DTCE 127: RENEWABLE ENERGY

SUB-MODULE 4: SOLAR ENERGY

1.0 INTODUCTION TO THE PHOTOVOLTAIC BASICS

Photovoltaics (PV), the technology which converts sunlight into electricity, is one of the
fastest growing sectors of the renewable energy industry. It is already well established in
many countries and looks set to become one of the key technologies of the 21st century. The
market is being driven by concerns about carbon emissions, energy security and the rising
price of fossil fuels.

Photovoltaic (PV) systems can be grouped into stand-alone systems and grid connected
systems. In stand-alone systems the solar energy yield is matched to the energy demand.
Since the solar energy yield often does not coincide in time with the energy demand from the
connected loads, additional storage systems (batteries) are generally used. If the PV system is
supported by an additional power source – for example, a wind or diesel generator - this is
known as a photovoltaic hybrid system. In grid-connected systems the public electricity grid
functions as an energy store.

Small individual power supplies for homes - known as solar home systems – can provide
power for lights, radio, television, or a refrigerator or a pump. And, increasingly, villages are
gaming their own power supplies with an alternating current circuit and outputs in the two-
digit kilowatt range.

Figure 1.0: Types of PV systems

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1.1 STAND –ALONE SYSTEMS
The first cost-effective applications for photovoltaics were stand-alone systems.
Wherever it was not possible to install an electricity supply from the mains utility grid, or
where this was not cost-effective or desirable, stand-alone photovoltaic systems could be
installed. The range of applications is constantly growing. There is great potential for
using stand-alone systems in developing countries where vast areas are still frequently not
supplied by an electrical grid. But technological innovations and new lower-cost
production methods are opening up potential in industrialized countries as well.

Solar power is also on the advance when it comes to mini-applications: pocket calculators,
clocks, battery chargers, flashlights, solar radios, etc., are well known examples of the
successful use of solar cells in stand-alone applications.
Other typical applications for stand-alone systems:
 mobile systems on cars, camper vans, boats, etc.;
 remote mountain cabins, weekend and holiday homes and village electrification in
developing countries;
 parking ticket machines, traffic signals and observation systems,
 communication stations, buoys and similar applications that are remote from the grid;
 applications in gardening and landscaping;
 solar pump systems for drinking water and irrigation, solar water disinfection and
desalination.
Stand-alone PV systems generally require an energy storage system because the energy
generated is not usually (or infrequently) required at the same time as it is generated (i.e.
solar energy is available during the day, but the lights in a stand-alone solar lighting system
are used at night). Rechargeable batteries are used to store the electricity. However, with
batteries, in order to protect them and achieve higher availability and a longer service life it is
essential that a suitable charge controller is also used as a power management unit.
Hence, a typical stand-alone system comprises the following main components:
 PV modules, usually connected in parallel or series-parallel;
 charge controller;
 battery or battery bank;
 load(s);
 inverter - in systems providing alternating current (AC) power.

1.2 GRID CONNECTED SYSTEMS

A grid-connected PV system essentially comprises the following components:
 PV modules/array (multiple PV modules connected in series or parallel with
mounting frame);
 PV array combiner/junction box (with protective equipment);
 direct current (DC) cabling;
 DC main disconnect/isolator switch;
 inverter;
 AC cabling;
 meter cupboard with power distribution system, supply and feed meter, and
electricity connection.

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Figure 1.2: A typical grid connected PV systems

Whereas the first PV system installations were mounted on the roofs of private family
houses, PV systems are increasingly being installed on all kinds of buildings (e.g. apartment
blocks, schools, and agricultural and industrial buildings). In addition, there is increasing use
of other structures for photovoltaic systems (e.g. motorway noise barriers and train station
platform roofs). There is now a great variety of design possibilities for integrating PV
systems within buildings.

Figure 1.2a: a Grid connected PV system on noise barriers of motorway

As well as this, energy utilities, operating companies and investment companies, in particular,
are building large-scale grid-connected PV systems as ground-mounting systems.

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Figure 1.2b: Ground mounted grid connected PV system

1.3 SOLAR RADIATION

The sun supplies energy in the form of radiation, without which life on Earth could not
exist. The energy is generated in the sun's core through the fusion of hydrogen atoms into
helium. Part of the mass of the hydrogen is converted into energy. In other words, the sun is
an enormous nuclear fusion reactor. Because the sun is such a long way from the Earth,
only a tiny proportion (around two-millionths) of the sun's radiation reaches the Earth's
surface. This works out at an amount of energy of 1 x 101 8 kWh/a.

The amount of energy in the sunlight reaching the Earth's surface is equivalent to around
10,000 times the world's energy requirements. Consequently, only 0.01 per cent of the energy
in sunlight would need to be harnessed to cover mankind's total energy needs.

