l l mp 8 3
an e a ,
o p ti 6er a66 on , 2 2, 2 C p t i du ti
a a n s
’
es , 1 , 3, 4
B li t d g t iv 8 8
s er e ne a es, C b i flu c
ar on , n en e on h ar d i gen n s teel,
B li t t l 8
s er s ee ,
1 1 141
B l wh l 84 8 7
o o es , 2 ,
2 - i quilib iu m di g m 6 3
r on e r a ra ,
12 ,
1 1
Bod , 2 87 m xid c m t 8 85
on o e as e en ,
1 2, 1
B il c
o i er or r os on , 2 04 C bid th m c h mi t y 35
ar es , er o e s r ,
2
B il m k
o er a er s
’
t ools, h eat t r eatmen t , C b t th m c h m i t y 35
ar o n a es, er o e s r ,
2
1 64 C b u du m di ci ti t mp
ar or n ,
sso a on e er a
B il pl t p h t mic g ph 7 3
o er a e, o o ro ra ,
1 ,
1 74 tu 5 r e, 2
B ili g p i t pp tu 4 6
o n -
o n a ar a s, C bu izi g 8
ar r n ,
1 0
t b l 66
a e, m ch i m f 8
e an s o ,
1 1
B t t h m c h m i t y 35
o r a es, er o e s r ,
2 C f quipm t 3 4
ar e o e en ,
2, ,
B h 87
os ,
2 C yi g p l t 8 7
ar r n a es, 2
B tt m b d 8 7
o o o ar ,
2 Car o n s c m t 83
’
e en ,
1
B yl l w f 4
o e, a o ,
2 0 C c bu izi g 8
ase ar r n ,
1 0
B w k i g t l h t t tm t
r ass or n o o s, ea r ea en ,
1 63 m ch i m f 8
e an s o ,
1 1
B k g d p it tic k t
r ea a e e os e s, 1 exf li ti o 89 a on , 1
B k t 87
r ea ou ,
2 C ti g c t f c t
as n s, 69 os a or s, 2
B t 83 8 7
r eas ,
2 ,
2 d f c t 84
e e s, 2
B i ll m ch i 9 5
r ne a n e, d ig 7 es n, 2 0
di c ti fre 99 on s or u se, C ti
as r on :
h d ar um l t bln ess n er a a e, 1 00 c mp i t i
o os
3 7 8 on , 21 ,
21 ,
21
li m i t t i 96 a o n s, c li g cu v
oo n 3 r es , 21
-
meter 9 7 , g y 5
ra ,
21
O il, 1 00 m t tl do 6 e ,
21
B i ti h th m l u i t 34
r s er a n ,
2 p hy ic l p p ti
s 6a ro er es, 21
B i ttl
r St di 35
en ess, ea s, 1 wh it 5 e, 21
B ch h t t tm t 64
r oa es, ea r ea en ,
1 C t t l p h t mic g ph 36
as s ee ,
o o ro ra ,
1
B uc kl 8 7 es, 2 Cm t
e en :
B uc ki g b d cl i g 9
n oar ean n ,
2 bl di g f w m t i l 59 6
en n o ra a er a s, 2 ,
2 1
B u d f fu c 6
r en o r n a es, 2 2 c ti tu t 59 6
on s en s, 2 ,
2 2
B u d t l 35
rne s ee ,
1 f ct y 54
re ra or ,
B u h h mm h t t tm t 63
s a er s, ea r ea en 1 C m t ti
e en a c c bu izi g 8 on o r ase ar r n 1 0
By—
, ,
p duc t c k v g
ro ly i o e- o en as an a s s, 2 49 by c b c u m t i l 84
ar on a eo s a er a s , 1
by c b m xid 8 85ar on on o e, 1 2, 1
C lci
a ly i 63
n e, an a s s, 2 by ch c l 83 ar oa ,
1
C lib ti cu v 9 6
a ra on r es , 2 by cy id 84 an es, 1
f p t ic l p y m t
o O a ro e er s , 112 by h yd c b 87 r o ar o n s, 1
f o di t i p y m t
ra a on ro e er s, 112 by m lt b th 84 o en a s, 1
f th m c u p l
o 63
er o o es, fu c 8 7 r n a es , 1
C l ifi i t
a or i ty 57
c n en s ,
2 i d x 59
n e ,
2
c b c u fu l fu c
ar o n a eo s- e r n a es, 1 03 t yp 85 8 7
es , 1 -
1
l c t ic fu
e e c r 4 r n a es , 10 v i bl 9ar a es, 1 2
y h yd g fl m 57 C m ti t 7 3
-
ox ro en a e, 2 e en e, 12 21
,
C l im t y 33 5
a or e r ,
2 ,
2 1 e ff c t e t g th f c t i
o n s r en
7 o as r on , 21
306 IN D E X
D p i t tic k t
e os e s, 1 E quilib iu m lt w t 7 4 r , sa -
a er ,
D i g f c ti g 7
es n O as n s, 2 0 w ll t i t t ti t 34
o as o n e-en s a e,
l c t ic l fu
e e c r 4 a r n a es , 10 E qui p m t g ll b en t y IV ,
en er a a o r a or , , 3
D v l p 88
e e o er , m t ll g p h y 9
e a 76 o ra ,
0, 1
D v l p m t f g tiv 8 7 9
e e o en o ne a es, ,
2 E tc hi g 8 n77 ,
0, 1
of p h t g p h ic p p o o88 9 ra a er , ,
2 g t f t l 67
a en s or s ee ,
1
D i c ti g as 7 n s, 2 0 an tim y 83 on
—
e ,
D i h t t tm t 63 65
es, ea r ea en , 1 1 p i t 69 s, 1
D i ff u i f c b
s on i t i o ar on n o r on , 1 80 , p li h d p cim 8
o s e s e en s, 0
1 81 E u t c t ic 34 7 3
e 7 , , ,
12
of CO C02 i n to i
r on , 1 82 , 1 85 pp
a c 73 ear an e,
D i p id m lti g p int
o s e, e n -
o ,
66 c m ti t 3
e en e, 21
D i t g tiv 88
r y ne a es, p p ti 7 3
ro er es,
p i t 88
r n s, E u t c t ide 7 o ,
12
D i c i ti
sso 94 a on , 1 E xf li t i o 89 a on , 1
D ubl d c mp iti
o e e o os on , th er moc h emis E x th mic
