INTRODUCTION TO

SACRED SCRIPTURES
Professor: Rev. Fr. Samuel Joseph F. Banayat, Jr., SThB-MA, SSL
Diocese of San Fernando de la Union
Parish Priest, Basilica Minore of Our Lady of Charity

Compiled and Edited by: Marc Andrei Sison Abara

Immaculate Conception School of Theology

December 2015 - March 2016
2 :: Introduction to Sacred Scriptures

TH 220: INTRODUCTION TO SACRED SCRIPTURES

Rev. Fr. Samuel Banayat, Jr., SSL
Contents
General Introduction to the Bible
Main Topics:
I. Biblical Inspiration
II. Biblical Canon
III. Biblical Texts
IV. Biblical Hermeneutics
Methods of Biblical Criticism

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE BIBLE

A. Biblical Studies
1. The Priest and the Bible
1.1. a. Presbytororum Ordinis #4
-The primary task of the priest is to preach the Gospel of God to all. (Ministerium
Verbi)
-You don’t speak about yourself, projects, don’t solicit, but it is about the word since
it’s your primary text
b. The priest exercises his ministry of the Word in Various Ways but not especially
in the Liturgy. (It is in the Liturgy that we can find biblical lessons, biblical homilies
and biblical services.)
Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC) #24
-Any celebration of the Liturgy you cannot do without the word of God or the Bible
-Without the Liturgy the Sacred Scripture (SS) and the Liturgy is meaningless
-“SS is of greater importance in the celebration of the Liturgy.”
SC #51
-…course of prescribed years.
-books should be greatly represented in the Liturgy

*Side Notes:
Liturgical Year: From first Sunday of Advent to Christ the King
Sundays: A (Matthew) B (Mark) C (Luke)
Weekdays: Year 1 (Odd #s) Year 2 (Even #s)
John – used during Special Celebration (Advent, Liturgy, Christmas, and
Solemnities)

c. Catechesis
-You cannot do without Scriptures in Catechesis.
-Familiarity with the Bible

Catechesis – preach the Word of God who have received the faith, strengthening
faith of the people
Evangelization – preach the Word of God who did not receive the faith

1.2. Hence, a solid knowledge of the Bible is needed.

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a.For the training of Priests, knowledge of SS is emphasized.

Optatam Totius #16
-Students should receive careful training in SS
-First, the introductory course on SS then proceed to Exegesis
Exegesis = particular interpretation of a specific text (text within a context)
Biblical Theology = Deals with ‘themes’, systematic arrangement of “the ones!”
1.3. Bible – Principal source of sanctification for the priests
PO #13a: “Priests acquire holiness through their preaching of the Word e.g. Liturgy
of the Hours)
1.4. Summary
a.Providentissimus Deus #21a
-The SS are the supreme rule of faith; strength for their faith; food for the soul, fount
of spiritual life (source of spiritual strength)
b. Dei Verbum #25b
-Sacred reading and diligent study
2. Bible
2.1 Definition
2.1.1 Collection of Books
- Written : under the positive influence of the Holy Spirit (divine element)
: by men chosen by God at various times and places (human element)
-Received by the Church as Word of God > the Church declares these books to be
inspired > biblical canon
2.1.2 The Word of God in words of men; for us and for our salvation.
WORD OF GOD : PRAY
WORDS OF MEN : STUDY (Language, time, places, themes,
history)
FOR US AND FOR OUR SALVATION : LIVE (For Sanctification)
2.2 Names
2.2.1 Bible ( ) – Book is something to be read (emphasis is on READING)
2.2.2 Holy Scripture – emphasis is on being written (Script) [Contrast of Oral : Spoken
and Written : Text)
-something that is holy
2.2.2.1 Because of its content – WORD OF GOD
2.2.2.2 Because of its purpose – for our salvation
2.2.2.3 Because of its origin – God
-the purpose of Scripture is to make it legal and binding, to make provisions for
the future and to preserve
2.2.3 Old Testament and New Testament
2.2.3.1 Testament: Will, agreement
2.2.3.2 Covenant: a formal agreement, between two parties (God and people)
2.2.3.2.1 Unconditional/Unilateral Covenant (All from God)
-covenant with Abraham; Gen 15, 5
-covenant with David; 2 Sam 7, 12 – 16
2.2.3.2.2 Conditional/Bilateral Covenant (There are stipulations and conditions)
-Sinai Covenant; Ex 19 – 24 (Israel has to observe the stipulations made by
God. Otherwise, curses or punishments are given if they don’t observe.-Dt.
8,19; Nonetheless if they obey, blessings/rewards will be given them. Dt.
28, 1 – 14)

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2.2.3.3 Covenant Pattern

2.2.3.3.1 Preamble: Ex 20-24
-God who is the king introduces himself (Ex 20, 2a) “I am the Lord your
God.”
2.2.3.3.2 Historical Prologue
-God mentions the favors done to his people (Ex 20, 2b) “Who brought you
out of the land of Egypt.”
-Recalls/Renews (e.g. Dt 5, 6b)
2.2.3.3.3 Covenant Situation
-Conditions set by King/God
i. General Stipulations
-Stipulations concern the attitudes of loyalty to the King (Introduced by
“Therefore” = unreserved, unconditioned e.g. Dt 4, 15; 6, 1-4)
ii. Specific Stipulations
-Acts concerned in “details” concerning loyalty to the King
-Decalogue (The Ten Commandments – Ex 20, 3ff)
2.2.3.3.4 Tablet Clause
-The Decalogue or Tablets of Stone
-Deposited in the temple so that it will not be forgotten, regularly read to
the people (e.g. Ex 25, 16 “You shall put into the ark the testimony I will
give you.”)
2.2.3.3.5 Witnesses
-Dt 4, 26; 30, 19; 31, 28
2.2.3.3.6 Blessings and Curses
-Blessings are for those who obey, and Curses for those who disobey (Dt 5,
32)
2.3 Divisions of the Bible
2.3.1 Old Testament
i. Historical Books (21) **Take note of 1 & 2 Maccabees
ii. Wisdom/Sapiential Books (7) [Didactic Books]
iii. Prophetic Books (18)
**NB
-Ecclesiastes > Qoheleth (Preacher)
-Sirach > Ecclesiasticus
-Songs > Canticles
-Psalms
10 (9) Hebrew Bible = One number ahead of the Greek Latin translations
11 (10) Latin Bible
Major Prophets (4): Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel
Minor Prophets (12):
No. of books of the OT:
i. Jeremiah, Lamentations, Baruch, Letters of Jeremiah (Baruch 6)
-If taken as one book: the OT has 44 books
ii. Jeremiah, Lamentations as one Book, Baruch and Letter as one Book
-If taken as this: The OT has 45 books
iii. Jeremiah is one, Lamentations is one, Baruch and Letter is one Book (THE
ONE WE FOLLOW)
-If taken as this: The OT has 46 Books
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iv. Jeremiah as one, Lamentations as one, Baruch as one, Letter as one

-If takes as this: The OT has 47 Books
2.3.2 New Testament (27)
i. Gospels
ii. Acts of the Apostles
iii. Letters
-Pauline Letters (14)
-Pastoral Letters (7)
iv. Revelation (Apocalypse)
**Thus a collection of 73 Books.
2.4 Arrangement of the OT according to the Jews
i. Law (Torah – Pentateuch) [5]
ii. Prophets (Nebiim) [8]
Former Prophets – Joshua, ___
Latter Prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, -____-
Iii. Writings (Ketubim) [11]
**Total of 24 books of the Tanakh
2.5 Difference between Catholic and Protestant Edition/Versions of the Bible
2.5.1 The Protestant edition does not admit 7 of the Catholic Edition of the Bible:
TOBIT, JUDITH, WISDOM, BARUCH, 1-2 MACCABEES, SIRACH
2.5.2 The Protestant edition does not also admit some parts of two books of the Catholic
edition.
i. Parts of Esther (Chapters A, B, C; 11, 12, 13)
ii. Parts of Daniel – Chapter 3 (Song of the 3 young men)
– Chapter 13 (Susanna)
– Chapter 14 (Bel and the Dragon)
2.5.3 Catholics refer to these as “Deuterocanonical Books” Protestants refer to them as
“Apocrypha”
Catholic Protestant
Deuterocanonical Apocryphal
Apocryphal Pseudepigrapha
Pseudepigrapha – false writings
i. Protocanonical – inspired books
ii. Deuterocanonical – having difficulty regarding them as inspired books
iii. Apocryphal – not inspired books, hidden, concealed (apokroptos)
2.5.4 These 3 books are included in some editions of the Bible but considered apocryphal
by Catholics and Protestants
i. Prayer of Manasseh
-Son of the Good King Hezekiah
-Became a wicked king
-Appears in 2 Kings 21, 1-18 (after a very long reign he repented) 2 Cr 33, 19
(mention of the prayer of Manasseh – a pious Jew composed a prayer which
Manasseh could have prayed.)
ii. The first book of Esdras - Greek (Ezra - Hebrew) [3 ESDRAS]
-an alternative version of 2 Cr 5, 1-36, 23
-in the Vulgata 1 ESDRAS = EZRA; 2 ESDRAS = NEHEMIAH
iii. The second book of Esdras [4 ESDRAS]
-an apocalyptic book

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2.6 Criteria for Translation

2.6.1 Accuracy (Close to the original text)
2.6.2 Comprehensibility/Readability
2.6.3 No Doctrinal Bias
-eg 2 Mac 12, 43-46 (Prayer for the Dead) = Basis for purgatory
Romans 3, 28 (Faith ALONE)
James 2, 17 (Faith that doesn’t have work is dead.)
2.7 Choosing and English Translation
-RSV, NRSV, Jerusalem Bible in English (Has a French counterpart) – reliable; based on
the original language of the Bible, NAB (American), NEB (English),
-The Living Bible (A paraphrase, translation, published in 1971, very readable)
-KJV, Doway-Rheims – not recommended
Simplified Translations of the Bible
-New Living Translation, Contemporary English Version, New International Readers’
Version (Simple vocabulary, keep sentences very short, eliminate subordinate clauses,
prefer complete explanatory phrases instead of abstract nouns, avoid too many ideas in a
sentence.)
-There are politically correct translations: eg. 1 Thessalonians 2, 14-15 (Jews –> Those)
-The Son of Man > The Human One; Right Hand of God > Embarrassment to left-handed
people; darkness > racist;
father > father-mother
2.8 Others
2.8.1 Book Titles (Based on the ff.)
i. Author: Gospels
ii. Contents: Exodus, Genesis
iii. Recipients: Address, Letters of Paul
iv. Literary Form: Song of Songs, Psalms, Proverbs
2.8.2 Division in Chapters and Verses
i. Stephen Langton – Divided the Bible into Chapters
ii. Sanctes Pagrini – Divided it into verses except Deuterocanonical
iii. Robert Estienne – Divided into the NT into verses and the Deuterocanonical Books
2.8.3 Some useful abbreviations:
MT – Masoretic Text (Hebrew text of the OT Hebrew Text)
LXX – Septuagint (Greek OT)
Vg – Vulgata (Latin)
VL – Vetus Latina (Old Latin Translation)
MS – Manuscript
MSS – Manuscripts
PBS – Philippine Bible Society
UBS – United Bible Society: Federation of Protestant Bible Societies with a 3-fold aim:
produce, translate and distribute the Bible.
CBF – Catholic Bible Federation : Catholic Counterpart of the UBS
2.8.4 Locating Biblical Text
Mt 24, 30 – 31 Mt 24, 30; 6, 34
Mt 24: 30 – 31 Mt 24: 30; 6: 34

BIBLICAL INSPIRATION
Introductory Remarks
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i. Etymology
a. English – inspire
a.1. Literal meaning > to breathe in, inhale
a.2. Transferred meaning > to arouse a thought/a feeling; to stimulate someone to a creative
effort
b.Latin – inspirare
b.1. literal > to breathe in
b.2. transferred > to arouse a thought or a feeling
b.3. Christian application > promptings of God in a person that leads to a writing of scripture
c. Greek
-a larger vocabulary
-latin > same word for inspired books (libri inspirati) and inspired workers (scriptores
inspirati)
-greek > different for inspired book > θεοπνευστος (God-breathed book) and inspired writer
> θεοφορητος (God-borne book)
d. Hebrew
-ruah
-spirited, wind, breathe
ii. Technical Meaning
-Inspiration of the Bible means a divine influence in virtue of which the men responsible for the
OT and NT were as moved and enlightened by God that their work maybe truly called the work
of God.

