Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

5. DESIGNING FOR VARIABLE 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (+) 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = +

STRESSES 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = +
Variable Stresses
These are stresses due to cyclic loadings. They are 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
0 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0
characterized with loads that vary between values and are
applied for several repetitions or cycles. (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)

Types of Variable Loads: 0 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0

1. Reversed load 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎
2. Repeated load 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = −
3. Fluctuating load
4. Alternating load 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (−) 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −
1. Reversed Load (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)
- Variation has equal values but of opposing signs
(i.e. loads are oppositely directed)
For a repeated load, since 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0 then
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (+) 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 =
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 2
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 =0 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
0 3. Fluctuating Load
- Variation is between two values that are unequal
(−) 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 in magnitude, but of the same directions. It can
also be purely tensile or purely compressive.

where 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = +
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (+) 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = maximum magnitude of stress
𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟) 𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑐𝑐) 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = +
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐴𝐴 𝐽𝐽 𝐼𝐼
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = minimum magnitude of stress 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = +
𝐹𝐹𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑟𝑟) 𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑐𝑐) 0 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐴𝐴 𝐽𝐽 𝐼𝐼 (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡)
F, M, T = axial load, bending moment,
twisting moment on member 0 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = mean or average stress 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = −
2
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = alternating stress 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (−)
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜)
2

For a reversed load, since 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 , then - This is similar to a repeated load, except that
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≠ 0
- This is the usual load applied to members that are
Reversed load is the worst possible cyclic loading of already stressed during the assembly and are
a member. further loaded with several repetitions during
operation. (e.g. springs, bolts, etc.)

2. Repeated Load 4. Alternating Load

- Variation is from zero to a certain maximum - Variation is between two values that are unequal
value. It can be purely tensile or purely in magnitude and of opposite directions.
compressive, i.e. one direction only.

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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

Rotating Beam Test

𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (+) 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = + This is a standard test for the endurance strength or
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 endurance limit of a material specimen. It is also generally
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = + known as a “fatigue test”.
0 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = − Simple Setup:
(𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
Revolution Counter F
Chuck of
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 (+) 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = + tester
Bearing
0 𝐧𝐧𝐧𝐧. 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 Motor support
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = −
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 Test Specimen
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −
Detail of Test Specimen
(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
𝑑𝑑 ≤ 0.3"

- This is similar to a reversed load, but the limits are 𝐿𝐿 Smooth surface
not equal, 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ≠ 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
- For any of the above types, the mean and
alternating stresses are always defined as Test Highlights:
- Specimen should be ideally mirror-polished
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 - Specimen’s diameter is about 0.25” to 0.3”
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = - Specimen is under bending, applied with a load
2
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 F and thus, its stress is
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 32𝑀𝑀
2
Note: 𝑆𝑆 = = : 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑀𝑀 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝐼𝐼 𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑3
The algebraic signs (+ or -) of the stresses are to be - During rotation, bending reverses and the
observed in the calculation of the mean stress Sm and the specimen is under completely reversed load. This
alternating stress Sa. However, only absolute values of Sm leads to purely alternating stress with zero mean
and Sa are to be considered when they are used in the design stress.
equations for variable stress analysis – Soderberg equation, - The motor stops when the specimen breaks. At
Goodman equation, Gerber equation, etc. rupture, the revolution counter shows the number
of cycles elapsed.
Endurance strength (Sn) and endurance limit (Sn’)
𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 = 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 @ 𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄
Endurance Strength (Sn)
No. of cycles at rupture
This is the highest stress at which a material can be
Maximum stress set
subjected to, for several repetitions until it breaks (e.g. at before the motor is
the rotating beam test or fatigue test). started
Ex. Sn = 20 ksi @ 105 cycles
Graph of Endurance Strength Test
Endurance Limit (Sn’)
Stress (Sn)
This is similar to the endurance strength Sn, but the
specimen did not break after several repetitions (n > 106
cycles, usually). It is described without an accompanying
number of cycles.
Ex. Sn’ = 15 ksi 0 No. of cycles (n)