Distribution of solar radiation

The intensity of solar radiation outside of the Earth's atmosphere depends upon the distance
between the sun and the Earth. In the course of a year this varies between 1.47 x 108 km and
1.52 x 108 km. As a result, the irradiance EQ fluctuates between 1325W/m2 and 1412W/m2.
The average value is referred to as the solar constant:
solar constant: EQ = 1367W/m2

This level of irradiance is not reached on the Earth's surface. The Earth's atmosphere reduces
the insolation through reflection, absorption (by ozone, water vapour, oxygen and carbon
dioxide) and scattering (caused by air molecules, dust particles or pollution). In good weather
at noon, irradiance may reach 1000W/m2 on the Earth's surface. This value is relatively
independent of the location. The maximum insolation occurs on partly cloudy, sunny days.
As a result of solar radiation reflecting off passing clouds, insolation can peak at up to
1400W/m2 for short periods. If the energy content of solar radiation is added up over a year,
this gives the annual global radiation in kWh/m2 .This value varies greatly depending upon
the region.

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DIRRECT AND DIFFUSE RADIATION

Sun-light as it passes through the atmosphere

Sunlight on the Earth's surface comprises a direct portion and a diffuse portion. The direct
radiation comes from the direction of the sun and casts strong shadows of objects. By
contrast, diffuse radiation, which is scattered from the dome of the sky, has no defined
direction.

Depending upon the cloud conditions and the time of day (solar altitude), both the radiant
power and the proportion of direct and diffuse radiation can vary greatly. On clear days the
direct radiation accounts for the greater part of the total radiation. On very cloudy days
(especially in winter), the insolation is almost entirely diffuse.
When light passes through the Earth's atmosphere, the irradiance is reduced as a result of:
 reflection off the atmosphere;
 absorption by molecules in the atmosphere ( 0 3 , H2 0 , 0 2 , COz ) ;
 Rayleigh scattering (molecular scattering);
 Mie scattering (scattering of dust particles and pollutants in the air).

Angle definition
Exact knowledge of the sun's path is important for calculating irradiance values and the
yields of solar energy systems. The sun's altitude can be described at any location by the solar
altitude and the solar azimuth. When talking about solar energy systems, due south is
generally given as a = 0°.
Angles to the east are indicated with a negative sign (east: a = -90°). To the west, angles are
given without a sign (or with a positive sign) (west: A = 90°).

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Irradiance and irradiation
• Irradiance is given in W/m2 and is represented by the symbol G.
• The rate at which radiant energy is incident on a surface per unit area of surface.
• Irradiation is given in J /m2 and is the incident energy per unit area on a surface –
determined by integration of irradiance over a specified time, usually an hour or a
day.
• Insolation is a term used to refer to solar energy irradiation.
• Radiosity is the rate at which radiant energy leaves a surface, per unit area, by
combined emission, reflection and transmission.

Atmospheric Effects on Incoming Solar Radiation

• Sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface unmodified by any of the atmospheric processes
is termed direct solar radiation.
• Solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface after it was altered by the process of
scattering is called diffused solar radiation.
• Global radiation - Sum of direct and diffuse.
• Not all the direct and diffused radiation is available at the earth’s surface. Some of the
radiation received at the earth’s surface is redirected back to space by reflection.
• Of all the sunlight that passes through the atmosphere annually, only 51% is available
at the earth’s surface; to heat the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere, evaporate
water, and run photosynthesis in plants.
• Of the other 49%, 4% is reflected back to space by the earth’s surface, 26% is
scattered or reflected to space by clouds and atmospheric particles, and 19% is
absorbed by atmospheric gases, particles and clouds.

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 1.4 How solar radiation is measured
Solar radiation is either measured directly using pyranometers or photovoltaic sensors, or
indirectly by analysing satellite images. Pyranometers are high-precision sensors that
measure solar radiation on a planar surface. They essentially comprise two hemispherical
glass domes, a black metal plate as an absorber surface, the thermo-elements located
below this, and a white metallic housing.

Solar radiation falls through the hemispherical glass domes vertically onto the absorber
surface, warming it up. Since the amount of warming directly depends upon the
irradiance, the difference in temperature between it and the environment (or, more
precisely, the white metallic housing) allows the irradiance to be calculated. The
temperature difference is found via thermocouples that are wired in series. These deliver a
voltage that is proportional to the difference in temperature.

Using a voltmeter, it is then possible to work out the global radiation directly from the
voltage and the calibration factor. If direct solar irradiance is screened out by fitting a
shade ring, the diffuse radiation can be measured. Pyranometers achieve highly accurate
measurements; but because they work on a thermal basis, they are somewhat slow to
respond. As a result, rapid fluctuations in radiation, caused, for example, by a partially
cloudy sky, are not captured satisfactorily. For longer measurement periods, measurement
accuracy of 0.8 per cent is achieved on an annual average.

Pyranometer used for solar radiation measurement

Photovoltaic sensors cost significantly less than pyranometers. They generally use crystalline
silicon sensors. A PV sensor consists of a solar cell that delivers a current proportional to the
irradiance. However, because of the spectral sensitivity of these sensors, certain components
of solar radiation are not measured accurately. A solar cell cannot measure long-wavelength
infrared radiation. Depending upon the calibration and design of the sensor, measurement
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accuracy of 2 per cent to 5 per cent is achieved on the annual average. Accuracy of better
than 4 per cent can be achieved through calibration and use of laminated temperature sensors
for temperature compensation.

