Science Reviewer

Module 1: Endocrine System

Endocrine system – is composed of glands that secrete different types of hormones that affect almost every cell, organ,
and function of our body.
Hormones – are organic substances released by the glands of the endocrine system into the bloodstream.

Glands and their functions:

Pituitary – produces hormones that stimulate growth, and controls the functions of other glands.
Thyroid – produces hormones that regulate body metabolism and storage of calcium in bones.
Parathyroid – produces hormones that control the calcium levels in your body, and normalizes bone growth.
Thymus – Produces hormones that enable the body to produce T cells before puberty.
Adrenal – produces hormones that affects metabolism, immune system and blood pressure, stress reaction.
Pancreas – produces hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.
Testes and ovaries – produce testosterone and estrogen respectively for reproductive purposes and the development of
secondary male/female sexual characteristics.
Pineal – produces a hormone that regulates the biological clock in some animal (melatonin).

Lesson 2: Female hormones and Menstrual Cycle

Important Role of Male Sex Hormones Important Role of Female Sex Hormone

Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland regulates
secretes FSH pituitary gland
and LH that will
go to the testes

Testosterone
production is
regulated by
the brain

Testes will
produce
testosterone
and sperm cells
Lesson 3: The Nervous System

Two major divisions:

I. Central Nervous System (CNS) – consists of brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem) and spinal cord.
II. Peripheral Nervous System – connects the central nervous system to the organs and limbs. Has two
divisions:
A. Somatic Nervous System – associated with the voluntary control of body movements and consists of
spinal and cranial nerves.
B. Autonomic Nervous System – associated with the involuntary control of the body movements and
has two division: Sympathetic NS (stress mode) and Parasympathetic NS (relaxed mode)

The nerve cell (neuron)

Cell body – contains the nucleus.

Dendrites – carry impulses toward the cell body
Axon – carry impulses away from the cell body
Synapse – the distance between neurons.

Feedback mechanisms – are used by most of the body systems to maintain homeostasis.
To achieve homeostasis, the nervous and endocrine systems work with each other to maintain a normal range of many
processes and substances in the body such as:
• Temperature of the body
• Amount of water in the body
• Amount of metabolic wastes in the cell
• Blood calcium level

Lesson 4: Protein Synthesis

What are the roles and functions of proteins?

•channels in membranes – control the movement of molecules in and out of the cell
•structural molecules – for example, making up hair or muscle in animals
•hormones – to regulate the activity of cells
•antibodies – in the immune system
•enzymes – to act as catalysts in biological systems.

DNA:
•Double-stranded, helical molecule
•Made up of four types of nucleotides: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine
•Carries genetic information of an organism (Blueprint of life)
•Process of DNA replication creates a copy of DNA before cell division

RNA:
•Single-stranded molecule
•Three main types: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
•Involved in the process of protein synthesis
•mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome
•tRNA carries amino acids to the ribosome
•rRNA helps form the structure of the ribosome

Transcription:
•Process by which DNA is used as a template to synthesize RNA
•RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA and adds
complementary nucleotides to the RNA strand

Translation:
•Process by which the genetic information in mRNA is used to synthesize a protein
•mRNA is read by a ribosome
•Ribosome matches codons to the appropriate tRNA molecules
•Ribosome links amino acids together to form a polypeptide chain
There are 3 types of RNA:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

- transcribes the DNA nucleotide bases to RNA nucleotide bases
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- binds the mRNA and tRNA to ensure that codons are translated correctly
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- translates the mRNA codons into the correct amino acids

Lesson 5: Mutation

Mutation - are changes to a DNA sequence. Just like the information in DNA as a group of sentences, mutations are
mistakes in spelling of the words that form those sentences.
Mutagens - are agents that cause alteration in the DNA and can lead to permanent mutations in the DNA sequence
depending on the ability of an organism to repair the damage.

Gene mutations are changes in the DNA or RNA that can lead to different types of substitution mutations, including
nonsense, missense, and silent mutations:
•Nonsense mutation results in a stop codon, which can stop the translation process and prevent the correct protein
from being produced.
•Missense mutation changes one nucleotide base, resulting in a different amino acid being produced in protein
synthesis.
Two types of missense mutation:
Conservative missense mutation: the new amino acid has similar properties to the original amino acid.
Non-conservative missense mutation: the new amino acid has different properties from the original amino acid.
•Silent mutation changes a nucleotide base, but the same amino acid is still produced because multiple codons can
code for the same amino acid.

Frameshift mutation:
•Disorganizes the normal sequence of codons
•Caused by insertion or deletion of one or more nitrogenous bases
•Number of bases added or deleted is not a multiple of three
•Leads to altered reading frame of codons
•Can affect many amino acids and alter the protein chain
•Three nitrogenous bases deletion or insertion leads to either an extra or missing amino acid
•Results in abnormal protein with improper amino acid sequence that can be longer or shorter than normal

Chromosomal mutation refers to changes in the structure or number of chromosomes in an organism's cells. There are
several kinds of chromosomal mutations:
1.Deletion- happens when a base is deleted from the nitrogen base sequence.
2.Duplication – a segment of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genes.
3.Inversion - when a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end.
4.Insertion- the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence.
5.Translocation- segments of two chromosomes are exchanged.