TOPICS:
FACT OF INSPIRATION
NATURE OF INSPIRATION
EFFECTS OF INSPIRATION
EXTENT OF INSPIRATION

A. FACT OF INSPIRATION
1. The Fact of Inspiration
1.1 There exists a collection of books which the Church receives as sacred and canonical
because they were written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit and have God as their
author. This then is the DOGMA OF FAITH (Dei Verbum 11a) Thus, THERE IS
INSPIRATION.
1.2 The Divine Origin of Scripture
1.2.1 Evidence in the OT
The theme of inspiration was not a primary concern of the Israelite religion. The people
lived in conditions unfavorable to literary composition.
a. Prophets are called by God.
b. Their lips were cleaned (Is 6,6-7)
c. They were given scroll to eat (Ezek 3,2)
d. They are the mouth of God (Jer 1,4)
e. The prophets also wrote (Is 30,8 and Jer 30,2)
f. The books were held in high esteem (2 Kgs 22, 8-13)
g. The expressions ‘book of the Lord’ and ‘Holy book’ appeared (Is 34,16=book of the
Lord & 1 Mac 12,9=holy book)
>these point to the implicit indication of the divine origin of the Scripture.

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1.2.2 Non-biblical Jewish Writings (also part of the divine origin of Scriptures)
1.2.2.1 Teachings of the Rabbis
1.2.2.2 Leter of Pseudo-Atisteas
1.2.2.3 2 or 4 Esdras 14, 37-48
1.2.3 Evidence in the NT
1.2.3.1 The Condition of Jesus and the Apostles
i. Their Controversies with the Jews
ii. The way they quoted the OT (By an introductory formula)
iii. The authority they attributed to the works of the Bible
1.2.3.2 Two most important Scriptures Passages on Divine Inspiration
i. 2 Tm 3, 16-17 (All scripture is inspired by God)
ii. 2 Pet 1, 19-21 (Scripture is not one’s own interpretation)
1.2.4 The Fathers of the Church
i. Origen
ii. Augustine of Hippo
1.3 The Human Origin of Scripture
1.3.1 Biblical Thought
i. Foreword to Sirach
ii. 2 Mac 2, 24-32
iii. Lk 1, 1-4
1.3.2 Jewish Thought
i. Rabbinical Thought
ii. Philo
1.3.3 Christian Thought
i. Pratristic Era
ii. Middle Ages
iii. Modern Era
1.4 The relationship bet. Divine and Human Origin of Scriptures

B. NATURE OF INSPIRATION
1. Middle Ages
1.1 Hugh of St. Victor (First to make distinction of prophetic charism)
1.2 Henry of Ghent (Distinction bet. Ministerial author and Principal Author – INSPIRATION
is common to the 3 Divine persons and attributed/appointed to the HS)
1.3 Albert the Great (uses the categories of Aristotle in explaining inspiration – Categories of
CAUSATION)
1.4 Thomas Aquinas
2. 16th Century – Vatican I (19th C.)
2 factors occasioned the discussion
2.1 Protestantism (Scripture alone, rejects Tradition)
2.2 Problem of Inerrancy (Clashes of what the Bible says and what Science says)
2.3 Trends:
2.3.1 Verbal Inspiration Theory (Dictation)
2.3.1.1 Proponents:
i. Robert Bellarmine
ii. Francisco de Suarez, SJ
iii. Domingo Bañez
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**To safeguard the primacy of divine activity, they didn’t consider the authors as rational
instruments
2.3.2 Non-Verbal inspiration Theory
2.3.2.1 Theory of Subsequent Approbation
i. Sixtus of Sienna (The Bible is composed by human authors but later on approved
by the Church)
ii. Lessius, SJ (It must be approved by the HS)
2.3.2.2 Theory of Negative Assistance
i. Bonfrere (Some parts of the Bible – The HS sees to it that authors don’t fall to error,
no influence from HS)
ii. John Hahn (The entire Bible – The HS sees to it that authors don’t fall to error, no
influence from HS)
**Daniel Boniface Haneberg, OSB (revived Sixtus’ theory and claimed that some parts of
the Bible were written purely of human means whose inspiration was later approved by
the Church)
3. Vatican I – Present
3.1 John Franzelin, SJ

Formal Element Material Element

Ideas/ thoughts Words/phrases used to express
these thoughts
Attributed to God’s Attributed to the human author
inspiration.
-Not Condemned but abandoned by the Church
3.2 Providentissimus Deus
3.3 Levesque (Theory of Directionalism – focused on the mind of the author)
*Crets – (Speculative intellect: Concerns the truth; Practical intellect: concerns with what
is to be written)
3.4 Marie Lagrange (Theory of Illumination – HS illumines the speculative intellect of the
author)
3.5 Benoit (There is simultaneous interaction between the speculative and practical intellect)
3.6 Divino Afflante Spiritus

C. EFFECTS OF INSPIRATION
1. Revelation (Self-disclosure of God; God discloses himself in our reading of the Bible)
2. Unity (It has one originating source, God himself!)
3. Completeness (Lacking in no part, we speak of the Bible in our viewpoint of faith)
4. Sacramentality of Scripture (Encounter with God, we receive the grace of God)
5. The Truth of the Bible (Negative inerrancy of Scripture > eg. The quality by which the
Scirpture is protected from error)
*VATICAN II
-avoided the negative concept of inerrancy and spoke of a positive concept of truth which
God intended for the sake of salvation, wished to see confided to SS.

D. EXTENT OF INSPIRATION
1. Authors
-Distinction between material contribution and content contribution

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e.g. Authors and Narratives (Babylonian Epic, Gilgamesh = under the providential care
of God)
Principle:
-merely material contributions to the book of the Bible were not under the influence of
inspiration though they were under the providential care of God.
-but the design and context contributions were under inspiration (only those who
creatively contributed were under inspiration)
2. Contents
-Everything in the book is inspired
-Lenormant: He limited inspiration to supernatural teachings
-Card. Neumann: He excluded some parts
-Holden: He limited inspiration to doctrinal matters
-Rohling: He limited inspiration to matters of faith and morals

-CHURCH > Trent > “The books of the Bible in all their parts are to be regarded as sacred
and canonical, hence INSPIRED.”
-VATICAN I > “The books of the Bible in all their parts are divinely inspired.”
-Providentissimus Deus > The entire content of the Scripture are inspired.

3. Words
Franzelin: Limited inspiration to the ideas of Scripture, the choice of words are
expressions belonging to the human author, the HOLY SPIRIT was the NEGATIVE
INFLUENCE (Negative Assistance)
-Inspiration not only extends to the ideas but also to the Biblical words used.
4. Translations
-For some time the LXX was held to be inspired arguments
-But the difficulties found in LXX and supported by arguments made the inspired
character of the LXX not fully established.

BIBLICAL CANON
Introductory Remarks:
i. The link with inspiration
Inspiration : book as word of God in words of men (divine and human element)
Canon : book of the Church
-It is the Church which receives or recognizes this book as Word of God.
ii. Q: Does Canonicity add something to Biblical Inspiration? NONE/NOTHING.
-Canonicity as it were, throws LIGHT on the nature of these books as inspired. In other
words, it is the Church which discovers inspiration in these books.
iii. Q: Why the need for Canonicity?
1.3 The need to conserve revelation (to prevent it from being submerged under many
traditions which were merging. Hence the tendency to be lost.)
1.4 The need to preserve revelation (to prevent change/corruption, to preserve its
originality)
1.5 The need to observe revelation (to make it active in faith and in life)
iv. Terminology:
a. Canon
Latin: transliteration of kavov which in turn is derived from the semitic word
-canon is a straight rod/bar used for measuring
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-transferred meaning: ruler or norm or standard for measuring

-Christian usage:
Norm of a council: CANON LAW
Canon of Saints: List of saints who have reached a standard of perfection, hence, a norm
of Christian life and conduct.
Canon Regular: Members of a clerical community living under a norm/standard
Canon of the Mass: Part of the mass which can’t be changed
Canon of the Bible: from the beginning of the Church, has regarded Scripture as a norm
of faith and morals
Definition:
A collection or list of books (Passive sense of the Canon) which the Church considers
as divinely inspired and which she considers as a norm of faith and morals (Active
sense of the Canon).
b. Canonical Books
i. Protocanonical
Literally, belonging to the First Canon (protos) The books which were indisputably
accepted by all and never doubted, universally recognized
ii. Deuterocanonical
Literally, belonging to the Second Canon (deuteros) Refers to the seven books which
sometimes had been difficultly accepted by the Church
TOBIT, JUDITH, WISDOM, BARUCH, 1-2 MACCABEES, SIRACH
iii. Apocryphal
Non-canonical books (Literal meaning are; hidden, stored away)
v. Inspiration and Canonicity
-a close relationship between the two
a. Canonicity essentially supposes inspiration, but it adds one new element, i.e., the Official
recognition of the fact of by the Church
b. Inspiration is simultaneous with the composition of the books, canonicity comes later.
c. Inspiration is the work of God, canonization is the work of the Church
d. Inspiration affects the inner nature of the books, canonicity does not add anything to
the book, only recognizes the fact of inspiration

TOPICS:
OT: CANON OF THE JEWS
NT: CANON OF THE CHRISTIANS

CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT: CANON OF THE JEWS

A. Preliminary Remarks
1. Pre-Christian Era: Collection of the Books in Three Categories
1.1 Lk 24, 44 > Law of Moses, Prophets and Psalms
1.2 Prologue of Sirach > Law, Prophets, Psalms
1.3
2. Roman Catholic and some Eastern Orthodox Churches
RC: accept 39 Protocanonical books and 7 deuterocanonical books,
Protestant: accept 39 protocanonical books.
3. Why? When did we have a complete list of canonical books?
Thesis: By the end of the first century AD, there were in Judaism two lists of sacred
books:

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3.1 Shorter Palestinian Canon – 39 PC books

3.2 Longer Alexandrian Canon – 39 PC books, 7 DC books
-Early Christian Church followed the LAC, while the Protestants (Reformers) following
the minority of the Church Fathers followed the SPC.
4. Pre-exilic Period and Before the Destruction of the Temple
-The Law of Moses was normative
Deut 31, 9 – 13 and 2 Kings 23, 1 – 3
B. History of the Old Testament Canon among the Jews
1. Period of Formation
Thesis: From olden times, the Jews possessed sacred writings and tradition of our native
character/authority, distinguished from the profane writings from men who were under the
influence of the Spirit of God. The Origin of these writings was acknowledged to have come
from men who were under the influence of the Spirit of God. The central part of these writings
is the law (Torah), followed by the prophets, and still followed by a group of other writings.
(In the Christian Canon, 2 Maccabees and Wisdom were composed around 100BC)
-This thesis implicates the time of origin from the time of Moses up to the first century BC –
the composition of about 100 years.
Division: Law, Prophets, Writings
Inspiration: Men under the influence of the Spirit
1.1. The Law (Torah)
a. Name: Torah, 5 books of Moses
b. Contents: Not only the laws, but it also includes its history (Covenant with Moses) from the
preparation to the conclusion and the death of Moses
c. History: Moses stands at the beginning of the History of the law.
Exodus, March in the Desert, and Covenant at Sinai
c.1. Fundamental revelation goes back to this time (Monotheism and Moral Law)
c.2. Early traditions about the ancestors of Israel were collected (Patriarchs of Israel, Isaac,
Jacob)
c.3. Moses could have written also (important laws engraved on tablets of stone)
c.4. Oral tradition prevailed and this was cultivated in the sanctuaries were the people
gathered for their feasts
c.5. This Mosaic tradition develop into different forms which were eventually, written and
even combined.
a. Yahwistic Tradition (J)
-Origin in Judah: Written in 10-9th BC
b. Elohistic Tradition (E)
-Origin in the Northern Kingdom: Written in 9-8th BC
-Later these traditions were combined to become JE
c. Deuteronomistic Tradition (D)
-Contents were mostly laws
-Originated mostly in the Northern Kingdom but migrated into the Southern Kingdom in
722 BC (Destruction of Samaria)
-The central part was written in 7 BC and later enlarged. Earliest Hebrew law codes
(written about 12-11th BC)
-Decalogue (Ex. 20, 1-17), Covenant also > Ex. 20, 23 - 23, 29, Ritual Code > Ex 34, 11-26
d. Sacred Character of the Law
-Torah was given to Moses
-Moses was a man sent by God
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-Torah was looked upon the holy will of God of Israel