o c ti
er 33 r ea o n s, 2
t r y o f, 2 38 E xp i t A 43
an s o n a r s, 1
D ft 88
ra ,
2
D g 7 88
ra ,
2 1 ,
2 F i g 78
ac n s, 2
D w c w 9
ra s re s, 2 0 F l ch k 88
a se ee ,
2
p ik 9
s e, 2 0 F it 6
er r e, 1 2
D ift h t t tm
r s, ea r ea en t o f, 1 64 F i t c m ti t quilib iu m di g
er r e- e en e e r a ra m,
D y r d m ld 8
-
san o s, 2 0
etch i g 68 n ,
1 ,
1 73
E ck l u l 6
e
’
s r e, 2 1 h bi t a73 , 1
E l c t ic fu
e r c r n a es 1 02 h d ar 73 n ess , 1
dv t g
a an a es,
3 10 F yl t t
er r o x 3 es ,
20
d ig 4es n, 10 F e y di ti py m t
r ra 3 a on ro e er ,
11
t mp e tu tt i bl
er a re a a na e, 1 04 f cu i g 4
o s n ,
11
t ub 6 e, 10 li mi t t i 14 a on s , 1
ty p 4 es, 10 Fig u i w i tt w k 9 5
r es n r en or ,
2
E l c t ly i
e ro 96 97 s s, 1 ,
1 Fil h t t tm t 63
es, ea r ea en ,
1
El m t
e th m c u p l
en s, see er o- o e ele men ts . Fili g t 3 n n o es , 00
E mi i i t y
ss v 6 ,
10 Fi cl y m lti g p i t 5
re a ,
e n -
o n ,
2
h t b dy
o 6 o ,
1 1 Fixi g g tiv 9
n ne a es , 2
m u m t 3
eas re en ,
1 2 P i t 93 r n s,
th t ic l b l c k b dy
eo r e a a o ,
112 Fl m t mp t u
a e 57
e er a r es, 2
v i tiar a 5 on , 1 1 2, 11 F l k 7 4 8 88
as s, 2 ,
2 1 ,
2
E d th m ic
n o c ti er 33 r ea o n s, 2 ,
2 39 Fl t b c k p t t
a -
a 7 88 a er n , 2 0, 2
E n r oll m en t , 1 , 9 Fl ti g c
oa 86
n or es, 2
i w ll t i t quilib iu m di
E n stat t e- o as o n e e r Fl m ldi g 8
oor o n ,
2 0
g m 34
a ra ,
Fl w ff 88
o -
o ,
2
E qu t i a f th m c u pl 63
on o er o- o e, Flu du t e ly i 63s ,
an a s s, 2
E qui lib iu m 9 r ,
1 g c m p i ti 4 5
ases, o os on , 2
E quilib iu m di g m 7 r a ra ,
0 F gg d g tiv 88
o e ne a es,
f i t c m ti t
er r 7 e- e
3 en e, 12 1 1 F g fi m k i g 58
or e r e, a n ,
1
i c br o n - ar 6 3 on , 1 2 ,
1 1 F mul 9
or as, 2 2
IN D E X 307
F u d y quipme t
o n r e n ,
2 82 G r een mat h , c 2 88
F c tu c y t lli
ra r e, r s a n e, 1 35 m ol d s, 2 80
p c tic 69ra e, 2
x mi ti 33
e a na on , 1 H l t i 88
a a on ,
il I 34
ra ,
H mm h t t tm t 63 64
a er s, ea r ea en , 1 ,
1
steels, 1 38 H d ig 4
ar en n ,
1 1
tests, 1 33 ll t p ic th
a o ro y 54 eor , 1
F zi g p i t t bl 66
r ee n -
o n a e, ll y t l
a o 53 s ee s, 1
Fu l h t f c mbu ti
e ,
ea o o s on , 24 7 c b 4 ar on , 1 1
Fu ll h t t tm t
er s , ea r ea en ,
1 65 c ck 4 ra s, 1 2
Fu c tm ph
r n a e, a os er e, 10 d v l pm t f m t l 5
e e o en o e ar a s, 1 2
bu d 6 r en , 2 2 th i 53 54
eor es, 1 ,
1
c m t ti 8 7
e en a on , 1 H d ar 7 8 94
n ess, ,
ch g 6 ar es, 2 2 i d t ti 9 5
n en a on , 1 00
—
,
l c t ic
e e 6 r ,
1 02 10 um l 9 6
n er a , , 1 00
h eat t r eatmen t , 1 42 b u di g 9 4
re o n n ,
o v en , see Ov fu en - r n a e. c H t v il b l i b il fu l 55
ea a a a e n o er e ,
2
c ducti
on 5 on , 10
G agg s 88 er ,
2 c v c ti
on 5 e on , 10
G amma i r o n, 1 26 c t l 4on r o ,
1 2
c y t lliz ti
r s a a on , 1 54 v lu ti f c t i
e o 3 33 on o r ea o n s, 2 2, 2 ,
2 3 5,
d i ty 54 en s ,
1 2 52
h d ar54 n ess, 1 in qu ch i g b th en n a ,
1 47
G gu e 3
an ,
2, m ch ic l quiv l
e an a e a en t , 1 03
G v lu m
ases , o e an d p r ess u re r elat on , i radi ti 6 a on , 1 0
2 40 t f i fu c
r an s er n r n a es, 1 04
v lu m o e w i gh t
e r elat o n , i 24 1 t r ea tmen t , see An n ealin g an d qu ch en
G ate 88 ,
2 in g .
G ay Lu ssac law of
-
, ,
2 40 u i t 33
n ,
2
G e al appa atu s
n er r ,
2 H ti g cu v f fu c 9
ea n r e o r n a e,
la b o r at o r y quipm e en t IV , 3 fu c 9 4 r n a e, 1 ,
1 2
G la sses , c m p i ti
o os on , 35 p w f liquid 4 7
o er o s, 1
G los a y s r ,
2 87 p c tic 4
ra e, 1 1
G ggl s
o e ,
2 Hig h p d t l 6
-
s ee s ee , 1 2
C o u t al s
’
f or m la , u 2 50 H i gh t m p t u
-
c ti e 5 er a r e r ea on s, 2 2
G ad f te l 6
r e o s e ,
1 2 Hi t y f m t ll g ph y 67
s or o e a o ra ,
1
G d m thod f c omp u ti g 4
ra es, e o n , , 5 H lbo d K lb m p y
or n an ur au ro meter ,
G air fi i g 35 3 7
n ,
re n n ,
1 ,
1 1 20
G an i te poi ts h eat t eatmen t