Photovoltaic sensors

Tracking PV arrays
If a surface is moved to follow the sun, the energy yield increases. On days with high
insolation and a large direct radiation component, a tracking system enables relatively large
radiation gains to be achieved. The vast majority of the energy gains when using a tracking
system are achieved during summer. First, the absolute energy yield is higher than in winter;
the proportion of cloudy days is also much higher in winter.

There are various types of tracker systems - PV systems that track the sun. One difference is
between single-axis and dual-axis tracking. With dual-axis tracking the system always
maintains the optimum alignment to the sun. Because dual-axis tracking is technically more
complicated, single-axis tracking is often preferred. Here the system can either track the sun's
daily path or its annual path. A system that tracks the annual path is relatively easy to
implement. To do this, the tilt angle of the array needs to be adjusted at relatively large
intervals of time (weeks or months). In some cases, this can be done manually.
If the tracking system fails, the PV array may become stuck in a poor-yield position, with the
result that the energy yield will be severely reduced until the fault is repaired.

1.5 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS

There are many ways that solar energy can be used effectively. Applications of solar energy
use can be grouped into three primary categories:
 Heating/cooling,
 Electricity production, and
 Chemical processes.
The most widely used applications are for water and space heating. Ventilation solar air heating is
also growing in popularity. Uptake of electricity producing solar technologies is increasing for
the applications photovoltaics (primarily) and concentrating solar thermal electric technologies.
Due to recent advances in solar detoxification technologies for cleaning water and air, these
applications hold promise to be competitive with conventional technologies.
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The systems used to concentrate solar radiation are called heliostats, and can be individually
adjusted so that each one reflects the sun’s rays directly into the big parabola, thereby creating
striking flare-ups of light. The converged beams, which are no wider than a foot at their target,
can create temperatures as high as 6,300° F (3500 °C.)

Three commonly used reflecting schemes for concentrating solar energy to attain high
temperatures.
Of the various types of solar thermal power plants, parabolic trough and solar power tower plants are
described in more detail below:
The ―trough‖ collectors that make up the solar field of a parabolic trough power plant are large
cylindrical parabolic mirrors that concentrate the sunlight on a line of focus. Several of
these collectors are installed in rows about a hundred meters long and the total solar field is
composed of many such parallel rows.

Figure 1.4a: Parabolic trough solar collector

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Figure 1.4b: Principle of parabolic trough solar power plant

All the collectors track the path of the sun on their longitudinal axes. The mirrors concentrate the
sunlight more than 80 times on a metal absorber pipe in the line of focus. This pipe is embedded in
an evacuated glass tube to reduce heat loss. A selective coating on the absorber tube surface lowers
emission losses. Either water or special thermal oil runs through the absorber tube. The concentrated
sunlight heats it up to nearly 400 °C, evaporating water into steam that drives a turbine and an
electrical generator. After passing through the turbine, the steam condenses back into water that is
returned to the cycle (Figure 1.4b).

A fossil burner can drive the water-steam cycle during periods of bad weather or at night. In contrast
to photovoltaic systems, solar thermal power plants can guarantee capacity. This option increases its
attractiveness and the quality of planning distribution over the grid. Thermal storage can complement
or replace the fossil burner so that the power plant can be run with neutral carbon-dioxide emissions.
In this case, heat from storage drives the cycle when there is no direct sunlight. Biomass or hydrogen
could also be used in the parallel burner to run the power plant without carbon dioxide emissions.

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A solar central receiver or solar tower

The solar field of a central receiver system, or power tower, is made up of several hundred or even
a thousand mirrors, called heliostats, placed around a receiver at the top of a central tower as shown in
the figure above.

A computer controls each of these two-axis tracking heliostats with a tracking error of less than a
fraction of a degree to ensure that the reflected sunlight focuses directly on the tower receiver, where
an absorber is heated up to temperatures of about 1000 °C by the concentrated sunlight. Air or molten
salt transports the heat and a gas or steam turbine drives an electrical generator that transforms the
heat into electricity.

1.6 SOLAR WATER HEATERS

Water heating is one of the most cost-effective uses of solar energy, providing hot water for
showers, dishwashers and clothes washers.There are many possible designs for a solar water
heater. In general, it consists of three main components:
 Solar collector, which converts solar radiation into useable heat.
 Heat exchanger/pump module, which transfers the heat from the solar collector into the
potable water.
 Storage tank to store the solar heated water.
The most common types of solar collectors used in solar water heaters are flat plate and
evacuated tube collectors. In both cases, one or more collectors are mounted on a southerly-
facing slope or roof and connected to a storage tank. When there is enough sunlight, a heat
transfer fluid, such as water or glycol, is pumped through the collector. As the fluid passes
through the collector, it is heated by the sun. The heated fluid is then circulated to a heat
exchanger, which transfers the energy into the water tank.