e. Some references to the History of the Law
-Deut 31, 9.1.26
9 – Moses wrote this law
1 – Moses read this law
26 – Moses took this books of the law
-Joshua 24, 26 – Joshua wrote these words in the Book of the Law
-1 Sam 10, 25
-2 Kgs 22, 8ff – Discovery of the book of the Law
>Priest Hilkian found a part of the Book of the Law during the repair works in the temple
(Deut. 12 – 26 : A copy of the law was found)
> king Josiah the, ordered a renewal of the covenant centralization of the Cult
f. Time of the Exile
-Babylonian Exile (587 – 531)
-Importance of the law increased (people lost everything – temple and sacrifices)
-Reflected on the past; collected documents and traditions of the past.
-“SCRIBES” rose to the occasion
g. After the Exile: The Return to Jerusalem
-Reconstruction happened
-Ezra (Religious) – Nehemiah (Political)
-Ezra brought with him a copy of the “Law of God” Ez 7, 6-14. Neh 8,1 (around 430 BC)
*We do not know if it was already a finished Pentateuch. Although from this time, the law of
Moses was read, studied and commented upon.
1.2. Prophets (Nebiim)
a. Name: Two Groups: Former Prophets (J,J,1-2 S, 1-2 K) and Latter Prophets
b. Former Prophets:
b.1 Contents: Continue the Sacred History of the Covenant from Joshua to the Last King
of Jerusalem (From the conquest of the promised Land to its loss, at the beginning of the
Babylonian Exile). Continuation of the Law. Contain other passages concerning other
Prophets (Samuel, Nathan, Elijah and Elisha)
b.2. Composition: Final Form completed during the Exile
References: 2 Mac 2, 13
-Besides the historical material that we find in the OT, there were still other historical
writings which did not find their way into the canonical books because they did not
survive.
Josh 10, 13 – Book of Joshua
1 Kgs 14, 29 – Book of Chronicles of the Kings of Judah
1 Kgs 15, 7, 31 – Book of Chronicles of the Kings of Judah
1 Kgs 16, 5 – Book of Chronicles of the Kings of Judah
b.3. Sacred Character: Prophets were spokesmen of God
c. Latter Prophets:
c.1 Contents: Oracles and Biographical material of the activity of the prophets
c.2. Time of Composition: Between 750 BC (Time of Amos) – 400/500 BC (Last Minor
Prophet – Malachi, Joel, Jonah, Deutero-Zechariah)
1.3. Writings (Ketubim)
a. Name: Most Miscellaneous because of some should belong to “our” historical books
(others to ‘our’ prophetic books and still others to the sapiential writings). Mostly post-

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exilic books of Dan and Esther as the latest of these 2nd Cent BC. Not used for the regular
worship unlike the law and the prophets.
b. History: by the end of the 2nd century BC the Jews spoke not only of the law and the
prophets but also the ‘rest’ of the books of our ancestors as the ‘Prologue of Sirach’ testified.
According to Philo: He speaks of reverence to the law, prophetic-works and hymns and
other works by which knowledge and piety maybe increased, and perfected.
According to Flavius Josephus: He speaks of 5 books of Moses, 13 prophetic books and 4
books (thought to be Ps, Songs, Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus) containing hymns to God and
precepts for the conduct of human life.
*No name attached to these books
-vagueness to this reference of ‘other books’ implies that they have not reached the stage
of a sharply defined collection
-these also implies that these books did not enjoy the same level of respect that was
accorded to the law & the prophets.
*Oldest and most important of these books are the Psalms which are accorded to David.
(In reality, most of these Psalms came later after David, after the Exile – Post-Exilic)
*Proverbs – attributed to Solomon
c. Sacred Character: Implications on the fact that they were given and inspired by God.
2. Period of Canonization
2.1. Thesis
2.2. Testimonies
i. Flavius Josephus
ii. 2/4 Esdras
iii. Jamnia
3. Norms for Canonization
3.1. Antiquity
3.2. Hebrew Language
3.3. Origin in Palestine
3.4. Conformity with the Law
4. Motives for Canonization
4.1. Self-Defense against Apocryphal Books
4.2. Refuse Against Hellenistic Influences
C. History of the Old Testament Canon among the Christians
1. Apostolic Time
2. Early Patristic Time
3. Fathers Between 200-400 AD : Time of Crisis
4. Victory of Tradition and the First Ecclesiastical Decisions
5. Formal Definition in the Council of Trent
5.1. Necessity for a Definition
a. Opinions of the Humanists
b. Protestants
c. Sources of Faith
5.2. Decisions
a. Dogmatic Decisions
i. Scripture and Traditions
ii. List of Canonical Books
b. Disciplinary Decisions
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 15

CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT: CANON OF THE CHRISTIANS

-Evidences for the reconstruction of the NT formation/history
1. Christian Documents by Christian Writers of the 2nd – 5ht centuries AD
2. Discussion and judgments made by individual writers and ecclesiastical councils
3. Contents of ancients mss (manuscripts)
A. Second Century
1. Gospels
1.1. Attained prominence only during the 2nd Century but their prominence was not universal
and exclusive. The Gospels did not enter the canon separately as individual books, but
they were first collected as a group then entered the Canon.
1.2. The Gospels were not only documents which contained traditions about Jesus
e.g. Mark, 65 AD > sources < written sources about the oral tradition
Mt and Lk > source: Mk and Q (Quelle)
Mt < Mk + Q + Special Mt
Lk < Mk + Q + Special Lk
1.3. The Gospels did not only used existing written sources but also edited them.
-There were editorial freedom. This implies that the Gospel writers did not attach special
sanctity, adequacy, authority to the sources but intended to write something better.
-Occasional documents addressed to a limited # of audience and containing a particular
theology about Jesus.
Mt > addressed to the Christians in Palestine and Syria
Lk > addressed to the Christians in Rome and Greece-Macedonia
Mk > addressed to the Christians in Rome
Jn > addressed to the Christians in Asia Minor
1.4. Although the 4 Gospels were the first ever to be written, new gospels were continued to
be written until the 2nd century.
-eg Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas, Dialogue of the Savior and Apocyryphon of John
(Gospel-type document), Gospel of the Hebrews and Gospel of the Egyptians (not
existing)
1.5. These Gospels were originally circulated individually and one Gospel was valued in a
single community.
-There is no need for more than one Gospel.
1.6. The authority was not absolute even when it was customary to use these 4 gospels
-Because they could still be altered.
-e.g. Mk 16, 8 (shorter ending) last post-resurrection event
Jn 21
Jn 7, 53; 8-11 > woman caught in adultery
1.7. Christian Communities became acquainted with the other Gospel Documents
-Justin the Martyr > acquainted with Mt and Lk (probably also Mk)
1.8. This acquaintance with the other Gospel Documents became a difficulty.
-This created the problem on the adequacy of each document.
-The Gospels are different from each other, to accept more than one gospel created the
difficulty of justifying their differences.
-The word ‘gospel’ originally meant ‘Good News’ (way of salvation)
Q: How can we have a plurality of Gospels?
>Gospel is a message of salvation.
>Gospel as a type of literary composition.

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1.9. This explains why Tatian harmonized the 4 Gospels into the gospel > his work known as
DIATESSARON.
1.10. First evidence for a four gospel collection was provided by Irenaeus who tried to assent
their exclusive authority.
-Based on his allegorical interpretation of Rev 4, 6-9 (4 Literary Creatures)
1.11. Another witness for a four-fold gospel collection – MURATORIAN LIST.
-Discovered by Muratori, 140 at the Ambrosian Library in Milan, Italy
-4 Gospels, Letters of Paul, except Hebrews, 2 Letters of John – Jude and Revelation
1.12. Gospel of John > Less known and less emphasized by the 2nd c. Christian Writers
-Popular among the Gnostic Christians
(Gnosticism > Docetism) ----- (G: reliance on personal revelation; antagonism between
body ‘bad’ and soul ‘good’)
(D: JC was not a real person, who only took form in a human body;
ghost)
1.13. A fourfold gospel was taking shape in the Western regions of Christianity but not in the
Eastern Regions. In the east, Clement of Alexandria, still accepted a gospel of the Hebrews
and Gospel of Egyptians.
Summary:
-Problem centered on John
-Fourfold Gospel looked more as a compromise between a single, self-contained gospels and
on the other hand a plurality of gospels.
-Compromise can be seen in the terminology:
Gospel > the theological meaning as ‘message of salvation’ is preserved while there are
different writers
Gospel according to… > only one Gospel message of salvation but fourfold gospel (different
writers)
2. Letters of Paul
-not popular: addressed to specific Churches, hence, no universality
2.1. Early History of Paul’s Letters
-theoretical reconstruction
a. Traditional” “Snowball Theory”
-Letters were highly valued by specific communities
-Exchange of letters of Paul among these communities
-Led to partial collection until they were put together and published
-Arguments against:
i. Based on the argument that is difficult to justify, ie letters where highly which the
opposite assumption can also be true (ie. The letters dealt with a specific issue within the
community after which the letter could have been set aside.)
ii. Acts of the Apostles which was written after Paul’s time shows no knowledge of those
Pauline letters.
b. Goodspeed Theory
-Letters were occasional pieces of correspondence addressed to specific communities with
particular issues/question
-They were laid aside and forgotten
-This is the reason why the book of Acts is silent about these letters
-The Acts of the Apostles records the journeys of Paul. Somebody used this Acts about the
journeys of Paul, it happened to possess the letters of Paul (-- and Philemon) and then he
sets to retrieve these letters, he wrote the letter to the Ephesians as an introduction.
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 17

-Arguments against:
i. Based on the assumption that the letters were not highly valued and therefore, forgotten.
Yet, the contrary view can also be true.
ii. A romantic notion that an adviser would go on an odyssey looking for the letters of
Paul
iii. Bookof Acts does not intimate that Paul is writer.
iv. If Ephesians was written/intended as an intro for the Pauline collection, then we expect
Ephesians to be at the head of this collection. Yet, we have no documents of a list of
Pauline letters with Ephesians standing at the beginning of the collection.
c. Schmithal’s Theory
-An individual collector-editor of Pauline letter
-Purpose: for his collection > to provide the Church with a ---
-not only collected but edited the letters to present Paul a fighter against Gnosticism
d. Schenke’s Theory
-Pauline school (Group of persons)
>They knew Paul. They valued Paul’s teachings. They continued his work even after his
death. They gathered and preserved the authentic letters of Paul. They edited and
reworked some of Paul’s writings. They composed letters (Pseudonymous)
-The book of Acts is silent about the letter of Paul because this Pauline collection of letters
were still in its early stage and not generally known.
2.2. Early Edition of the Pauline Letters
-Marcion > evidence of an extensive collection of Pauline letters, 2nd cent. 10 Letters: Gal, 1-2
Cor, Rom, 1-2 Thes, Eph (Laodiceans), Col, Phil, Philemon
-Regularly missing in the collection during this time: 1 and 2 Tim, Titus
-1st Evidence to the presence: IRENAEUS
*reason: addressed to infividuals; hence, no relevance to the whole Church (Yet arose the
problem of CATHOLICITY)
-Philem (?) > also an individual – already belonged to the early collection and associated by
Colossians. By the end of the 2nd cent. these 4 letters addressed to individuals became a part
of the collection.
2.3. Use of Paul’s Letters in the 2nd century
-Christian writers generally indifferent to Paul’s letters
a. Particularly of Paul’s letters (Communities & person)
b. General difficulty in understanding Paul
c. Paul’s concerns in his letters were not lively issues in the 2nd cent.
d. Christian literature this time was apologetical
3. Other Writings
3.1. Revelation
-First witness: Justin the Martyr
-In the West: Irenaeus and the Muratorian Canon (List)
-Well known in the west but not in the east
3.2. Hebrews
-Pauline Authorship > Claimed by Clement of Alexandria (Paul wrote in Hebrew, and Luke
translated it to Greek)
-Origen: The thought belongs to Paul but the style and vocabulary are different
-Tertullian: Barnabas an author (Heb 13, 22 > “word of exhortation”, Acts 4, 36 > Barnabas
excelled in encouragement)
-Popular in the east but not in the west