r n ,
r , 1 63 i i i
l m tat o n s, 1 21
G r an lar it 7 u p ear l e, 1 2 p ti
o er a on , 1 21
G phra Cu v s, see r es . H t b di
o cl f 6 o es, o or o ,
11
G ph i t c ucibl t
ra e r es, r eat m en t , 60 wt ytm c
a er s i 4 s e s, or r os on , 20
i c t i
n 5 as r on , 21 , 21 7 w k i g f t l 35
or n o s ee , 1
G v t l h tt
ra er oo s, ea r ea t men t , 1 63 Hu f w k 4
o rs or or ,
1 ,
G yc ti
ra 5 as r on , 21 H w di g m 3
o e s
’
a ra ,
1 1
G c
r een 88 o r es, 2 Hu mph y th y f h d i g re
’
s eo r o ar en n , 1 54
G r een san d , 2 88 Hyd t th m ch mi t y 35

r a es, er o e s r ,
2
08 IN DE X
Hyd c b r o ar on c e men t i g g
n a en t s, 1 8 5, Li me to a alysi
s n e, n s, 2 63
1 87 Li th iu m m eta ilicat s e, melt i gp i

n -
o n t, 66
i t y 35
th er m o h em c s r ,
2 L di g plate h old
oa n er s, 91
Hyp u t c t id t l 7 3
er e e o s ee , 1 L am 88
o ,
2
Hyp u t c t id t l 7
oe e o s ee ,
1 2 mol di g n ,
2 78
I llu mi ati f p aqu sp ecime