When the homeowner uses hot water, cold water from the main water supply enters the bottom of
the solar storage tank. Solar heated water at the top of the storage tank flows into the

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conventional water heater and then to the taps. If the water at the top of the solar storage tank is
hot enough, no further heating is necessary. If the solar heated water is only warm (after an
extended cloudy period), the conventional water heater brings the water up to the desired
temperature.

Active, closed loop solar water heater

A large, flat panel called a flat plate collector is connected to a tank called a solar
storage/backup water heater by two pipes. One of these pipes runs through a cylindrical pump
into the bottom of the tank, where it becomes a coil called a double-wall heat exchanger. This
coil runs up through the tank and out again to the flat plate collector. Antifreeze fluid runs
only through this collector loop. Two pipes run out the top of the water heater tank; one is a
cold water supply into the tank, and the other sends hot water to the house.

A polar bear water system

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A Polar Bear solar water system typically consists of glazed collectors mounted on a roof and
connected to a storage tank. Fluid is pumped to the collectors where it is warmed by the sun, then
returned to a heat exchanger where it heats the water in a storage tank. Active Polar Bear solar
systems use solar collectors and additional electricity to power pumps or fans to distribute the
sun's energy.

The heart of a solar collector is a black absorber which converts the sun's energy into heat. The
heat is then transferred to another location for immediate heating or for storage for use later. The
heat is transferred by circulating water, antifreeze or sometimes air. Applications for active Polar
Bear solar energy include heating systems, heating swimming pools, domestic hot water use,
ventilation and industrial process air and water for commercial facilities such as laundries, car
washes and fitness centres.

Benefits of Solar Water Heaters

There are many benefits to owning a solar water heater, and number one is economics. Solar
water heater economics compare quite favourably with those of electric water heaters, while
the economics aren’t quite so attractive when compared with those of gas water heaters.
Heating water with the sun also means long-term benefits, such as being cushioned from
future fuel shortages and price increases, and environmental benefits.

1.7 The photovoltaic effect and how solar cells work

The term photovoltaic means the direct conversion of light into electrical energy using solar
cells. Semiconductor materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide, cadmium telluride or copper
indium diselenide are used in these solar cells. The crystalline solar cell is the most
commonly used variety.

How solar cells work

Solar cells absorb the visible light of the sun, though half of the sun’s output is made up of
infrared light that too strikes the earth and it remains completely un-utilized. That is why only
about 30% of the total sunlight can be converted to electricity thus lowering photovoltaic
cells’ efficiency.

In the material of a photovoltaic cell, incoming photons free electrons of corresponding

energy, which migrate toward the positive side of the junction, forming an electric current.

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The "photovoltaic effect" is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight
into electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or ―particles‖ of solar energy. These photons
contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar
spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass
right through. Only the absorbed photons generate electricity.

When this happens, the energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell
(which is actually a semiconductor). With its newfound energy, the electron is able to escape
from its normal position associated with that atom to become part of the current in an electrical
circuit. By leaving this position, the electron causes a "hole" to form. Special electrical properties
of the PV cell—a built-in electric field—provide the voltage needed to drive the current through
an external load (such as a light bulb).

SOLAR CELL EFFICIENCY

• Solar cell efficiency may therefore be broken down into:

- reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation
efficiency and conductive efficiency.
• Efficiency of solar cells is in the range of 10 to 15% for normal application in
photovoltaic systems.

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SOLAR CELL TYPES

CRYSTALLINE SILICON cells

The most important material in crystalline solar cells is silicon.

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ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLAR CELLS

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Performance Parameters of PV.

• STC-Standard test Conditions.

• SOC-Standard operating Conditions.

• NOC-Nominal operating conditions.

NOCT-Nominal operating cell temperature

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Power generation from the solar cell is described by the diode model

Effect of temperature and Irradiance on the performance of the solar cell

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 Common terms used to describe the performance of solar cell using the I-V characteristic
curve

• Open circuit voltage (VOC); Voltage at zero current.

• Maximum power delivered by the solar cell; The maximum power delivered by the
solar cell, Pmax, is the area of the largest rectangle under the I-V curve. P = Im x Vm
max
• Short circuit current (ISC); current at zero voltage.
• Fill factor (FF); The ratio of maximum obtainable power to the product of the open-
circuit voltage and short-circuit current.
Hence

 MPP is the point on the I-V curve at which solar cells work at the maximum power .
 Efficiency is the ratio of power output to power input.

Example

• On a given solar cell the incident radiation for production of photo current is 100
mW/cm2. If the cell has a short circuit current density of 24.5 mA/cm2, an open voltage
of 1V and a fill factor of 0.86.

Calculate;

• The maximum power density.

• Efficiency of the solar cell.