Effects of Mutation:
•Mutated genes can lead to inherited disorders, such as sickle cell anemia, albinism, cystic fibrosis, and Down
syndrome
•Sickle cell anemia is caused by a substitution mutation in the gene responsible for hemoglobin production, leading to
the production of sickle-shaped blood cells and symptoms such as anemia and pain crises
•Albinism is caused by a deletion mutation in the tyrosinase gene, resulting in reduced or absent melanin production
in the skin, hair, and eyes
•Cystic fibrosis is caused by a deletion mutation in the CFTR gene, leading to the production of an incorrect protein
•Down syndrome is caused by a translocation during meiosis that results in the transfer of most of chromosome 21
onto chromosome 14, leading to cognitive and physical impairments

Lesson 6: Evidence of Evolution

Evolution
 Is a current process
 Populations adapt to changes in their environment and gather changes in their genes.
 Charles Darwin proposed that all species descend from an ancestor.
Part 1: Evidence of Fossil
 Fossils are remnants of ancient creatures that form when organisms are covered by sediments. They provide
direct evidences of evolution by changing in body structures over time.
Part 2: Comparative Anatomy
A. Homologous and Analogous Structure
Homologous – if organisms have similar embryonic origins.
Analogous – if they have similar functions but different origins.
B. Vestigial Structure
Gradual changes have occurred through the time that has, in some cases, reduced or removed the function of
somebody’s organs and structure.
Part 3: Embryology
A study shows embryonic development provides clues to an organism’s past. Ontogeny summarizes phylogeny,
meaning that an organism’s embryonic development repeats the stages of its evolutionary history.

Lesson 7: Occurrence of Evolution

Theories of Evolution

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck

 First evolutionist that proposed that organisms changed overtime.
 Proposed that organisms evolve in response to their environment.
 Developed three theories: Theory of Need, Theory of Use and Disuse, and the Theory of Acquired
Characteristics.
Theory of Need – organisms change in response to changes in their environment.
Theory of Use and Disuse – organs that are not used will disappear while those that are constantly used will be
developed.
Theory of Acquired Characteristics – traits acquired by an organism during its lifetime can be passed onto its
offspring.

Charles Darwin
 Proposed the Theory of Evolution based on natural selection.
Theory of Natural Selection – Organisms that are more adapted to their environment are more likely to
survive and pass on the genes that aided their success.
Genetics Basis of Evolution

A. Population genetics deals with hereditary factors in a population. Gene flow can increase variation when
individuals migrate and interbreed with other population.
B. Non-random mating effects allele frequencies. Interbreeding and sexual selection can lead to changes in the
gene pool overtime.
 Allele frequencies – represent the fraction or percentage of the population carrying the allele.
Non-random mating – sexual selection is not merely by chance. One example are white rabbits preferentially
mate with rabbits of their own color.
C. The Synthetic Theory combine’s Darwin’s evolution and Mendelian genetics. It explains evolution through
genetic changes in the population leading to new species.
D. Mutation occurs due to mutagens like radiation and chemicals, resulting in changes to the gene pool.
E. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that allele frequencies remain constant if conditions are met,
including random mating, no migration, no natural selection, and a large population size.
F. Evolutionary Patterns
Natural selection – nature selects organisms based on existing traits, passing on favorable traits to offspring,
resulting in new traits overtime.
Genetic drift – chance evens, like natural disasters or insecticide use can reduce or eliminate certain traits in
a population, leading to new traits over time.
Speciation – formation of new, distinct species that are reproductively isolated from other populations due to
lack of gene flow. There are four types of speciation include allopatric, peripatric, parapatric and sympatric.
Punctuated equilibrium – populations undergo rapid change in response to sudden environmental changes.
Microevolution – change in gene frequency within a population through processes like mutation, selection,
gene flow, and genetic drift.
Coevolution – species adapt in tandem with another species due to interaction, such as prey-predator
relationships.
Adaptive Radiation – rapid diversification of a species into new closely related species, each occupying a new
environment.

Lesson 8: Biodiversity and Stability

Biodiversity benefits:

1. Direct Economic Value – if their products are sources of food, medicine, clothing, shelter and energy.
2. Indirect Economic Value – if there are benefits produces by the organism without using them.
3. Aesthetic Value – a lot of species provides visual or artistic development, like a forested landscape and the
calming beauty of a natural park.

Animals has a variety of ways to adapt to their environment. These include:

1. Structural or Physical
A. Camouflage – the ability to blend in with their surroundings.
B. Mimicry – ability to imitate and copycat another species in terms of sound, appearance, smell, behavior
or location to protect itself.
C. Chemical defenses – include substances utilized by prey which are harmful to invading organisms.
D. Body Coverings – cover the body and protect animals from external factors. (e.g turtle’s shell)
2. Behavioral
A. Hibernation – when animals bare sleep as a response to cold weather and survive the cold winter.
B. Migration – an animal or a group of animals travelling from one place to another and then back again
when the seasons change.
C. Learned Behaviors – obtained by interacting with the environment and cannot be passed on to the next
generation except by teaching.

Lesson 9: Biodiversity and Growth

What is population?
It is a group of organisms of the same species that live in a certain area.
There are many factors that can cause a population size to change:
1. Immigration
2. Emigration
3. Birth
4. Death
What is Carrying Capacity?
It refers to the number of individuals who can be supported in a given area within natural resource limits, and without
degrading the natural social, cultural and economic environment for present and future generations.

What are Limiting Factors?

It is anything that constrains a population's size and slows or stops it from growing.