n on o o e n s, 79 M ach i mad m lds n e- e o , 2 81
Illu mi at v tical 7 9
n or , er ,
Mag esi te b ick 8
n r ,
2
Illu t at i
s r 95 o n s, 2 M g ic t ti g 9 9
a n et es n ,
2
I mp ac t t tin g 39 es ,
1 M d l h t t tme t
an r e s, ea r ea n ,
1 63
I ca d c t b di s c l
n n es en 6 o e ,
o or ,
11 M g an i c t i
an ese n as r on , 218
I d tat i h a d s 9 5
n en on r n e s, ,
1 00 M anu c ipt 9 6 s r s, 2
I dicat
n 3 o r s, 20 M giar 9 n s, 2 2
I duc ti fu ac
n on4 rn e, 10 M t i t 55 69
ar en s e, 1 ,
1
In k, 29 2 t ch i g
e 69 n ,
1
I p ec tio f ail
ns n o r s, 1 34 h d ar 69 n ess, 1
I t al t ai 4
n er n s r ns 1 2, 2 86 p h t mic g ph 55
o o- ro ra ,
1 ,
1 56
I v se at cu v s
n er -
r e r e , 7 6, 1 29 M t l h
aso n s
’
oo s , ea t t r eatm en t , 1 64
I o iz ati
n 95 on , 1 M a c v io
ss on er s n, 24 2
Ir on ,all t op y 6 o r ,
12 M tch m ldi g
a o n ,
2 7 6, 2 77
c bid 7
ar e, 1 2 M at t e, 20, 2 63
-c b quilib iu m di g
ar on e r a ra m, 1 2 6, 1 3 1 Maxi mu m t e m p er at u r e, 7
c li g cu v 6
oo n r e, 12 M c Can c e s
’
th eo r y of h ar d i g en n ,
1 54
reduc ti 3 on , 2 M a p cific h e t 53
e n s e a ,
2
M ch ic l quiv le t f h at
e an a e a n o e ,
1 03
Jo i n t ,
2 88 M di a f qu ch i g 4 7
e or en n ,
1
J ou le ,
102 M lti g p actic f wh i te met
e n r e or al, 7 8, 8 2
z o n e, 2 88
Kee p ’
s test b ar s, 2 09 , 2 20 M et all ic p cim s e en s, c ar e an d sto r a e,g
Kn iv es, h eat t r eatmen t , 1 64 1 75
M etallo g ph y ra , 79
Lab or ato r y of fu r n a e, c 7 equipm t 9 7 6 en ,
0, 1
ub fu c
t e r n a e, 1 06 h i t ic l d v l pm
s or a e e o en t , 1 63
L d l 84
a es, 2 m ic c p 7 9 83
r os o e, ,
L t t h at 57 38
a en e , ,
2 st eels, 1 67
Lath e t ls h at t atme
oo , e re n t, 1 63 u tility 7 3 ,
1
Lead a ti m y all y s 7
-
n on o ,
0 M t l p t c ti tub 5
e a ro e on es, 2
c li g cu v 58
oo n r es, M t llu gy
e a r :
m lti g —
e p i t 66 n o n ,
l b a t y w k 6
or a o r or ,
ducti
re on , 22 p g ro 4 r ess, 0
fi ig 3
re n n ,
1 g t 36
r ea en s,
L Ch t li
e p tic l py m t
a e er o a ro e er , 11 7 M t l c t i t u ti
e a s, 34 on s on , 1
th y f h d i g 54
eor o ar en n ,
1 M t ic m c v i
e r 4 ass on er s on , 2 2
L en sesf m t ll g ph y 7 9
or e a o ra ,
M ic c p m t ll g ph ic
r os o e, e a o ra , 79
-8
3
L esson ass ig m t 3 n en s, M ic c p ic ly i 9 3
r os o an a s s,
Lift er s,
9 2 1 M ill c l f m ti
s a e, 3 or a on , 1
Lighti g fu c 9 n r n a e, u t i h ibi t
r s 4 n or , 20
3 10 IN D E X
Ph g phic p i ti g 9
o to ra r n n , 2 Qu a tz r , allo tr o py , 25
Ph t g p h ic p l t
o o ra 87 a es, i gp i t 5