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1.8 STAND ALONE PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Stand-alone PV systems are systems that are not connected to the public electricity grid. They
are generally much smaller than grid-connected systems, and because they are very often in
rural areas, the PV modules are frequently ground mounted as space is usually not a problem.
The three main categories are:
 systems providing DC power only;
 systems providing AC power through an inverter;
 hybrid systems: diesel, wind or hydro.
The main applications are:

 rural electrification in the developing world - small lighting systems to larger systems
for clinics, hospitals and schools;
 telecom applications;
 street and furniture in urban areas (e.g. bus shelter lights and traffic sign lights
etc.), usually where extending the grid would be more expensive than installing a
small stand-alone system;
 power back up systems where power outages can be of a long duration; remote
dwellings and other buildings;
 solar water pumping

Solar PV : DC system

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PV-Wind hybrid system

Modules in stand-alone PV systems

The modules in PV arrays in stand-alone systems are usually configured to give nominal DC
voltages of 12V, 24V and, in larger systems, 48V. This means that the modules are usually
connected in series. In order to facilitate easier interconnection of the modules, modules with
junction boxes should be used rather than modules with plug-in leads (as used to configure
the long strings used in grid-connected arrays). Most stand-alone systems are 12V.

Batteries in stand-alone PV systems

Energy storage is required in most stand-alone systems, as energy generation and
consumption do not generally coincide. The solar power generated during the day is very
often not required until the evening and therefore has to be temporarily stored.

Longer periods of overcast weather also have to be catered for. Most stand-alone solar
systems have batteries, an exception being solar water pumping systems: the water is pumped
when sufficient sunlight is available and stored. The most common type of battery found in
stand-alone solar systems comprises rechargeable lead-acid-batteries. These are the most
cost-effective and can handle large and small charging currents with high efficiency.

Other commercially available types of rechargeable batteries are nickel-cadmium, nickel

metal hydride and lithium ion batteries. These are used mainly in small appliances such as
radios, clocks, torches and laptops.

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Batteries used in solar systems

Types and designs of lead-acid batteries

Lead-acid batteries can be divided into different types according to the plate technology and
the type of electrolyte that they use. In solar installations, usually lead acid grid plate batteries
with fluid electrolyte (known as solar batteries or modified starter batteries), gel batteries,
tubular plate batteries and block batteries (individual cells) are used.

L EAD-ACID GEL BAT TERIES

A more advanced version of the traditional lead-acid battery with grid plates is the gel
battery. In these, the acid is thickened into a gel by the addition of additives. The particular
advantages of this are:
• no problematic acid stratification; reduced sulphation;
• higher cycle resilience;
• no gassing, enabling use even in poor ventilation conditions;
• fully sealed leak-proof housing; installation in any location (e.g. boats and camper
vans);
• maintenance free since there is no need to top up electrolyte during the service
life.

Operating behaviour and characteristics of lead-acid batteries

a) BAT T ERY C A P A C I T Y
The capacity C of an accumulator is the quantity of electricity that can be discharged
under the respective discharge conditions until the battery is fully discharged. The
nominal capacity is the product of the constant discharge current / and the discharge

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 in ampere hours (Ah)
The nominal capacity is determined by the geometry and number of parallel-wired cells.
However, this is not a constant value. It depends upon the temperature, the discharge cut-off
voltage and, above all, upon the discharge current.

b) C U R R E N T
Like the capacity, the current is specified depending upon the charging or discharging period.
While the charge current is produced by the PV module/s, the discharge current depends
upon the load. Typical currents for a battery in a solar system are as follows.
Maximum charge current:

c) Voltage

The nominal voltage of a lead-acid battery is 2V per cell. Conventionally, 12V batteries have
6 cells, and 24V batteries 12 cells in series. In operation, the voltage at the electrodes
fluctuates according to the operating conditions. To protect the battery, two limit values are
defined, which must be adhered to.

During charging, the charge cut-off voltage is the upper limit. For discharging, the discharge
cut-off voltage is the permissible lower limit. Another parameter is the gassing voltage, above
which a battery starts gassing significantly in the charging process.

d) C H A R G I N G A N D D I S C H A R G I N G

During the charging process, the battery voltage gradually increases. At some point it reaches
a value at which slight gas formation begins (water separates into hydrogen and oxygen). The
escaping gas mixture is highly explosive (oxy-hydrogen gas). Close to this gassing voltage,
the manufacturer defines a charge cut-off voltage for the specific battery.

This voltage must be controlled with a charge controller so that the battery does not sustain
any damage through lack of fluid and an excessive acid concentration, and so that the risk
from oxy-hydrogen gas is minimized. Since the charge cut-off voltage depends upon the
temperature, the charge controller also needs to measure the temperature and include this in
its charge algorithm.

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So-called solar batteries are usually subjected to a daily cycle characterized by charging in
the daytime and discharging during the night. A typical daily discharge may range from 2 per
cent to 20 per cent of the battery capacity. Depending upon the discharge depth permitted by
the charge controller, the battery's state of charge may fall to 20 per cent of the rated capacity.
During longer periods of time with low solar irradiance, it is possible that the energy
produced by the PV array will not be sufficient to recharge the battery fully and the cycles
take place at a low state of charge.