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3.3. Acts of the Apostles

-First witness: Justin
-Other witness: Irenaeus (author was an inseparable companion of Paul), Muratorian List,
Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria
3.4. Pastoral and Catholic Letters
-James, 1-2 Pt, 1-3 Jn, Jude
-Little use in 2nd century
-Only 1 Peter and 1 John were currently known and used
-Eusebius called them ‘7 Catholic Letters’
-East: Called “Addressed to all Churches” > Universal, Catholic
-West: Called “Canonical”
**If Catholic, yet 2-3 Jn and 1 Pet are addressed to specific communities
-Jude > less-known, used heavily by 2 Pet but without acknowledging Jude (2 Pet 2, 1-18, Jud
4-16), attested by Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian and Muratorian List
-James, 3 John and 2 Peter > no evidence for their use in the 2nd century
3.5. Other Christian Writings
-gained popularity during the 2nd century yet did not gain canonical standing in Trent
-eg. 1st Letter of Clement, Letter of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, Didache (Teaching of the
12 Apostles), Apocalypse of Peter, Gospel of the Hebrews
Summary: During the 2nd century, many Christian writings were valued as authoritative. Our
4 gospels and the Pauline letters were among these.
B. Third and Fourth Centuries
1. Some Personalities
1.1. Origen
-Acknowledged the 4 Gospels and the Pauline letters (yet did not believed that they were
written by Paul – only God knows)
1.2. Hippolytus
-His treatise entitled: “Points against Gaius”
-Gaius: A learned Roman churchman who worked “Dialogue with Proclus”
-Proclus: Leading spokesman of the Montanists, used John and Revelation to support their
claims
-So Gaius composed his Dialogue with Proclus wherein he denied the authority and
authenticity of John and Revelation. Hippolytus answered Gaius wherein he neutralized
the claims of Gaius and restore the authenticity of John and Revelation.
1.3. Eusebius
-Provides 3 classifications of writings (Acknowledged books, disputed books, heretical
works)
2. Some List of Christian Scriptures
-In the 4th Century there were earnest efforts to come up with a definitive list of Christian
Scriptures
2.1. Codex Claromontanus
-30 documents as inspiring scriptures (including some apocryphal books; Barnabas, Shep. of
Hermas, Acts of Paul, Apocalypse of Peter) These are bilingual GREEK-LATIN mss.
2.2. Cheltenham Canon
-Originated in Africa in 360 AD. 24 Writings/books based on allegorical interpretation of Rev
4, 10 > 24 Elders
-Missing are Heb, James and Jude
2.3. 39th Festal Letter of Athanasius
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 19

-Bishop of Alexandria, 367. Came up with a list to regulate the use of Christian writings in the
Egyptian Churches. His list is the first to exclusively authoritative > exactly the 27 books as
we have in the NT canon today!
3. Ecclesiastical Councils
3.1. Council of Laodicea 363 > 26 books (Revelation is missing)
3.2. Council of Hippo 392 and Carthage 397 > 27 Books (Distinguished Hebrews from the
Pauline Letters)
3.3. Council of Carthage II 418 > 27 Books (Letter to the Hebrews is now integrated to the
Pauline Letters)
C. Council of Trent (16th Century)
-Together with the Canon of the OT, Trent defined the Canon of the NT
Reasons:
1. Humanism
>Erasmus of Rotterdam – doubted the apostolic authorship of the 7 Pastoral Letters but didn’t
deny their inspired character
>Cajetan – Rejected apostolic authorship and proposed that Hebrews, Jas, Jude, 2-3 John should
have lesser authority
2. Protestantism
>Luther – called 2 Peter as an “unprofitable letter” and James as a “letter of Satan”
D. Factors in the Formation
1. Intrinsic Factors
1.1. Christianity appealed to the Jewish scripture (OT) to support and confirm the
Christian message. Soon this did not suffice; also the legitimacy of the Christian interpretation
was repudiated by the Jews. Missionary efforts now extended beyond the Jewish confines to
the Gentile population who were not acquainted with Jewish writings. Difficult to present the
Christian message to the Gentiles based only on the Jewish writings, hence, the need for
Christian writings.
1.2. Death of the Apostles who were direct witnesses to the life, death and resurrection of
Jesus and Christian preaching.
2. Extrinsic Factors
-Theological controversies during the 2nd century
2.1. Marcionism
-The God of the NT was a God of love and mercy, the God of the OT was a God of justice
and vengeance, hence, a rejection of the OT. Christian teachings are located in the Pauline letters
and the Gospel of Luke
2.2. Gnosticism
-Antagonism between matter (evil) and spirit (good) > Docetism. They appeal to secret,
private revelations
2.3. Montanism
-The founder is Montanus, claimed that Jesus’ promise descended on him (Jn 14, 16. 26;
15, 26) He was then offering new teachings and revelations to the Church
2.4. Other Factors
a. Opinions of Respected Theologians
-Eastern Church > Origen and Athanasius (Hebrews)
-Western Church > Jerome and Augustine (Revelation)
b. Effects of Political Rivalries
-Cultural differences and theological orientations

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>School of Antioch: Conservative, espoused the historical-literal method or type of

interpretation
>School of Alexandria: Open and speculative; allegorical interpretation
Rome> Pragmatic, followed the middle course
c. Experience of Persecution in the Church
-Church defined books which could be surrendered to the authorities and books which
were considered secret and should be retained.
d. Official Ecclesiastical of Bishops or Councils
e. History of Book Manufacture
-A given codex could contain only few writings, progress in book manufacture when in a
single book can contain all of the writings > less probability of losing the books
E. Criteria for Canonicity
1. Apostolicity
-The book must have been written by the apostles (popular meaning) > But this is an inadequate
conception of apostolicity. Ot all books were written by the Apostles.
-Q: WHY IS APOSTOLICITY (meaning: written by the apostles) IS AN INADEQAUTE
CRITERION?
a. They had an indirect connection with the Apostles (Mark – Peter, Luke – Paul)
b. Some writings found their way into the NT Canon even if there were large uncertainties of
their authorship. (Heb, Rev)
c. Some writings which claim apostolicity either:
-failed to enter the NT Canon (Gospel of Pet., Teachings of the 12 Apostles)
-or were accepted into the Canon tardily and with hesitancy (James, 2 Pet, Jude)
2. Catholicity (Universality)
-Relevant to the Church as a whole, an inadequate description > problematic – Pauline letters:
addressed particular communities
3. Orthodoxy
-The writing should be in deep agreement with the faith/teaching of the Church
-inseparable relationship between orthodoxy and the rule of faith.
-scriptures > help to mold the mold the contents of faith >
< helps the formation of the Canon < Orthodoxy (rule of faith)
4. Traditional Usage
-The document must have been employed by the Church in its worships and teachings
-Apostolicity, canonicity, and orthodoxy > internal/intrinsic characteristics of the books
-Traditional Usage > extrinsic character of the books

BIBLICAL TEXT
Connection > Inspiration – nature of the texts (inspired and sacred)
> Canon – extent of inspiration (sacred books)
> Text – where inspiration belongs to. Therefore, inspiration belongs to the original
text (the text as it came from the very hands of the original authors)
Purpose: To establish the best possible text
Not one book of the Bible has come down to us in its ‘autograph’
The original text prepared by the author himself
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 21

What we possess now are only transcriptions and translations separated from the
inspired text
** The necessity of establishing the best possible text: Changes had entered into the original text
in the process of copying (either voluntary or involuntary) Therefore, judgment lies to the
scholars.

I. General Remarks
A. Original Languages in the Bible
1. Language of the Old Testament
a. Hebrew : almost all of the books except for some Aramaic
b. Aramaic:
Dan 2, 4-7
Ezra 4, 8-6, 18
Ezra 7, 11-26
Jer 10, 11
Gen 31, 47
c. Greek : Wis and 2 Mac were written in Greek
: some books survived only in Greek although their original is in Hebrew
-Sirach (now 2/3 of the Hebrew text)
-1 Mac, Judith, Baruch, Tobit (d.c. book of Dan and Esther)
2. Language of the New Testament
Greek : except for some Aramaic words (Mk 7, 34 “ephphatha” and Mk 5,41 Talitha
qumi”)

B. Some Remarks to the History of the Writings

-Material : durability; fitness for writing
-Form of writing : form of the letters, method of writing
--both of these remotely influenced the Biblical text
1. Writing Material (for the Bible; papyrus and parchments)
a. Stone : monumental; royal inscription, tombs (eg, Decalogue)
b. Gems : seal or name of owner engraved on precious gems (eg, breastplate of high
priest engraved are the
12 tribes of Israel.
c. Metal : difficult and expensive
d. wood : not durable
e. clay
f. ostraka : potsherds, pieces of earthen ware (eg, ostraca laches “southern part of
Jerusalem” written before
the fall of Jerusalem, contains the activity of Jeremiah)
g. papyrus : reed plant, strips of this reed are put into horizontal/vertical, soaked on
a sticky material, dried
under the sun.
h. paper
2. Form of the Writing Material
a. scrolls : papyrus strips rolled with a stick at both ends
b. codex : books > leather and parchment, difficult to roll, hence, they were folded.
c. palimpsest codex: prepared by erasure to the be used for writing a second time
3. Form of Writings

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a. Picture-script of ideograms
-idea represented by a picture or drawing
-disadvantage
--many concrete things, hence, many signs or pictures are needed
--ambiguity where there are limited signs or pictures
--is difficult, it is not for everybody
--not every material fits
b. Syllabi-Phonetic Script
b.1. Heiroglyphic script
b.2. Cuneiform script
c. Alphabetic script
c.1. continuous script: casually in capital letters, no intervals in between, no
punctuation marks
c.2. consonantal script: only the consonant, no vowels; leads to misunderstandings,
difficult to vocalize, the Greeks introduced vowel sounds

C. Most Common Sources of Textual Mistakes

-involuntary or voluntary
-intentional or unintentional
-accidental or deliberate (eye, ear, head, memory or mind)

1. Involuntary Changes in the Text

1.1. Errors arousing from faulty eyesight
a. Confusion of Letter which look alike
1 Sam 14, 47
Edom > ‘dm ‫ﬡﬧﬦ‬
Aram > ‘rm ‫ﬡﬥﬦ‬
b. Haplography (single writing)
- a letter (syllable/word is written only once, when it should be written twice)
1 Thess 2, 7
We were in fa??? ὲγεηθηµεν νηπιοι
We were gentle ὲγεηθηµεν ηπιοι
c. Dittography (double writing)
- a letter or syllable or word is written twice, but it should be written once
2 Sam 6, 3-4
d. Parablepsis
- the leap of the eye from an expression which leads to the repetition of the same
expression. It results either in haplography of dittography.
1 Sam 13,15 (omission!)
e. Wrong division of words
- commonly in Greek mss where there are no intervening spaces (continuous
script)
- but also in Hebrew when the vowels were not introduced
2 Sam 5,9 “David built the wall”
1 Chr 11,8 “David built a wall”
1.2. Errors arising from faulty hearing (happens in the process of dictation)
- Phonetic confusions
- letters may be mistaken because of a similar sound
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 23