melt n -
o n ,
2
d v l pm t 8 7 9
e e o en 2 p t c ti tub 5
ro e on e, 2
Qu ch i g 4 3—4 8
, ,
xp u 8 7
e os r e, en
Ph t mic g ph y 86—
n ,
1 1
o o ro
9 ra , 1 b th 4 8
a s, 1
lig h t i g 8 7 n , fluid 48 s, 1
P ickli g v t 84
n a s, 2 m ch i m f 4 7
e an s o , 1
P ig i f c t u 33
r on , ra r e, 1 m di 47e a, 1
Pit m ld 8
o s, 2 0 p w f fluid 4 7
o er o s, 1
P l glan e fl ct 79
ass r e e or ,
Qu i ig m t 4
er es, ass n en ,
Pl t ph t mic g ph ic 8 7
a es, o o ro ra ,
g d 4 ra es,
h dli g 9
an n , 1
l di g 9
oa n , 1 R bbl 5
a e, 1
th c h m t ic 8 7
or o ro a ,
R di t i
a a 6 5 on , 10 ,
11
Pl t t l ph t mic g ph 7 3
a e s ee ,
o o ro ra ,
1 ,
l w a 6 s, 5 10 ,
111 ,
11
Pl ti g m t l f m lu ti
a n e a 98 ro so on , 1 py m t ro e er s, 111
Pl ti u m c u pl 5
a n o es, 1 c lib ti
a ra on , 112
m lti g p i t 66
e n -
o n ,
Fe y 3 r ,
11
P l iz tio 9 8 9 9
o ar a n, 1 1 li mi t t i a 4 on s, 1 1 2, 11
—
,
P li h i g m chi
o s n 73 75 a n es, 1 1 l c tiv
se e 4 e, 11
m t l p ci m
e a 8
s 8 73 e en s, 0, 2, 1 R il f c tu
a s, ra
34 r e, 1
P t ti l d p
o en a ro ,
1 02 i p c ti 34
ns e on , 1
P t fu
o c 7 8
r n a e, 10 ,
10 m ld o 73 s, 2
P u i g b i 89
o r n as n , 2 R pp i g b
a n 9 ar ,
2 0
i r on , 99 2 R mmi g b
a 9 n ar s, 2 0
P u f tm ph
r ess re o 4 a os er e , 2 0 R ar em t l c v y 3 e a re o er , 1
P i m y b tt y 4
r ar a er ,
2 R ttli g b l 84
a n ar r e s, 2
c ll 9 7 5
e s, 1 ,
20 R y filt
a 87 er ,
f it 7
er r e, 1 2 R z h t t
a o r s, tm t ea r ea en , 1 63
P i t ph t g ph ic 88
r n s, o o ra ,
R c ti
ea 33 o n s,
39 2 ,
2
f ult 88
a s, R ea m er s, h eat tr eatmen t , 1 64
m ip u l ti
an 9 a on , 2 R b u di g h d
e o n 94 n ar n ess,
P bl m m th d f lu ti
ro e s, 7 e o o so on , 22 R d e di tira 5 a o n s, 1 1
P c pl t 8 7
r o ess a es, R duci g t m p h
e n 8 a os er e, 1 0, 1
P duc g
ro er ly i 43 as , an a s s, 2 c ti 6 8
r ea o n s, ,
1
P t c ti tub 5
ro e on es, 2 R fi i g g i
e n n f m t l 35 ra n o e a s, 1 ,
P xim t
ro ly i
a e an a 49 s s, 2 l d 3
ea ,
1
h t c lcu l t i
ea a 5 a on , 2 0 R fl ct 7 9
e e or ,
P u mp i g 8 9 n ,
2 R g t iv p m p l
e en er a 56 e r cr e, 2 .
P u c h h t t tm t 64
n es, ea r ea en , 1 R f ct i
e ra 6 5 o r es, , 2
Py m tro e er s : cid 7
a ,
2
c lib ti 63
a ra on , ,
112 b ic 7as , 2
o p tic l a ,
111 bi d ( 7
n er , 2
ra di ti a on , 111 c m t 54
e en ,
Sg ce er 8 o n es, cl ific ti
ass 7 a on , 2
th m l c t ic 4
er oe e r ,
1 m uf c t u
an 6 a r e, 2
P y c p Sh
r os o 8
e, o r e, 11 m lti g p i t 5
e n -
o n , 2
IN D E X 31 1
Relief poli shi n g 80 , S iemen s r egen ’