As the battery is discharged, the output voltage changes. After an initial jump reduction
owing to ohmic losses, it falls continuously, decreasing more strongly towards the end of the
discharging process until the discharge cut-out voltage is reached. If the battery is discharged
further and the voltage falls below the discharge cut-out voltage (deep discharge), the acid
concentration undergoes a strong reduction and sulphation occurs. Deep discharging should
therefore be avoided under all circumstances.

e) STATE O F C H A R G E
The currently available portion of the battery capacity is its state of charge. Especially in
autonomous power supplies, it is important to know how much energy there is left in the
'tank'. Measuring this exactly in PV systems turns out to be extremely difficult owing to the
irregular cyclical operation with rare full charges.

Two relatively simple methods make it possible to determine the state of charge. For
unsealed batteries (with fluid electrolyte), the acid density can be measured using a
hydrometer or a special sensor. Here it should be ensured that the electrolyte is well mixed.
Since the density is roughly proportional to the acid concentration, it is possible to infer the
state of charge directly from the acid density. The limit values depend upon the battery type.

With sealed batteries (with immobilized electrolyte), the acid density cannot be measured.
Here the charge status can only be determined by measuring the voltage. Therefore, the
battery should be in an open-circuit condition for at least four hours prior to measurement.
Even this method does not supply exact results as the acid stratification and ageing condition
have an effect on the battery voltage. In larger stand-alone systems, it is recommended that a
precision voltmeter be permanently installed for measuring the battery voltage, as well as
additional ammeters for regularly checking the charge and discharge current.

Even if no current is discharged from the battery, chemical reactions are constantly taking
place at the electrodes. These slowly discharge the battery. Self-discharging in the case of
batteries used in solar systems should not exceed 3 per cent per month.

Determining the state of charge by measuring the cell voltage or acid density

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f) C H A R G E F A C TOR , C H A R G E EF F ICIENCY A N D E N E RGY EF F
ICIENCY
The charge factor designates the ratio of supplied charge (the supplied amount of current in
Ah) to the dischargeable charge. The ideal charge factor would be 1. However, because of
conversion losses, in practice, it is anywhere between 1.02 and 1.2, depending upon the
discharge depth and the battery. The inverse value of the charge factor is the charge
efficiency, which can be anywhere between 83 per cent and 98 per cent.

By contrast, energy efficiency also takes account of storage losses, and for a new battery is
between 70 per cent and 85 per cent, depending upon the charging method. Accordingly, it is
calculated from the ratio between the discharged energy (in Wh) and the energy supplied to
the battery.

Ageing effects
The major drawback to lead-acid grid plate batteries-is their short service life. With 100 to
800 full cycles, they work for three to eight years. Stationary batteries reach a service life of
10 to 15 years. The causes for this are the various reversible or irreversible ageing processes,
some of which mutually influence and amplify each other.

Acid stratification (reversible). Because the 'heavy' acid falls to the bottom, a greater acid
density prevails in the bottom part of the cell than at the top. This results in a potential
difference which leads to a discharge in the lower part. An occasional gassing charge to mix
the acid is helpful at each maintenance interval.

Sulphation (irreversible). If the battery is not sufficiently recharged after being discharged,
sulphate crystals grow and can no longer be completely transformed back into lead or lead
oxide. As a result, in the course of the operating period, the active mass decreases and the
dischargeable capacity falls. The lower part of the cell is particularly badly affected by
sulphation since a full charge is rarely attained here.

Corrosion (irreversible). Corrosion on the lead grid of the positive pole is caused by the
positive potential being high. This leads to increased grid resistance and occurs increasingly
at cell voltages of over 2.4V or under 2V. Large-area corrosion scaling that falls from the
positive conductor onto the electrodes can cause short-circuiting.

Sludging (irreversible). The changing volume during charging and discharging causes a
loosening of the active material. If there is gas formation, it can be flushed out and collects on
the bottom of the battery as lead sludge. If the sludge space on the bottom is too small, short
circuits can occur.

Drying out (irreversible). If gassing occurs during charging, the lost water must be replaced.
If the battery is not topped up with distilled water in time, it dries out and no longer functions.
Batteries for use in a PV stand-alone system should have the following features:
• Good price/performance ratio;
• Low maintenance requirements;
• Sufficiently long service life;
• Low self-discharging and high energy efficiency;
• can be charged with small charge currents;
• High energy and power density (space requirements and weight);
• Vibration-resistant (mobile use or for transportation);
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• Protection against health and environmental hazards; recyclable.

No storage type fulfils all the stated requirements to the same extent. It has to be decided
which are the most important properties according to the respective application.

Battery safety and maintenance

In the interests of a long service life and high supply reliability, the accumulator banks should
undergo a thorough servicing every six months. This maintenance work comprises:
• keeping the tops of the batteries clean to avoid possible short-circuits resulting from moist
dust and grime;
• checking that the terminals are firmly seated;
• checking the electrolyte level, and opening the vent caps and topping up with distilled water
where necessary;
• measuring all cell and block voltages and all cell acid densities (with a proper full
charge in zero-current state or with very small currents);
• Intensive full charge to 2.4V per cell with a gassing phase over several hours (equalization
charge) to mix the electrolyte solution (not for gel batteries).