- eg, ‫ץתה‬ ‫אתה‬

Now You
1.3. Errors of the mind
a. Substitution of Synonyms
- scribe’s memory slipped from the time he heard or saw the text to the time
that he wrote the text
- eg, 1 Sam 10, 25 each to his home \\ each to his place
b. Metathesis
- accidental transposition of letters or words
- eg, ‫קבלם קלבם‬
Kirbam Kebarim
Thought Grave
c. Influence of Context
- eg, 2 Sam 9, 11 at David’s table (vv7, 10 “my table”)
2. Voluntary Changes in the Text
2.1. Linguistic Corrections
- spelling and grammar
- subjects and verbs are made to agree in number and person
2.2. Exegetical Corrections
- obscure passages are explained one in different ways
a. Explanatory Glosses
- an obscure word or phrase is replaced by something that is better or well known
in order to clarify
- eg, Mk 7, 5 : eat with common hands κοινας άνιπτοις (unwashed)
b. Supplementary Glosses
- an addition to a rather short text which is in need of clarification
- eg, Acts 8, 36-38
V37 “profession of faith” (in order not to scandalize the simple faithful”)
c. Geographical Corrections
- a faulty geographical mistake is replaced by a correct one
- eg, Jn 1, 28
Bethany beyond the Jordan (not Bethany near Jerusalem)
d. Correction of historical mistakes
- Mt 27, 9
By the prophet Jeremiah (note: by the prophet Zechariah or Isaiah)
2.3. Theological Corrections
- passages which would offend pious readers are changed
- eg, Ps 14, 2 Yahweh (Lord)
Ps 53, 2 Elohim (God)
1 Chron 8, 33 (Eihbaal) – 2 Sam 2, 8 (Ishboulzeth)
1 Chron 8, 34 (Meibaal)
2 Sam 4,4 (Mephilo..??)
Pagan God (Canaanite God)
2.4. Liturgical Glosses
- eg, Mt 6, 13 (for liturgical influence)

II. History of the Text

A. Preliminary Texts

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1. Aim
- aims to investigate what happened to the biblical text from the beginning through
the centuries
- our basis for reconstructing reliable text
2. Two tendencies:
a. Preserve the original text
-stronger tendency in order to preserve the sacredness of the text
b. To adapt the text to the changing situation of the time
-what is the meaning of the Word of God, spoken long ago, mean for us here and
now?
3. Method (How to construct the original text)
3.1. Collection of Audible Material
- all textual witnesses scattered through different places and libraries in the world
-- mss in their original language
-- mss in translations
-quotation of biblical texts in other writings (writings of the Fathers of the Church,
Lectionaries)
3.2. Comparison of these textual witnesses as to their similarities and differences
3.3. Classification of these textual witnesses according to their “family relatives”/
different families of mss
3.4. Evaluation of these textual witnesses
3.5. Selection of the best text
4. Great Dividing Line in the history of the text
- invention of the printing press
- hand-copied texts vs printed text
-- dividing line in the hand copied: canonization (Council of J???)
-- dividing line in the printed text: preparation of critical editions

B. History of the OT Hebrew Text

1. First Period: Period of Variation – From the autograph to 100AD
1.1. Fact
- in the early transmission of the text, there were many changes in the text cause
by voluntary or involuntary changes
1.2. Proofs for the variation of the text
- when the textual witnesses gathered were compared, there were variations in
the texts
1.2.1. Comparison of the Hebrew text itself
Ps 14 = Yahweh
Ps 53 = Elohim
Ps 57, 7-12 + 60, 5-12 = Ps 108
1.2.2. Comparison of the Hebrew text with the LXX
Jer (LXX) is 1/7 shorter than the Jer (MT)
Job (LXX) is ¼ shorter than the Job (MT)
Jer 26-31 (LXX) is Jer 46-51 (MT)
dc part of Dan + Esther are in the LXX, but not in the MT.
1.2.3. Comparison of the Hebrew text with the Papyrus Nash
- papyrus sheet discovered in 1902 and named after its owner
- contains the Decalogue plus the Shema (Dt. 6, 4ff)
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 25

- order of the commandments agrees with the LXX against the MT (5,6,7)
--Lk 18, 29 (6, 5, 7) + Rom 13,9
2. Second Period: The Standard Text
2.1. Selection of a Uniform Text
2.1.1. Fact
- together with the canonization of the OT Hebrew text in 100 AD, the rabbis
introduced and compared a uniform obligatory consonantic text
- mss which were not in conformity with this standard were eliminated
2.1.2. Proofs
- translations from the OT Hebrew after 100 AD suppose this text
2.1.3. Means
- Rabbis divided the texts intro sections and verses and counted them
- They did not anymore change the consonantic text even in cases of mistakes.
Rather, they added remarks in the margin.
- eg, Please read … known as “quere”
Should be written … known as “kethib”
Written but not to be read … known as “kethib he lo quere”
YHWH Iis permanent kethib he lo quere.
2.2. The Period of the Apparatus of Masoretes (500-900 AD)
- the Jewish scribes collected the works of their predecessors and perfected them
to the highest degree
-The important things happened:
--Hebrew vowel signs, accents, and punctuation marks
--Addition of critical remarks in the text called “masora”
2.2.1. Hebrew Vowel Signs
- two vowels developed among the Jews
-- a. supralinear : vowels above
-- b. intralinear : vowels below (this system prevailed)
2.2.2. Masora
- made critical annotation to the text
-- three kinds:
-- a. qetannah : written on the margin
-- b. qedolah : written on the spaces under and above the columns
-- c. qinalis : separate list of book and remarks
2.2.3. Qenizah
- store room where mss did not conferred to the text were kept for a while
before being buried in the ground
- Cairo Qenizah
--they found the Hebrew text in a Greek text
-- eg, Book of Wisdom
-discovery of the Hebrew text of the Book of Wisdom with one previously
known only in Greek
3. Printed Text
3.1. First complete Hebrew bible was made in Italy in 1488 by Rabbi Joshua.
3.2. Complutensian Polygot (Multilingual Editions)
3.3. Rabbinic Bibles
- together with the Hebrew texts are printed Aramaic version and comments of
outstanding Rabbis

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- Rabbinic Bible of Jacob ben Chayyim remaind in the standard printed text
-- the Hebrew OT up to the 20th century
3.4. Biblia Hebraica Kittel (BHK)
- 3 editions (1st edition in 1927) used in the text of Jacon Ben Chayyim
- 3rd edition in 1937 (based on the Leningard manuscript)
3.5. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgarstensia (BHS)
- first publication was in 1977
C. History of the NT Greek Text
1. Introductory Remarks
- no autographs of the NT
- critical editions of the Greek NT are based on Ancient Greek mss, translations and
quotations
- Greek editions have the “critical apparatus” at the bottom of the pages which gives
us the variant texts adopted in their textual witness
2. Material for the writing of NT Texts
2.1. Textual Witnesses (mss) are grouped according to:
2.1.1. Writing Material
- Papyrus
- Codices
2.1.2. Kind of Writing
i. Majuscules or Uncials
- similar to capital letters
- written without signs, ie., accents and punctuation marks
ii. Minuscules
- similar to small letters
2.1.3. Content and Purpose
Lectionaries
- readings for Saturdays, Sundays and weekdays (called synoxaria)
- readings for feast days and saints (called menologion)
Designation of the MSS:
-MSS were given names according to:
a. Owner: Codex Bizare
b. Place of Origin: Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Sinaiticus mss will still be
manageable
c. Present Location: Codex Vaticanus
an accidental quality: Codex Epharim Rescriptus
**An abundance of mss | system if designation when there was already a multiple mss:
a. Wettstein (About 1750)
- majuscules: designated with Latin, Greek and Hebrew capital letters (eg, Codex A,
S, Z)
- minuscules: Arabic numerals (eg, Codex 33)
b. von Soden
- d (diatheke) mss counting the entire MT
- e (evangelium) mss counting the gospels
- a (acta) mss counting the acts of the apostles
- p (paul) mss counting the Pauline letters
- r (revelation) on the apocalypse or revelation
c. Gregory
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 27

- majuscules: designated it with Arabic numerals preceded by a zero “0”

- minuscules: Arabic numerals (there is no “0” before it, eg, papyri P plus number
above p22
d. Lectionaries
- “l” Small letter I plus an Arabic numeral (eg, 123)
2.2. Most important Majuscule Codices
2.2.1. Codex Vaticanus (B, 03, d1)
Name: located at the Vatican Library since 15th century
Date and place of origin: Egypt, 4th c.
Contents: OT is almost complete, NT a greater part
Character: the oldest surviving parchment codex in the world and or of the
best majuscules
Family: H
2.2.2. Codex Sinaiticus (S, 01, d2)
Name: discovered in Tischen dorf at the St. Catherine monastery in Mt. Sinai
(Czar – bought by British Museum)
Date and place of origin: Egypt, 4th c. (Caesaria Palestine)
Contents: greater part of the OT, NT is almost complete
Family: H
2.2.3. Codex Alexandrinus (A, 02, d4)
- property patriarch of Alexandria gives to the British king and now at the
British Museum
Date and place of origin: 5th c., Egypt
Contents: OT and NT are almost complete
Family: H (but family K for the gospels)
2.2.4. Codex Ephraem Rescriptus (C)
Name: Palimpsest codex (most important palimpsest codex we have) Biblical
text was erased around 13th c and the version of Ephraem, the Syrian was
written on it.
Date and place of origin: (?) Questionable, Egypt 5th c
Contents: Originally, the whole Bible. But now, only parts of the OT and NT
Family: H but not pure
2.2.5. Codex Bezae (D)
- owned by Beza
- formerly in France now in the University of Cambridge, England
Contents: Gospel and Acts
- oldest bilingual: Greek and Latin
2.2.6. Codex Freer (W)
- owned by Freer
- importance: we have here the special entry of Mark
2.2.7. Codex Coridethi (θ)
Family: C
Tbliss, Georgia, Russia
2.3. Minuscule Codices
- around 2700 minuscule codices but only 50 have the complete NT; most only
have the gospels
- less important for textual criticism because of their age (late date 9th to 10th c. AD)
2.3.1. Ferrar Group (Family 13)

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- minuscule belonging together and giving back to a common ancestor

2.3.2. Lake Group (Family 1)
- discovered in 1902
2.4. Most important Papyri
2.4.1. P45-47
- by Chester Beatty Papyri (collected/discoverer)
- 3rd c. Egypt
- P45 30 pages from Gospel codices and acts
- P46 86 leaves from Pauline letters
- P47 fragments of the apocalypse
2.4.2. P52
- Papyrus Rylands
- Name: because of its location
- Location: John Rylands Library in Manchester, England
- around 130 AD
- importance: this very small papyrus contains John 18, 31-33 and 37-38
- implication: at a very early date in Egypt, John was already known.
2.4.3. P66
- Papyrus Bodmer VII
- name: of the collector
- date: 200 AD, Egypt
- contains the first 84 chapters of John although with gaps
2.4.4. P72
- another Bodmer papyrus
- date: 3rd c.
- contains 1-2 Peter
2.4.5. P75
- another Bodmer papyrus
- date: 2nd century
- contains much of Luke and John
2.5. Quotations
- quotations and commentaries of ancient Church Fathers
- warning: the author may just be quoting the biblical text either freely or from
memory, hence, the need to know the original biblical text.
2.6. Ancient Translations
Vl : Vetus Latina
Vg : Vulgata
Sy: Syrian Versions
Co : Coptic Versions
Ar : Armenian Versions
gg : Georgian Versions

3. Classification of Textual Witnesses: Textual Families of the NT

3.1. Alexandria, Neutral, Eastern, Hesychian Text; Family H
Names:
Alexandria: originated in Alexandria
Neutral: avoids harmonizations and connections
Eastern: found in the East as distinguished from the West
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 29