er at iv p i cipl
e r n e, 2 56
R plac m t f m tal i
e e en o e n sol u ti on , 198 Sigh ti g tub e n ,
1 14
R i c fu c
es stan e r n a es, 1 04 S ilica allot opy
, r ,
25
R i tivi ty 4
es s 5 ,
1 ,
10 ,
1 06 br ick 8 , 2
R v b t y ch g
e er er a o r ,
ar e, 2 63 melti gp i t 5 n -
o n , 2
p ti
o 64 66
er a on , 2 ,
2 p t c ti tub 5
ro e on e, 2
R iddl 89 e, 2 S ilic t th m ch mi t y 36
a es, er o e s r , 2
Riggi g 8 n ,
2 2 Silic t l g 33
a e s a s,
Ri ser89 ,
2 S ilic i c t i
on 7 n as r on , 21
R ti g
o as 3 5 66 n ,
1 ,
1 , 2 S ilv m lti g p i t 66
er , e n -
o n ,
R ll c ll
o a ,
1 S k tch
e 95 es, 2
R u 89
n n er , 2 S k i m g t 89 a e, 2
S k i d i d m ld 8 89
n- r e o s, 2 0, 2
S f ty p ecau ti
a e r on s Sl g 3
a s, 2
g gglo es, 1 S l dg h t t tm t 64
e es, ea r ea en ,
1
l d fu m
ea 6 es, 1 Slic k 9er s, 2 0
lig h ti g fu c 9 n r n a es, Slic k i g f m ld 7 3

n o o s, 2
p ui gmt l
o r n e a s, 22 Slott h at t tm t 63
er s, e r ea en , 1
S lt b th 4 4 8
a a s, 1 2, 1 S p fl a k 89
na s ,
2
solu ti 7 o n s, 1 S diu m chl r id melti g poin t

o o e, n -
, 66
v l tili ty 68
o a ,
S ld i g 4 6
o er n ,
wt ytm 7
- a er s s e , 0 S ldie 89
o r, 2
S d h l 85
an o es, 2 S lid s lu ti 35 7
o o on , , 12
m ldi g 7 8
o n ,
2 S lu tio 9 4
o n, 1
Sc b 85 89
a s, 2 ,
2 p r ess u r e, 1 94
S c l f m ti
a e, 3 or a on , 1 salt , 71
p iv t h t t tm
o s, ea r ea en t , 1 63 S lu ti
o o n of p bl m ro e s, 227
S cl c p 9 4 9 8
er os o e, ,
S bi te
or , 1 55, 1 71
li mi t ti 97 a o n s, et ch i g 7 n ,
1 1
use, 98 h d ar 7 n ess, 1 1
Sc atch h a d
r r n ess, 94 ph t mic g ph 56
o o ro ra ,
1
Sg c s 8
e er on e ,
S p ci l pp tu 3
e a a ar a s,
c m p i ti 3 6
o os on , S p cific g vi ty f g
e 4 ra o ases, 2 1
m uf c t u
an 3 a r e, 0 S p cific h t 5 53
e ea , 2 2, 2
S l c t iv di ti
e e e ra a on , 1 1 4, 1 15 Sp ci m
e illu mi ti g 7 9
en s , na n ,
S ibl h t 56
en s e ea , ,
2 54 m u ti g 8 8
o n n , 0, 2
S t h at t tm
e s, e r ea en t , 1 65 S ph id l p li t 7
er o a ea r e, 1 2
Sh p f c to
a 5 e a r, 10 , 1 06 S p lit p tt a74 er n s, 2
Sh av m ldi g
e es , o n ,
2 74 Sp gion i c ti g
n ess 85 n as n s, 2
Sh p y sc op e
or e ro 118 S p tt y p i t 8 8
o r n s,
—
,
s cl cp
er os o e, 94 9 8 Sp i g d w il 9
r n ra na ,
2 0
limi t t i a o n s, 97 S p u 89 9
r e, 2 ,
2 0
use , 98 S qu d g iz ti
a or 9 an a on , 1 ,
S h o t 89 ,
2 St i g tiv 8 8
a n s on n e a es,
Shr i kag 86
n e, 2 St d d p u
an ar d t mp r ess r e an e er at u r e,
Sh i k head 2 89
r n 2 40
”
,
h les 28 5
o , S ta da di
n r z at o n , see i C lib tia ra on
3 12 .
IN D E X :
S tead s b i ttle ess ’