Note: Log (Sn) knee

- Most ferrous materials have defined
values of endurance limit (Sn’) – steel, Ferrous Materials
alloy steel, cast iron, etc.
Non-Ferrous Materials
- Non-ferrous materials don’t exhibit 0 No. of cycles
endurance limits – aluminums and Sn’
copper-based materials, etc. (n >106 cycles)
Graph of Sm vs. Sa:
Specimen is tested with loads having combination of
both Sm and Sa.
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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

Defined Points of Failure in Material Testing Soderberg and Goodman equations which are straight-line
• If the applied stress has no alteration, 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = 0 based.
(Typical UTM test) 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂
Sy – for ductile materials 𝟏𝟏 = � � + : (Gerber Equation)
𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
Su – for brittle materials
• If the stress applied is pure alternation with zero If factor of safety is included, the Gerber equation becomes
mean Stress, 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 0 𝟐𝟐

(Typical Fatigue test or Rotating Beam test) 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂
𝟏𝟏 = � � + : 𝟏𝟏 = � � +
𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
Sn = for materials under completely reversed 𝑵𝑵 𝑵𝑵
load applied for several cycles (A point
of failure when the stress is purely Also, modification should be used for shear stresses.
alternating. (i.e. 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 = 0)
where
Sa Region of failure N = factor of safety, 1._ to 2.0. (this is not
Soderberg Line or Line of failure equal to the factors of safety used in the
Sn (assumed to be straight) previous consideration (Table 1.1)
Line of Safe Stress
Sm = mean or average stress
𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 (Parallel to Soderberg line) Sa = alternating stress
𝑁𝑁 Sy = yield strength of material
𝑥𝑥
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 Sms, Sas, Sys, Sns = shear properties

Sm For steels:
0
𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 Sy Sy = 0.6Sy for torsion (see AT 7)
s
𝑁𝑁 Sy = 0.5Sy for ordinary shear
s
Pt. x = any point on the line of safe stress Su s = 0.75Su
• refer to other sources for some updated
Note: value or tested properties.
Above graph is based on ductile materials (e.g. steel).
• If tested values are available, use them
The Soderberg equation is derived from the above graph
• Estimations are also available for some
by similar triangles.
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 materials
= : 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛
𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁
− 𝑆𝑆 For steels,
𝑁𝑁 𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 Sn’≈0.5Su (for wrought steels with BHN < 400)
= 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 + 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁
Or, For other materials, see p. 109-110 of DME
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 Faires. Also, some estimates are specified in
= + : (Soderberg Equation) the tables for material properties.
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
Net or Corrected Endurance Strength, Sn
For shear, the corresponding equation becomes This is the strength value to be substituted into the
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂𝒔𝒔
= + : (Soderberg Equation for Shear) useful equations (Soderberg, Goodman, Gerber, etc.)
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏𝒔𝒔
𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 = (𝑳𝑳. 𝑭𝑭. )(𝑺𝑺𝒊𝒊 . 𝑭𝑭. )(𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 . 𝑭𝑭. )(𝑺𝑺′𝒏𝒏 )
Note:
An equation based on the ultimate strength of the where
material is similarly derived. This is the Goodman L.F. = load factor
equation. Si.F. = size factor
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 Su.F. = surface finish factor
= + : (Goodman Equation)
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 Sn’ = endurance limit

𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂𝒔𝒔 Note:

= + : (Goodman Equation for shear) If tested values of Sn’ are not present in tables, use
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏𝒔𝒔
endurance strength values Sn @ n≥ 106 cycles.
A closer predictor of failure (as described by The following factors are based on DME by Faires and
newer textbooks) is known as the Gerber equation. This MED by Shigley. Numerous factors are suggested by other
considers a parabolic curve (Gerber curve) unlike the
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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

sources. However, only the factors below are consistently

used in the succeeding presentations or examples.