Hesychian: Because of Hesychius who had a great part in preparing the text

Textual witness: B, S, C
Characteristics: considered the best text; closest to the original; constructive and
critical. It has few harmonization, hence, shorter. It avoids linguistic and stylistic
improvements.
3.2. The Western Texts; Family D
Name: in the “West”; recognized in the Vetus Latina and among the Latin Fathers
like Irenaeus and Tertullian, although it is also found in Syria and Egypt
Textual witness: D, Vl, Sy
Characteristics: alters freely the text; not anymore close to the original, clarifies
obscure passages by paraphrasing and addition, also tried to eliminate difficulties.
3.3. Caesarian Text; Family C
Name: Connected to Caesaria in Palestine
- Where Origen founded his school after he left Alexandria
Textual witness: W, θ, Family 1, Family 13, Ar, gg
Characteristics: recognized later and not accepted by all; a mixture of H and D; not
clearly defined and distinguishable
3.4. Byzantine, Koine, Antiochian, Lucian Text; Family K
Names:
Byzantine: official text of the Byzantine Roman Empire
Koine: κοινος “common” text
Antiochian: identified with Antioch in Syria
Lucian: an Antiochian priest who had a hand in the preparation of the text
Witnesses: later majuscules and majority of the minuscule in codex for the Gospels
Characteristics: aims at elegance, clarity, and fullness. Hence, observe passages are
made clearer by little additions.
D. Translations
1. Greek Translations of the OT
1.1. Septuaginta (LXX)
a. Name and Definition
b. Witnesses: Codex Vaticanus (B), S, A (Alexandria)
c. Origin: Jewish Diaspora, Egypt
- Greek became the official language. Hence, the need to translate the
Hebrew text
1.2. Jewish Translations of the 2nd Century AD
a. Greek version of Aquila (A’)
- rendered a literal translation of the MT into Greek
b. Greek version of Theodotion (θ’)
- translated the OT into Greek with the LXX as his basis, but corrected it according
to the MT
c. Greek version of Symenachus
- not a new translation but a thorough revision of the LXX to bring it closer to MT
1.3. The Hexaglapa of Origen
- Hexapla: 6-fold
- he placed the OT texts side-by-side in 6 columns
a. Hebrew (Original) text
b. Transcription of the Hebrew text into Greek letters

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c. Aquila
d. Symmachus
e. LXX (He tried to make the LXX in agreement with the 1st column: the Hebrew
text)
f. Theodotion

2. Latin Translations of the NT

2.1. Vetus Latina (Vl)
- old Latin version
- translated from the LXX
2.2. Vulgata
- common (meaning) Gk κοινος
- prepared by Jerome (390-406 AD)
- revision made by Alcuin (730-804) he made stylistic revisions in Jerome’s work
- edition of Abbott Stephen Harding: intended for the Cistercian Monasteries
(monks)
- Council of Trent: declared the Vulgata as authoritative in faith and morals.
Hence, the need for an official edition of the Vulgata (1546)
- Sixtine Edition: Pope Sixtus V (appeared in 1589)
- Clementine Edition: Pope Clement VIII: 1592, 1593, 1598 (3 Editions)

3. Ancient Oriental Translations of the Bible

3.1. Aramaic Translations of the OT: Targums
- the need for Aramaic translation among the Jews in Palestine
2 classifications
a. Palestinian Targums: Aramaic translation made in Palestine
b. Babylonian Targums : Targum onkelos (presented by the Pentateuch)
: Targum Jonathan (presented by the Prophets)
3.2. Syriac Versions of the Bible
a. Pershita of the OT (“common”)
b. Diatessaron of Tatian (Gospel Harmony)
c. Old Syriac version
d. Peshitta of the NT
3.3. Coptic Versions of the Bible
- language of the native Egyptian Christians
a. Sahidic Version of the Upper Egypt
b. Alchiminis Version of the Upper Egypt
c. Bohairic Version of the Lower Egypt
3.4. Ethiopic Version of the Bible
3.5. Armenian Version of the Bible
3.6. Arabic Version of the Bible
III. Textual Criticism
- restoring the text to its original form (as much as possible)
- investigation or examination of alternations/changes/corruptions in the text
- first step in exegesis asks the question: “Is our text reliable?” (The very basis of exegesis)
- collect, clarify, evaluate, and selection of the best reading
- Textual criticism: external textual criticism and internal textual criticism
A. Rules for External Textual Criticism
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 31

1. Witnesses are not to be counted but to be weighed

- not the number of quantity which counts but the value or quality
- Family K in the NT has a lot of representation, but Family H is to be preferred even if
they have a few representation
2. The older the variation, the better.
- concerns the age of the textual writing
- eg, reading which comes from a 2nd c. mss is better than a reading from the 3rd c. mss
- “genealogical age” : a 10th c. ms which is copied from a 4th c. ms is better than a 5th c.
ms
3. All critical work start with the original text
- in the OT, it is the consonantic text
- translation is a form of interpretation
B. Rules for Internal Textual Criticism
- concerned with the text itself
1. The more difficult reading is the one to be preferred.
- the tendency of the copyist is to substitute for a difficult word or phrase to something
that is common/clearer
- caution: use of prudence since a difficult reading is cause by a mistake
- eg, Rom 7,25 v. 24 “Who will deliver me from the body of death?”
Hence, the difficult reading.
a. Thanks be to God!
b. The grace of God (Hence, easier reading)
c. I give thanks to God (Hence, more comprehensible)
2. The shorter reading is to be preferred than the longer one
- inclination of copyist is to add something rather than drop something
- this role is applicable when there is conflation in the text
- combination of two variant readings into a new one
- eg, Lk 24, 53
3. A reading different from the parallel passage is to be the one which conforms to the
parallel passage.
4. If we are only concerned with the context, the variant reading is to be preferred which
agrees with the particular tendencies of the author (his style, thought, vocabulary, etc.)

BIBLICAL HERMENEUTICS
I. Preliminary Remarks
A. Meaning/Definition
- ερµηνευειν means to interpret or to explain
- it is the science of interpretation
- Biblical Hermeneutics: teaches and investigates the rules of interpreting the “sense of the
scripture” (specific degree)
B. Necessity
- “sense of scripture (SOS)” : determining the meaning of what the author meant
- more difficult when applied to the Bible
Three Reasons:
It is difficult because in investigating the SOS…
1. …the Bible is written in ancient language which is now a dead language.
2. …the Bible was composed or written in times and places remote and different from our
time and place.

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3. …the Bible was written by persons and for persons with a different way of thinking and
education with a different culture, historical and cultural background.
- Besides these, there are also obscure passages in the Bible. Hence, the need for
Hermeneutics.

II. Various Senses of Scripture

- an author who writes a book, either to convey a truth or teaching, to narrate a historical event,
or to give a moral lesson, has to write in words that makes sense to his readers and not in cryptic
codes
- sense of scripture : literal sense of scripture (proper literal sense & improper figurative sense)
: spiritual sense of scripture (typical sense & fuller sense)
A. Literal Sense of Scripture
- a word or phrase can have many meanings
- eg, bill, to mark a dash
- what determines the meaning of a word or phrase in a given concept? (the intention of the
author)
1. Definition
- the literal sense of a passage is the sense which the human author directly intended
and which the written words conveyed.
- “directly” : differentiates it from the ramification which a word or phrase would
acquire in later times and
which the author is unaware.
- “author” : ancient understanding of author is different from our popular modern
concept
a. an author is one who writes with his own hand
b. an author can dictate a book or letter to a scribe
c. an author can supply ideas/words/statements to another person who could write the
work (this can merit the designation of “author” even in our own time)
d. in antiquity, one can still be considered the author of a work or book written by
disciples whose thoughts were guided.
eg, Pauline School
Isaiah (Deutero Isaiah & Trito Isaiah)
Jeremiah
e. one can still be considered an author
- if a work is written in the literary tradition for which he is famous for
Moses > Law
David > Psalms
- “which the written words conveyed” the author’s intention does not have a sense of
scripture until it is conveyed in written words.
- Auxiliaries in determining the literal sense of scriptures:
--knowledge of the history of biblical times
--knowledge of biblical languages.

2. Division of Literal Sense

2.1. Literal Proper Sense (LPS)
- words, phrases or passages taken in their obvious, ordinary, etymological and
grammatical meaning
2.2. Literal Improper Sense (Figurative, LIS)
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 33

- words, phrases or passages are taken in their figurative, metaphorical and

transferred meaning
- eg,
Lk 22, 55 kindle fire
Lk 12, 44 set the earth on fire (LIS)
Lk 23, 26 P
Mk 6, 34 P
Mt 13, 33 P
Mt 16, 6 F
3. Different Forms of Literal Improper (Figurative) Sense

**v.v. is “vice versa”

3.1. Synecdoche
- a part stands for the whole (v.v.)
- abstract for the concrete (v.v.)
- definite for the indefinite (v.v.)
-eg,
Gen 22, 17 “your offspring shall possess the gates of their enemies”
(gates=whole city)
Ps 65, 2 “To you all flesh shall come” (whole man)
Mk 16, 15 “whole creation” (mankind)
3.2. Metonymy
- cause stands for the effect (v.v.)
- container for the contents (v.v.)
- eg,
Mt 10, 34 sword, cause (sword), put into effect (war)
Jn 11, 25 resurrection, (effect) stands for the Church (Jesus Christ)
1 Cor 11, 26 container (Chalice/cup) space for the contents
3.3. Metaphor
- comparison is indirect
- eg,
Mt 5, 12
3.4. Simile
- comparison is direct
- eg,
Lk 10, 18
3.5. Hyperbole
- excessive exaggeration
- eg,
Gen 13, 16 dust of the earth, unlimited
3.6. Special Emphasis
- words of phrases tells an emphatic or special meaning
- eg,
Mt 7, 22 on that day is “Judgment Day”
3.7. Anthropomorphism
- eg,
Gen 3, 8-21 walking, made garments

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Gen 6,6
Ex 4, 14 anger of the Lord
3.8. Parable and Allegory
Differences:
3.8.1. In the parable the words are taken in their literal proper sense throughout
the story, but conveys a lesson in the figurative sense
eg, Parable of the fish net
3.8.2. In the parable, the details are for the sake of the story but in Allegory they
often have a special meaning
eg, Parable of the Unjust Steward (Lk 16)
3.8.3. In the parable, it is full of comparison which is true to life. But in the
Allegory, they do not necessarily conform to life.
3.9. Symbols
- figures or images signify something
3.9.1. Symbolic Actions
Mk 11, 12
Ac 21, 11
Jer 27, 2
3.9.2. Symbolic Visions
- Ezek 37 dry bones coming to life
- Acts 10, 10ff Peter sees a descending cloth from the sky with impure food
3.9.3. Symbolic Objects
- Num 15, 38 tassels on the cloak
3.9.4. Symbolic Name
- Is 7, 14 Immanuel (God is with us)
- Is 7, 3
- Hos 1, 6-9
3.9.5. Symbolic Numbers
- Rev 5,6 7 horns (fullness of power), 7 eyes (fullness of knowledge)
- Rev 13, 1 beast with 10 horns and 7 heads (allusion to Rome on 7 hills and
with 10 emperors)
- Rev 13, 18 666
- Rev 7, 1-3 INC (4 angels:4 powers; USA (Wilson), France (Clemeancea),
England (Lloyd George), Italy (Orlando) angels from the vision of the son of
Manalo (Iglesia ni Cristo)
3.10. Fable
- animals or irrational objects as speaking
- Judg 9, 8-15
3.11. Riddle
- Jud 14, 14 honey in the mouth of the dead lion

B. Spiritual Sense of Scripture

1. Definition
- an additional sense intended by God and based on the literal sense
- the Divine author (Spirit) foresaw the future in a way which the human author couldn’t
2. Division of Spiritual Sense
- typical
- fuller
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 35

2.1. Typical Sense

2.1.1. Definition
- the deeper meaning of things written about in the scripture when they are
seen to have foreshadowed future “things” in God’s work of salvation
2.1.2. Explanation
a. Typical sense concerns “things” (translation of the latin “res”)
- does not only mean things but also persons, events, places
- the realities which foreshadow are called “types”, the future realities
which are foreshadowed are “antitypes”
- examples of types as “things” - manna as type of Eucharist
“persons” - Eve as type of Mary
“event”- Exodus as type of Baptism
“place” - Jerusalem as type of Heaven
b.The things that are types must be written in scripture.
- David as a type of Christ
-- God intended David to be a type of Christ but David only because a type
when the human author wrote him in his composition
c. The types foreshadow future “things”
- types and antitypes are on different levels of times
- only when the antitype appears does the type become apparent
- type is imperfect
- only when the antitype will the type become apparent
d. This foreshadowing is related to God’s plan of salvation.