r n ,
1 35 T h er mo - c u pl co e ost , 50
S t l b li t
ee , 8 s er , 1 1 elemen ts , 4 1 , 49
b il p l t 7 3 74
o er a e, 1 ,
1 melt i gp i
n -
o n t, 50
bu d 35 rne ,
1 S iz es, 50
c li g cu v
oo 6 9 n r es, 12 ,
12 sta bility , 50
c ucibl 6
r e, 1 2 T h er mo- ele tr c ic qu ti e a on , 63
c y t lliz ti 33
r s a a on , 1 Tigh t fl k 89 as s, 2
e quilib iu m di g m 6 r a ra , 12 ,
1 31 Tim f c t i t e, a a or n r an s or f mat i on , 1 52
e xp im t 4 er en s, 1 2 f xp u
o 87 e os r e,
f c tu 33
ra r e, 1 T i m lt i g p i t
n ,
e n -
o n ,
66
h d i g 4
ar en n ,
1 1 T l m ki g 6
oo a n ,
1 2
m t ll g ph y 6 7
e a o ra ,
1 steel, 1 62
ph t mic g ph 35
o o ro ra s, 1 T t l c m t ti
o a 8 e en a on , 1 0
St f
e an s l w 6
’
a ,
10 ,
111 T u gh i g 57
o en n ,
1
S t i i c ti g 8 6
r a ns n as n s, 2 T ck l y t l h t t
ra -
a er s
’
oo s, ea r eat men t , 1 64
St ik 9
r e, 2 0 T it b d w ki g f
r an s e o ar ,
or n o ,
1 09 .
S ulf t th m ch mi t y
a es, er o e s r ,
2 36 T ti t 7
r oo s e, 1 1
S ulfid 3 e , o r es, 1 tch i g

e 7 n ,
1 1
ti g
r o as 3 n ,
1 h d ar 7 n ess, 1 1
t est, 15 ph t mic g ph 56
o o ro ra ,
1
c ity T f m ti p i t 5
'
th er m o h em s r ,
2 36 r an s or a on o n , 12
S ulfu r ,
allo tr o py ,
1 26 pp tu 8
a ar a s, 1 2
b ili g p i t 66
o n -
o n ,
u pp i
s 5 r ess on , 1 2
b ili g i t pp tu
o n -
po n a ar a s, 46 t im f c t 5 e a or , 1 2
i c t i
n 7 as r on , 21 T idymi t 5
r e, 2
S u ppli 3 es, Tub fu c e r n a e,
Su f c it c 5
r a e r es s an e, 10 ,
1 06 Tub p t c t i 5 es, ro e on , 2
Sw b 9a ,
2 0 Tu mbli g b l 84 n ar r e s, 2
S w g h t t tm t
a es, ea r ea en , 1 64 Tuy 83 89
er es, 2 ,
2
S w p 7 7 89
ee ,
2 ,
2
fi g 78
n er , 2 Ultim at e st r en g th d iv d f er e ro m h ar d
n ess, 96
T mp 6 63
e er , 1 2, 1 U d xp u
n er e os r e, 87
T mp tu c t l 4
e er a re on r o , 0 U p t 89se ,
2
mi i mu m f c bu iz t i
n or ar r a on ,
T mp i g t l 55 57 6
e er n s ee ,
1 ,
1 ,
1 2 V ats, p ickli g n ,
2 84
b th 57
a s, 1 V en t , 2 89
cl o o r s,
57 1 wi r es, 290
T t b c ti g 9
es ar s, as n ,
20 ,
2 20 V tic l illumi
er a n ato r , 79
T xt 3
e s, V lu m l ti
o e re a on in e qu t i a o n s, 2 31
Th m l ly i 5
er a an a s s, 12
u i t 33
n s, 2 W py m t
an n er ro e er , 1 19
T h m ch mi t y
er 3 o e s r ,
2 2 e s . . c lib ti a ra on , 1 20
a t h ig h t mp tu 5 e er a r e, 2 2 li mi t t i a on s, 1 20
d t 35
a a, 2 W p i g i c ti g
ar n n as n s, 2 86
Th m c u pl c lib ti 63
er o- o e a ra on , in h eat t r eat men t , 142
c t i tu t i 4 9
on s on , W a t er , c li g cu v
oo n r e, 58 Q 4