In addition, a thorough visual check should be carried out. The results of regular maintenance
make it easier to assess the ageing of the batteries and enable the detection of individual cell
failures. Complete documentation of the service work is also helpful here.
When installing and operating battery systems, national codes and regulations should be
observed, and the installation, commissioning and maintenance specifications of battery
manufacturers should be rigorously adhered to. Batteries represent the greatest source of
danger in stand-alone systems. Safety measures are necessary both in respect of electrical
safety and for handling corrosive sulphuric acid, and because of the formation of explosive
gases (oxy-hydrogen gas). Sulphuric acid is hazardous to humans and the environment, and
causes severe burns on contact with the skin, the respiratory organs or the eyes. Gel batteries
are significantly less critical in safety terms, as here gassing is a factor of 100 lower, and the
housing is sealed.

From the electrical viewpoint, a main fuse is required in all cases between the battery and all
other devices (load, controller, PV generator). This applies even for the smallest systems with
only one or two PV modules.

Special requirements exist for the installation location, particularly for batteries with fluid
electrolyte. This location must be clearly signed from the outside as a 'Battery Room' and on
the inside with signs forbidding smoking and open flames. If the nominal voltage exceeds
65V or the nominal power of the charging equipment overall exceeds 2kW, then the battery
room is considered an 'electrical plant', and at 220V or more a 'self-contained electrical plant'.
The battery room must be sufficiently ventilated.

Recycling
The greatest environmental impact from lead-acid batteries results from heavy metal lead. To
prevent harmful substances from polluting the environment, used batteries should not be
disposed off with domestic refuse. Local authority collection points and vendors will take
back old batteries and see that they are recycled. This material cycle enables the minimization
of environmental impacts associated with energy storage using lead-acid batteries.

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Charge controllers
In stand-alone systems, the system voltage of the PV array should be matched to that of the
batteries; the usual system voltages are 12V, 24V and 48V. The charge voltage must be
higher than the battery voltage. For example, with a 12V battery, it can be up to 14.4V.
Crystalline standard modules with 36 to 40 solar cells supply a nominal voltage of 15V to
18V. The nominal voltage must be higher than the batteries' charge voltage so that the MPP
voltage at higher temperatures is sufficient to charge the batteries. Furthermore, voltage
losses occur through the cables and the line diode, which are usually limited to around 1 per
cent to 2 per cent. At low temperatures, the modules' MPP voltage is approximately 21V and
the open-circuit voltage up to 25V, with the result that the charge cut-out voltage of the
battery can be exceeded.

The charge controller therefore measures the battery voltage and protects the battery against
overcharging. This is achieved by:
 switching out the PV array when the charge cut-out voltage is exceeded, as happens
with series controllers; or
• short-circuiting the PV array with a shunt controller; or
• Adjusting the voltage with an MPP charge controller.

At low irradiances, the PV voltage breaks down, with the result that the battery discharges via
the array. To prevent this, a reverse current diode is used. This is usually integrated within the
charge controller. Optimized operation of batteries over a long service life requires charge
controllers to be flexible. The charge cut-out and discharge cut-out voltages are dependent
upon the state of charge of the accumulator.

In addition, the properties of different battery types (batteries with fluid electrolyte and gel
batteries), the temperature and, quite possibly, the age of the battery all need to be taken into
consideration. To monitor the battery temperature, a temperature sensor is used, which is
connected to the charge controller. High-quality charge controllers can make a big difference
in extending the service life of the batteries.

The fundamental tasks of a modern charge controller are:

•optimum charge to the batteries;
• overcharge protection;
• preventing unwanted discharging;
• Deep discharge protection; and
• Information on the state of charge of the batteries.

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Different charge controllers

Stand-alone inverters
In a PV stand-alone system, the storage is realized by the batteries and the operation of
numerous loads using direct current. To be able to use conventional 230V AC loads, as well,
on a DC grid, stand-alone inverters are used. Some inverters even have integrated charge
controllers.

The object of a stand-alone inverter is to enable the operation of a large range of loads. These
range from rugged construction tools through domestic appliances to sensitive electronic
devices in communications technology.
The following requirements may be made of a stand-alone inverter:
• alternating current that is as sinusoidal as possible with a stable voltage and stable
frequency;
• Very good conversion efficiency, even in partial load range;
• High overload capability for switch-on and starting sequences;
• Tolerance against battery voltage fluctuations;
• Economical standby state with automatic load detection;
• Protection against short-circuit damage on the output side;
• High electromagnetic compatibility (good EMI suppression);
•low harmonic content;
• Surge voltage protection;
•bidirectional operation (i.e. conversion from AC to DC is also possible so that batteries can
be charged from AC generators, if necessary).
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Three different types of inverter concepts dominate the market: sine-wave, 'modified sine-
wave' and the square-wave inverters.