2.1.3. Existence of the Typical Sense

- same proofs in the NT: Mt 12, 39ff
Jn 3, 14
Jn 19, 36
Mt 2, 15
2.1.4. Extent of the Typical Sense
a. The OT, as a whole, is a type of the NT but not in all its stateness and
passages
b.There is also some typology in the new testament itself.
- Gospel of John, the miracles of Jesus as seen as signs of
higher/supernatural realities in the healing of the blind, or Christ as the
light of the world
- raising of Lazarus > Christ, the resurrection and the life.
- miraculous catch of fish > sign for Peter’s mission to be fisher of men
c. One and the same “thing” can have a multiple typical sense, since typology
is based on similarity and one and the same thing can be similar to different
things
- Egyptian Joseph > Joseph, the Husband of Mary or type of “Christ”
himself

2.1.5. Some Rules Concerning the Typical Sense

a. Since the TS can only be known by the positive will of God (TS > points to
future reality)
- this can only be known by revelation (found in scripture and tradition)

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- if the sources of revelation are explicit then we have clear types. But if the
sources of revelation are only implicit, then, we can only have probable types.
Examples of probable types,
- David vs Goliath > Christ vs Satan
- Esther, a beautiful woman who had access to the King against general law >
Mary, the Immaculate
- Joseph of Egypt > Jesus
--the much loved son of Jacob --the beloved Son
--envied by his brothers --envied and hated by the Jews
--sent by his father to seek his --sent to seek and save his brothers
brothers
--sold for money --sold for 30 pieces of silver
--in prison with evildoers --on the company of 2 robbers
--one is pardoned --one is pardoned
--released, receives highest --risen, sits at the right hand of the Father
honor
b.The TS depends on the literal sense as its basis. Things not contained in the
literal sense or contrary to it cannot be a type for other things.
c. Since the TS is only a foreshadowing of future realities, one should not
extend it beyond sound limits.
- meaning: one should not abuse the TS, and one should not force it.
d. The TS has practically little value for dogmatic arguments.
- meaning: you can’t use it for theologizing or dogmatic arguments, this is
more on ascetic exhortations (or maybe moral arguments)
- belongs more to the field of morality and spirituality/ascetism.

2.2. Fuller Sense (Sensus Plenior)

2.2.1. Definition
- deeper meaning, intended by God, but not clearly intended by the human
author, that is seen to exist in the words of Scripture when they are seen in
the light of further revelation or of development in the understanding of
revelation.
2.2.2. Explanation
-the author grasps and intends a message as a whole, but not fully or to clearly
in all its implications. But the Holy Spirit, intends a fuller message by those
words and makes it clear in subsequent revelations.
-The Fuller sense is in the “very words themselves.” Not in things, persons,
events as in the typical sense.
--it is called “fuller sense” because in the fuller light of revelation one and of
the same word reveals a deeper meaning than it had for one who had not get
this complete sight of the history of salvation.
eg,
concept of God = child, grown-up, theologian, saint
- The Fuller sense is similar to the literal sense in terms of meaning based on
the words of Scripture. But it is difficult from the literal sense in terms of
author’s clear intention.
ie,
in fuller sense, it is not within a clear intention of the author.
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 37

>> “vague awareness” only

2.2.3. Proofs of the Fuller Sense (existence of FS)
a. God can intend more with the words than what the human author
understands at the moment.
b.The actual existence of fuller sense can only be known through revelation
- Jn 14, 26
- Jn 16, 13
2.2.4. Examples
a. Gen 12, 3ff
- blessing promised to Abraham
- blessing was fulfilled (the land, the offspring)
- in its fuller sense this promised blessing refers to the spiritual gift/blessing
by Christ the son of Abraham and this is the gift of the Holy Spirit
b.Gen 3, 15
- the literal sense is the enmity between Eve and the serpent, enmity
between offspring of Eve and the followers of the serpent
- text does not spark directly of a victory but of a battle
- but Tradition and the Church sees many behind Eve; Mary participates in
the battle and victory against the evil one
c. Ps 2,7
- psalm of enthronement of the Israelite King
- king becomes an adaptive son of God
- JC > Son of God (TS-person, event, place, thing) (FS-words in themselves)
d. Is 7,14
- TS: young woman > wife of King Ahaz (the Davidic kingship will never
depart from you) God continues to be with his people: God continues to
fulfill his promise
- Mary > Jesus Christ
- Fuller sense: Birth of Jesus

C. Additional Use of Biblical Texts

1. Accommodation
1.1. Definition
- application of scriptural passages to persons or things other than those intended
by the author
- person: sense = intention, these = not intended, not anymore a sense of Scripture
1.2. Division
1.2.1. Accommodation by Extension
- words are applied to a different object while their sense still remains
- eg,
Luke 10, 42 > What is said of Mary, the sister of Martha is applied to the
Virgin Mary
- “Mary has chosen the better part.”
John 1, 5 > “I will be with you, I will not forsake you.” (God to Joshua)
- applied to Christians (Heb 13, 5 > accommodates John 1, 5)
Ps 19, 4 > their (the heavens) voice goes out through all the earth - applied to
the Gospel preachers (Rom 10, 18)

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1.2.2. Accommodation by Allusion

- while in the accommodation by extension, the idea is applicable, in the
accommodation by allusion, there is only “verbal suitability” and the words
receive a different sense
- eg,
Lk 5, 4 > put out into deep water (applied into prayer - deep prayer)
2 Cor 4, 7 > treasure in a clay jar (earthen vessels) > (applied to chastity,
apostolic vocation)

Biblical Hermeneutics > interpretation > sense of Scripture

- so what the author meant by his
words/intentions
- literal: what the author directly meant/intended by his word (proper/figurative)
- spiritual: not intended by the author but by the Holy Spirit based on the literal
work of the human author
--typical (things, persons, place, events)
--fuller (words)
- it is possible to legitimately speak of the spiritual sense of the Bible since we can
speak of both human and divine authorship in the Bible.

1.3. Uses of Accommodation

- Accommodation can never be used in dogmatic arguments but these can be used
in catechetical/application used in homilies (Q: But how should it be used?)
- for literally embellishment
- but should be used with (sobriety - not overusing it, intelligence, taste)
- eg, Jn 1, 6 > there was a man sent from God
1.4. Fuller Sense and Accommodation
How to distinguish?
1.4.1. First Criteria
- Fuller sense: comes from further revelation or a development in the
understanding of revelation
- a surest to fuller sense is an authoritative interpretation of the scriptural
passage
-- sources or guides to an authoritative interpretation
-- NT itself, Church Fathers, Church pronouncements
1.4.2. Second Criteria
- the fuller sense of the text must be homogenous with a literal sense, that is
(it must be a developemtn of what the human author wanted to say)
“negative” Jer 31, 15 > figurative lamentation of Rachel (mother of
Northern tribes) when the northern kingdom fell to Assyrians in 722 BC
> Mt 2, 18 > lamentation to describe the slaughter of the innocents
> there was a popular but mistaken localization of Rachel’s tomb near
Bethlehem
> there is little homogeneity with the literal sense in the passage in Jeremiah
> Mt was accommodating the Jeremiah passage
“negative” Wis 18, 14-15 > application of this text to the liturgy on the birth
of Jesus (liturgy of Christmas)
> yet this is an accommodation; it has little homogeneity with the literal sense
 Introduction to Sacred Scriptures :: 39

“positive” Is 7, 14 > used by Mt 1, 23

Is : young woman, translated to greek, virgin (patheros)
Mt: virgin (patheros)
“positive” Ps 2, 7
King < > Jesus
Adoptive Son of God
Son of God

2. Rules of Interpretation
Literary norms: internal/external > Bible (words, contexts, parallels) as a truly human
work, application of rules and criteria as we do with any human work
Theological norm > Bible as a truly divine work, these are added norms of interpretation
2.1. Internal Literary Norms of Interpretation
2.1.1. The norms in themselves (philological investigation)
a. Textual Criticism
- at the basis of every exegesis
- check the text: reliable or corrupt in translation
b. Study of Biblical Languages
- next step, after textual criticism
- to grasp the exact meaning of the words, the first elements which convey the
message
c. Some Remarks in the Study of Vocabulary
- distinction between signification and sense and the shades of meaning
i. Signification and Sense
- signification: meaning of words in themselves as detached from the context
- sense > the meaning of the words in a given context according to the author’s
intentions
- eg, Gen 1, 2
πυεµα > Spirit, breath, mind, principle of life
spirit ‫לרח‬
ii. Shades of meaning
- not all words have the same meaning
- old and recent meaning
- religion and profane meaning
- etymological and technical meaning
- eg, Sheol > underworld, nether world; place of the dead (not identical with hell)
iii. Semitism
- genitive of apposition due to lack of adjectives
-- father of mercies > merciful Father
-- vessel of election > chosen instrument
-- bowels of mercy > compassionate heart
-- son of death > a man deserving death
- a genitive as a substitute to the superlative
-- vanity of vanities > extreme vanity
-- holy of holies > most holy
- use of the same word twice to make an emphasis
-- rejoicing and rejoice
-- to dream a dream

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d. Some rules concerning the use of norms

a. Do not invent significations for which there is no etymological or
lexicographical basis just to avoid a difficult text
b. Take the common and ordinary meaning, unless there is a valid reason to the
contrary
Mt 19, 24 > It is easier for a camel (rope used by sailors) to go through the eye of
a needle (narrow gate in Bethlehem)
c. Pay attention to the special and religious meaning that a word would have:
redemption > setting a slave free by paying
> salvational liberation in the grace of God

2.1.2. Context (reflection of a passage to what precedes or follows)

a. Grammatical Context
- mutual relation of words and phrases in a passage according to the rules of
grammar
b. Logical Context
- sequence of ideas according to the rules of right thinking
- one sentence follows from another
-- premise > conclusion
-- hypothesis > thesis
-- proof > principle
i. as a rule, the proximate logical context will coincide with the grammatical
context, because as we express our thoughts and ideas in a correct language and
grammar
ii. the logical context is usually expressed with small connective particles (esp in
Greek)
for, the, because, on the one hand, on the other hand, etc.
a. Rom 3, 28 > man is justified by faith apart from works of the law (works in
which they claim rewards from God) iow, faith first before works/law.
Jas 2, 17 > faith by itself if it has no work is dead (life of the one who is already
justified/saved.) iow, works first before faith.
b. Mt 23, 9 > call no one your father on earth
proximate context: against the hypocrisy of the Pharisees, Jesus forbids the abuse
of this title as in the manner of the Pharisees
remote context: 1 Cor 4, 15 in Christ and I became your Father
c. Mk 7, 8 > you hold fast to the tradition of man
proximate context: v4 > tradition of washing, Jesus did not have in mind the
traditions as we understand now in our faith (tradition as oral) > handed down
by Christ, tradition of the Fathers of the Church
remote context: 2 Thess 2, 15

c. Psychological Context
- associate of thoughts, not so much on the natural but on the psychological,
emotional basis
- one idea charged with emotion provokes another idea in the person while the
ordinary reader does not see as much the connection between the statements
- eg, Lk 14, 14ff
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You will be repaid in the resurrection of the just. Blessed is the one who
will dine in the kingdom of God. They speak of the Kingdom of God as a
heavenly banquet. Parable of the great banquet.
- Rom 5, 12
Paul is carried away by his thoughts in 5, 12 and left it unfinished only did
he continue in 5, 18
- Eph 3, 1 (continued in 3, 14)
Hence, the need to study the psychology of the author, his way of thinking
and to study the semitic mind, with vivid imagination
- Other examples,
Jn 7, 37 > Feast of the Tabernacles, during the procession a jar full of water
was carried
Jn 8, 12 > I am the light of the world, candle was illuminated by candles
during the feast
Jn 8, 32 > The truth will make you free, feast is about the liberation from
Egypt
Gospel of John (Johanine)
- Jesus is moving on 2 levels: the physical/material and spiritual. For instance,
Jesus said, “destroy the temple in 3 days and I will raise it up” (spiritual). The
story of the Samaritan woman at the well or the story of Nicodemus (spiritual).
They understood Jesus on the physical level only.