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A PR A CT ICE BO O K

U n iver s ity o f Cinc in n a ti

LO N D ON : C H APMAN H ALL LIM I T E D

civil an d electrical e n gi n eerin g at the E n gin eerin g College

U ni versity of Cin cinn ati D rawi n g upon his own profession al

experien ce he co n cluded that for such studen ts the subject

m atter should m ost proﬁtably be arran ged to throw light par

an d their adaptability for the duty expected of them .

S om e difﬁculty was experien ced in discoverin g recen t books

alloys as well as iro n an d steel which could be used as texts

Fort un ately M r A P M ills of Corn ell U n iversity brought out

his excellen t book on M aterials of Con struction at a bout

of securin g a laboratory m an ual however p r esen ted p greater , ,

di fﬁ culties The o n ly n ote boo k s then kn own to us were those

by H M Howe of Columbia U n iversity an d by A lbert S auveur

an d H M B oylsto n of Harvard U n iversity Thes e books

altho excellen t did n o t seem to be wholly adaptable to our

laboratory exercises i n herited from form er in structors an d a ,

set of m im eographed i n struction s hastily p repared to carry

M an y weak poin ts appeared in every experim en t p erformed .

practical m etallurgy In the secon d place the sketchy in str uc

be ru n n in g back an d forth to the stock room con ti n ually for som e

of valuable tim e because he had n eglected some mi n or p r ecau

I t was thought tha t en gin eerin g studen ts would be better

in struction s whi ch would give the correct results from which

ra ther than by spen di n g their time devisin g a proper experim en tal

of han dlin g classes of ﬁfty men in a laboratory equipped with a

was gradually evolved N early the whole n umber of exp er i

m en ts have been perform ed by four di ff eren t classes an d it is ,

hoped that by n ow the text an d in struction s are su fﬁ cien t an d

A t the presen t tim e the laboratory at the U n iversity of Cin

c in n ati has available the fo llowm g ge n eral equipm e n t w hi ch is

used in this particular course :

Twelve sm all gas oven furn aces .

On e large hardeni n g furn ace gas ﬁred ,

On e tiltin g crucible furn ace gas or oil ﬁr ed , .

O n e lead softe n i n g pot gas ﬁred ,

Fifteen millivoltm eters .

O n e M orse pyrom eter .

T en m icroscopic photographic sets .

T en sets of gri n din g equipm e n t .

On e B rin ell hard n ess m achin e .

O n e O lse n impact m ac hin e .

Three Howe drop hamm ers .

O n e Hy temp— resistan ce furn ace .

Two an vils forges tool kits etc

I t is therefore apparen t that approxim ately ﬁfty studen ts ,

divided in to twelve squads of about four each will have a gas ,

furn ace a n d pyrom eter for each squad A certai n rotatio n of .

that each squad m ay h ave a separate day at the refractory

an d the scleroscopes ; the m etallography experim en t , N o I I .

which in volves in dividual microscopes ; an d so on .

Whi le the in struction s on ﬁrst glan ce seem to be for on e

wi ll discover a sin cere effort to m ake the text applicable to

have defeated its own purpose as explain ed at som e len gth , ,

above Thus while exp erim en t N o 1 m ust illustrate on e

particular furn ace an d that furn ace n aturally is th e on e in

u se at this laboratory still the m ethods of operation are un i

experim en ts N o s 6 7 an d 9 require m erely a millivoltm eter