• Load Factor
L.F. = 1.0 for bending
L.F. = 0.8 for axial loading
L.F. = 0.6 for torsion

• Size Factor
Si. F. = 1.0 for 𝑑𝑑 ≤ 0.3"
Si. F. = 0.85 for 0.3" < 𝑑𝑑 ≤ 2"
Si. F. = 0.75 for 2" < 𝑑𝑑

where b. 𝑑𝑑 =?: Based on the given Soderberg’s factor of

𝑑𝑑 = smallest cross-sectional dimension of safety of 2.0
the machine member

• Surface Finish Factor

Reference is AF5 of DME by Faires.
AF5 is more applicable to steels, but it may
be used as a general basis for other materials.

This is similar to Charts seen from other sources,

but with slight discrepancies.

Example 1:
A solid shaft, machined from AISIC1020, as rolled
steel, is to be subjected to a torque that continuously varies
from 2000 in-lb to 12,000 in-lb, indefinitely.
a. Recommend the shaft diameter using the basic
design concept only, i.e. taking a factor of safety
from Table 1.1 of DME by Faires.
b. Recommend the shaft diameter using a factor of
safety of 2.0, based on the Soderberg criterion.

Solution:

T Tmin = 2000 in-lb

Tmax = 12,000 in-lb
D=? 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐶𝐶1020, as rolled steel
𝑆𝑆𝑦𝑦 = 48𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
T 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢 = 65𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

a. 𝑑𝑑 =?: Shaft diameter required using the basic design

concept (i.e. with N taken from Table 1.1)

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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

Example 2:
A machine link is axially loaded as shown. The
load is to continuously vary from zero to a maximum of
15 kips. The link material is AISIC1035, as rolled steel,
with ground surface. (a) For N = 2.0 from the Soderberg
criterion, determine the dimensions 𝑙𝑙 & ℎ. Design for
indefinite life. (b) What are the changes in 𝑙𝑙 & ℎ from a)
if surfaces were mirror-polished? (c) The same as (𝑎𝑎 )
except that the links operates in a brine solution. (d) The
same as (𝑎𝑎 ) except that the load is completely reversed
with a max value of 15 .

𝑏𝑏

𝐅𝐅 ℎ 𝐅𝐅

Solution:
a. ℎ, 𝑏𝑏 =?: Soderberg criterion, indefinite life

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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

c. The same as (𝑎𝑎) except that the link operates in a

d. The same as (𝑎𝑎) except that the load is completely

Example 3:
Calculate the maximum load that the cast iron
ASTM 50 beam can support indefinitely if the load varies
from −20% 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 100% of force F. The beam has surfaces
with mill scales.
a. Use a factor of safety 2.0 based on the Goodman’s
criterion.
b. The same as a.), except that the Gerber equation
is to be used.
b. Changes in 𝑏𝑏 & ℎ (if any) from a) if surfaces were F=?

4”
2”
12” 6”
Solution:

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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

b. Using the Gerber equation

Example 4:
The thin-walled pressure vessel shown is under a
variable pressure that is continuously applied from zero
to 500 psi per cycle. The vessel material is stainless steel
AISI No. 302, annealed. The joint efficiency can be taken
as 75 %.

t= ?

𝜂𝜂𝑗𝑗 = 75% D=24”

a. 𝐹𝐹 =?: Maximum load F allowed

L
From the Goodman equation
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂
= + → (𝒃𝒃) a. Recommend the wall thickness ‘t’ necessary for
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 N = 1.8 (Soderberg). Use a polished surface.
b. Solve a) using the ASME elliptic equation. Take
N = 1.8.
𝟐𝟐
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒎𝒎 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒂𝒂 𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 = � � +� �
𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
(ASME elliptic equation)
Or,
𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
=� � +� �
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
(ASME elliptic equation)

Solution:
a. 𝑡𝑡 =? : Soderberg criterion

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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

Variable Stresses with Stress Concentration

- Effect of stress raiser is taken into consideration

- Material’s endurance strength is reduced through
the use of a factor 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 , known as the fatigue-
strength reduction factor

Thus the equations are modified as follows:

𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 (𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 )
= + ∶ (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 (𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 )
= + ∶ (𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)
𝑵𝑵 𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟐 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 (𝑵𝑵𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 )
𝟏𝟏 = � � + : (𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)
𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝑺𝑺𝒎𝒎 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 (𝑺𝑺𝒂𝒂 )
= � � + � � : (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑺𝑺𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏

Values of 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 :
- For any of the following stress raisers, use the
appendix tables indicated,
o Threaded members (AT 12, DME
Faires)
o Shafts with keyways (AT 13, DME
Faires).
- For any other stress raiser use the general
equation of 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 (unless tables & charts are
available from other sources).

𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 = 𝟏𝟏 + 𝒒𝒒 (𝑲𝑲𝒕𝒕 − 𝟏𝟏)

where

𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 = theoretical stress concentration

factor, or SCF (AF8 to AF14 of
DME Faires)

𝑞𝑞 = notch sensitivity factor

For any of the following materials,

b. 𝑡𝑡 =?: Using the ASME elliptic equation with same ”𝑞𝑞” may be determined using AF7,
data  Quenched & Tempered steels
 Annealed or Normalized steels
 Alloyed Alloys

For any other material, use the general

equation of Notch Sensitivity Factor, 𝑞𝑞
𝟏𝟏
𝒒𝒒 = 𝒂𝒂
𝟏𝟏 + 𝒓𝒓
Where,
𝑟𝑟 = notch radius, radius of the stress raiser
𝑎𝑎 = constant dependent upon the material′ s
ultimate strength value

For steels: ( p.114 of DME by Faires )

a = 0.005 for Su = 93 Ksi
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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

a = 0.0005 for Su = 180 Ksi

- Then logarithmic value of 𝑎𝑎 is directly

proportional to the value of 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢 ,
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥(𝒂𝒂) ∝ 𝑺𝑺𝒖𝒖
Note:
Thus if the 𝑆𝑆𝑢𝑢 of steel is known,”𝑎𝑎” can
be determined by interpolation or extrapolation
using the above values.

Example 5:
The stepped shaft shown is to be subjected to a
torque that continuously varies from zero to a maximum
value ‘T’. The shaft is made of steel with Sy = 50 ksi and
Su = 70 ksi, with machined surface.
a. For a Soderberg’s factor of safety of 1.8,
determine the maximum magnitude of the
Torque, 𝑇𝑇 that the shaft can sustain
indefinitely.
b. Solve a) using the Gerber equation
c. Solve a) using the ASME elliptic equation

d = 1” D = 1.5”

𝑟𝑟 = 0.25" T

Solution:

a. Maximum permissible torque T = ? b. T = ? : Using the Gerber equation for shear

c. T = ? : Using the ASME elliptic equation for shear

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 Machine Design 1: BASAEN, RV

Designing for a Limited Life:

The number of cycles 𝑛𝑛𝐿𝐿 that the machine member is
expected to last is less than 106 cycles.

- Indefinite Life = 106 cycles or more.

- Limited Life = less than 106 cycles.

Correction Factor for Endurance Strength, 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 : (p.

119, DME Faires)
𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏 � �
𝒏𝒏𝑳𝑳
where
Sn = endurance limit (for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 106 cycles)
nL = number of cycles the member is to last
(nL < 106 cycles)
SnL = corrected Sn for a limited life

Correction for Kf
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇
� �
𝟑𝟑
𝒏𝒏𝑳𝑳
𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 =
𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇
where
𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 = fatigue-strength reduction factor from
Tables, Charts, or formulas (this is
based on indefinite life, or n ≥ 106
𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 𝐿𝐿 = corrected 𝐾𝐾𝑓𝑓 for a limited life b) D = ? : Limited life only of 2.5 x 105 cycles

Note:
- 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 always greater than 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏: 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 > 𝑺𝑺𝒏𝒏
- 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 always less than 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇 : 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 < 𝑲𝑲𝒇𝒇

Example 6:
A shaft with a hardened profile keyway is to be made
of steel (Sy = 50ksi and Su = 70ksi), is to transmit torque
that varies from 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 6000 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 – 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖. Consider a surface
finish factor of 0.9 and a Goodman factor of safety of 2.0.
a) Determine the shaft diameter. Design for an
indefinite life.
b) The same as a), except that the shaft is to
withstand up to about 250,000 cycles only.

Solution:

a) D = ?: Indefinite life

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