d. Historical Context
- there is chronological sequence of events
- a passage is on its right historical context if it is written/narrated in its
chronological sequence
- difficulties in the Bible disappear when we understand that not all things are
narrated in their right historical context, even if there is the presence of
connective particles like, “then after that…”
- eg, Visit of Jesus to Nazareth (Version of Luke, Matthew and Mark)
- Lk: the beginning of Jesus’ Galilean ministry (Lk 4, 16)
-- in order to prevent his program for the ministry of Jesus “Spirit of the Lord is
upon me, to preach”
- Mt/Mk: towards the end of Jesus’ ministry in Galilee (Mt 13 // Mk 6)
-- the climax of the rejection of Jesus
- eg, Cleansing of the Temple
(Version of Lk, Mt, and Mk - towards the end of the public life of Jesus, Mt 21,
12ff) (John 2, the very beginning of Jesus’ public life)
-- apply redaction criticism (how the author edited his sources)
* In the versions of Lk, Mt, and Mk - He went to Jerusalem “once”
- No other choice to locate the cleansing except towards the end of his
public life
- The cleansing of the Temple – the immediate cause for the death of Jesus
* In the version of Jn - He went to Jerusalem “more than once”
- He has the choice to put it in the end/beginning
- John made the “raising of Lazarus” as the immediate cause of Jesus’ death
Doublet : Two events narrated twice
: can be possible

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: what is narrated twice refers to one and the same event

e. Prophetic Context
- Prophet is given a vision to see two events which are far apart from each other
and in time but intrinsically related to each other
i. Mt 24: end of the world (day of the Lord) - closely intertwined to how its
difficult to see
: destruction of Jerusalem (70 AD) what belongs to which
ii. Rev 13, 17 : Roman Empire - distant but are related
: Anti-Christ at the end-time
iii. Lk 1, 56-57
v 56 : 3 months they said and returned home - Luke finishes first an
episode
v 57 : Elizabeth gave birth to John the Baptist before starting with
another

2.1.3. Parallel Passages

a. Parallelism of Members
i. Synonymous Parallelism
- Second line requests the thought of the first line
- Ps 51, 7
- Ps 1, 5
ii. Antithetic Parallelism
- Second line gives the first thought of the first line
- Lk 1, 52
- Ps 20, 8ff
iii. Synthetic Parallelism
- Second line develops the thought of the first line
- Ps 3, 5 : I lie down and sleep
: I wake again, for the Lord sustains me
- Ps 145. 18 : 2 lines are taken together and they make up one idea or thought
- Ps 33, 6 : by the word of the Lord - heavens were made
: by the breath of his mouth - all of the hosts of the heaven were
made
: both of these above are by the same agent
- Ps 42, 8 : by day and by night (take together)
: are one and the same with Ps 33, 6
iv. Semitic Inclusion
- Same words and phrases are present at the beginning and at the end of a
section
- The whole thing is an ‘inclusion’
- Mt 4, 23 = Mt 9, 35
Mt 28, 20

b. Parallelism in Words
- word study - study of the meaning of a word in different contexts or authors
- study the word in original language because a word can be translated in
various ways
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- Eph 2, 3 : we were by nature children of wrath (human nature essentially

corrupt? φ ς)
- Gal 4, 8 : you were in bondage to being which by nature are no gods (φυσει)
- Gal 2, 15 : who are Jews by birth? (φυσει)
- Rom 2, 14 : Do by nature what the law requires
- essence, birth, natural inclination

c. Parallelism in Subject Matter

- Different passages deal with the same object matter or thought
- Lk 14, 26 : hate his own father or mother
- Mt 10, 37 : He who loves father or mother more than me
- Gal 3, 13 : Christ having become a curse for us
- 2 Cor 5, 21 : He made him to be son
- Rom 8,3 : Sending his son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin

2.2. External Literary Norms of Interpretation

2.2.1. The Person or the Author
- The study of the life and character and education of the author
- Every literary composition is the brainchild of the author
a. Personal Characteristics
- can explain the great differences in biblical authors
- Isaiah : man of city with high education, of noble and generous characters
- Jeremiah : comes from a little town near Jerusalem; timid and sensitive
- Amos : farmer and shepherd, dislikes the life of luxury in the royal court
- Hosea : deeply emotional, had an unhappy marriage
- Paul : intellectual, Pharisee by upbringing, a trained Rabbi
- Luke : educated physician, Greek
b. Race Characteristics
- Almost all biblical authors were semites
i. Concrete Expressions
- semites were not abstract thinkers
- language is vivid, clear, graphic, concrete abounding in metaphors close to
nature
- a bible reader needs to be familiar with the religious and cultural setting
ii. Strong and Emphatic Language
- abstract reasoning demands logical and exact language
- semitics were sentimental, have emphatic language
- Gen 49, 14 : Isaachar is a stong man
- Amos 4, 1 : you sons of Bashan (refers to women of Samaria)
- Ps 78, 65
iii. Different Ways of Reasoning
- Greek mind : logical
- Roman mind : juridical
- Semitic mind : clear-cut distinction
- Semitics would easily pass over the secondary causes and attribute directly
to God which people would normally attribute to secondary causes
iv. Totality of Thinking
- they see a part, as related to the whole

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- knowledge of God (wisdom) > intellectual, practical

v.Corporate Personality
- an individual is part of the social group
vi. Concentric Circles
- Western : linear and progressive way of thinking and reasoning
- Semitic : In “concentric circles” (spiral movement)
A A
B B
B1 C
A1 B1
A1
2.2.2. Reader, Occasion, Purpose
- Reader > Audience
- Occasion > Setting
- Purpose > Motive
2.2.3. Time and Place of Composition
- Historical and geographical setting

2.3. Theological Norms of Interpretation

a. Authentic Interpretation of the Church
- the teaching authority of the Church (Magisterium)
- sources of this authentic interpretation of the Church
* formal definition and also of lesser authority
i. definition of a council and of a Pope (ex cathedra) > Solemn definitions
ii. pronouncements of lesser authority > papal encyclicals, decrees of Roman
congregations
b. Unanimous consent of the Fathers of the Church and of tradition
- especially in matters of faith and morals
- consent of the fathers
c. The analogy of faith
- the interpretation of a passage (text) should conform to the sum total of
revealed truths or at least must not contradict other revealed truths
- Mk 6, 3 : “the brothers and sisters of Jesus”
: contradicts the doctrine of perpetual virginity of Mary
- Jn 14, 28 : The father is greater than I
: to refer to Jesus as human

METHODS OF BIBLICAL CRITICISM

1. Source Criticism
- Methodology in which the interpreter of the Bible asks whether the author used same
sources and what are the sources used by the author.
- Whether? What?

Bible : more difficult task : authors are long since dead

: autographs/prototype are lost
: it was a time when authors can incorporate borrowed materials
into their work
: parallel materials to which one can compose aren’t on-hand
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: instances in which the author mentions his sources

: Mt 13, 14-15 > Isaiah
: Acts 17, 28 > Poets
- Criteria to determine whether the author used sources:
1.1. Redundancy and Repetition
- Jn 15 and 16 are repetitions of Jn 13 and 14
- Farewell discourses > repetitions of the commandment “that you love one another”
(Jn 13, 34-35 and Jn 15, 12)
- “coming of the Holy Spirit”
Mt 5, 32 and Mt 19, 9 (Divorce) > ~Q (Quelle) ~Mark
1.2. Context
- Presence of aporias > technical term to designate hard connections dysfunctions and
inconsistencies and even contradictions within the text
- The “seam” between the borrowed material that the authors own work is not
sufficiently wielded.
- Jn 16, 31b : “Get up, let us go.”
- Jn 20, 30-31
- Rom 15, 33
1.3. Vocabulary and Style
- Prologue of the Gospel of John (Jn 1, 1-18)
- Vocabulary and style of the prologue which are not seen in the rest of the book
- style: poets in the prologue
: rest is prose (rest of the book)
- vocabulary: “word” (1, 1.14)
“grace” (1, 16.17)
“fullness” (1, 16)
- Prologue of the Gospel of Luke
- fine example of Greek style
- Infancy Narratives: Canticles: Magnificat, Benedictus, Nunc Dimittis
- Rest is “prose” narrative
1.4. Ideological Characteristics
- Themes, ideas, theological tendencies, and points of view which are different from
the ideas expressed elsewhere in the book
- Phil 2, 6-11 : Christological Hymn
* Presuppositions in the use of this methodology
- no matter how careful the author is, he is bound to reproduce/reflect in his work
the use of source materials, no authors can have the same points-of-view. And the
disagreement between the source materials and those coming from the authors own
hand will somehow surface in the literary composition.
- need to be aware of the so-called literary, osmosis 9it can happen that the source
material can slip into the author’s own work) ie, the source can slip into the author’s
own characteristics are embedded in the source material.

2. Form Criticism
- Analysis of typical forms by means of which a human experience is verbally expressed
- All forms of human communication whether written or oral, will follow well-defined
patterns of communication
- ie, in the telling of a joke : narrative

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: punchline > pattern/the term of giving a joke

* Pattern of communication ie, “Papanam?” by Ilocanos
* What determines the forms/patterns of communication?
- circumstances
- purpose : friendly letter
: business letter
- eg, “dear” in friendly letter means ‘affection’ while in business letter is ‘courtesy or
respect’
- discernment of the literary form will color the attitude that one has in reading the text
- eg, ‘headlines’ = accept = fact
‘editorial’ = ‘agree/disagree’ (opinions)
2.1. Definition
- The literary form is the characteristic of vocabulary and style that enable a piece of
writing to be analyzed with a literary type
- all forms of written communication must fit a literary type
- literary type: characteristic manner of written expression found in a text that have a
common pattern of thought, characteristic vocabulary expressions, a similarity of
style, and a similarity of purpose.
- eg, friendly letter and business letter > literary type
Literary forms: date, address and recipient, salutation, body, complimentary
clause, sender and signature
- The literary type of these is : business letter
2.2. First Task of a Literary Form Critic
- analysis of the literary form used to be able to classify the literary work to a literary
type
2.3. Second Task of a Literary Form Critic
- relates the writing to its social setting // to determine the situation which gave rise
to this literary type
- a type of situation will always elicit a form/pattern of communication
- there is a dialogical relation between one’s situation and the form of communication
that is used
- the social situation elicits the form of communication used
- the form of communication used determines the nature of the social situation
- This social situation is known as ‘sitz im leben’ (situation in life)
- as a miracle story vv 37-38 : present situation, a great storm of wind, circumstances
are grave, waves, boat was already filling (urgency), Jesus was sleeping, “Peace.” “Be
still.”, calm, awe and wonder
- Jesus not only a miracle worker during his time, purpose: non-apologetic (in defense
of Jesus as Son of God), not used in kerygma, epiphanic: points to the
presence/manifestation of divinity/divine power in the person of Jesus, sitz im leben:
liturgical eucharist, to bring out the epiphanic interpretation of the Eucharist
3. Redaction Criticism
-Criticism against the form-criticism: the author of the Bible are just collectors of tradition
so that there is a neglect of looking at the function and meaning of a document within the
literary composition.
-use of redaction criticism methodology, it rehabilitates the author. With redaction, you
see the creative way of editing/editorial way of the author. With the author as one who
creatively authors his work.
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-redaction criticism refers to the editorial work of the author

-collection/selection (omission) of materials
-modification of materials
-arrangement of materials
--according to the purpose of the literary work
--according to the theological perspective or tendency of the author

Mk 4, 35-41 || Mt 8m 23-27

Mt.: Shorter Version

-omits some features:
Marcan Intro (v35)
Other boats (v36)
So that the boat was already filling
Jesus was in the ship?
The wind ceased
Peace! Be Still!
Mk=Epiphanic
Mt=Christological (essential point)
-Hence, the omission of several features
=”What sort of man is this…”
-used only onece
-attention only on Jesus

Lord - this title appears only on the lips of the disciples, not anyone else, others address
Jesus as “Teacher/Rabbi”
Teacher - Mk
Master - Lk

Focus of the narrative: Jesus and his disciples

-hence, the omission of the presence of other boats

V23 : when he got into the boat the disciples followed him (to be a disciple)

-end- March 3, 2016

-Notes taken from the handwritten notes of dreiabara and has been transcribed here. (July 12,
2016)

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