Different inverters for stand alone PV systems

Planning and designing stand-alone systems

The most important task when planning stand-alone systems is to balance the energy
consumption with the supply. Since solar energy is a limited and fluctuating resource, the
daily electricity consumption, radiation level and battery or battery bank capacity must be
realistically calculated and balanced with one another.

• Photovoltaic systems can be designed according to system purpose.

• A bigger commercial system would likely have an inverter to power AC appliances.
whereas a small solar home system (SHS) in a remote village will power only DC
appliances and wouldn’t include an inverter.
• Some systems are linked to the grid, while others operate independently.
• PV Systems which are not connected to the grid are called stand alone systems.
• PV systems which are connected to the grid are called grid connected systems.
• We shall concentrate on designing a stand-alone System for electrical power supply
•

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Common components in a PV system

A hybrid PV system

• Sizing components of a solar system is very important during system designing

• The designer should bear in mind that the initial investment is a major cost.
• Unnecessary large system (over sizing) has a detrimental effect on the price of the system
• Under sizing has an effect on supply reliability.

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Solar electricity is the same as that of battery (DC). It can only run appliances (lights, radios,
TVs, Fridges etc) that are specially designed to run from DC, otherwise an inverter is
required. Appliances to run from solar electricity have to be chosen by a qualified person to
ensure matching of the reduced overall system cost. Solar electricity can also be modified
using special converters (e.g. inverters) to run even ac appliances.

Modules support structure, wire, switches, sockets are also necessary accessories for
complete installation. Electrical appliances, switches, sockets, etc, used with solar are not
readily interchangeable for use with ordinary gensets or UMEME power and vice versa.

General PV system sizing.

 Is an engineering process that is used to determine the ratings and capacities of the
various systems components that are sufficient to meet the power needs of a client.

 This requires knowledge on weather data, client information and engineering

information.

 Thus sizing is a detailed, accurate, time consuming process that can be carried out by
only specialists.

SIZING PROCEDUREs

Load determination.

• Decide on the application of the system.

• Decide whether the application will be AC or DC.

• Determine the rating of the applications.

Establish daily usage hours for each appliance

Determination of daily average load requirements

• Use of some loads may vary daily, monthly or seasonally (e.g. in schools)

• For simplicity, daily variation of consumption is considered.

• Where necessary, separate AC loads from DC.

• Determine the daily energy usage for each appliance and then the total (Wh/day).

• If dc loads differ in voltage rating then the sizing must put into consideration the
possible losses in the dc-dc converters.

• For ac loads, the dc input power into the inverter is determined by considering the
efficiency of the inverter.

• If the system comprises both dc and ac, then the demand for both should be added
together.

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 • The system efficiency factor (loss factor) and / or battery efficiency factor are used to
determine the overall size of PV generator.

• Note that the total ac power is used to determine the size of the inverter.

• The power demand for the loads is used to determine the wire sizes.

Calculation of Daily Demand

(Example of DC system)

Determining the size of PV generator

• The size of the PV generator is given in Watt peak (Wp).

• When designing consider the efficiency of the system. ηSYS = ηBAT .ηPV .ηCABLES.

• The factor is assumed to be (ηSYS-1 =1/ηSYS = 1.25)

• Recall that EL = 145 Wh/day from the previous example.

• Determine the Daily Expected generation from the module is;

EPV= EL/ηSYS

= EL x ηSYS-1

= 145 Wh/day x 1.25

= 181.25 Wh/day.

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 Determine the Watt peak of PV Generator, PWP = EPV/H = 181.25/4.35 = 41.67 W.

Where H is PSH/day.

Data on insolation is available in standard tables, given as monthly average values in

KWh/m2 day or peak –sunshine hours (PSH)/day.

OR

• PWP = (EPV/Irradiation)X ISTC

Determine the Module to be connected in parallel

• modules in parallel = PWP/ WP

• If panels which give positive values of (NCalculated-NRound) are selected then the system will be
undersized.

• Panels with negative values indicate that the system is reliable and /or oversized.

• Therefore a panel with the lowest (magnitude) negative value of (Ncalculated-NRound) is selected
(i.e 45 Wp panel).

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 Sizing of the battery

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 STEPS IN BATTERY SELECTION

• Determine the No. of days of the storage (days of autonomy) required –depends
on location (weather conditions)
• Determine the amount of storage in Ah (product of daily Ah/day and days of
autonomy)
• Determine the allowable level of discharge (DOD)
• For a known system voltage, determine the number of batteries to be connected
to the system. The No. is calculated from the required storage capacity and the
capacity of the available batteries.

Determining storage capacity (battery)

• Important parameter is the DOD and the days of autonomy, S.

• S is greater for sites with low Insolation than those sites with higher Insolation.

• Solar batteries are expected to be of very good quality, i.e. are deep cycle batteries
with high depth of discharge (DOD).

• High quality solar deep cycle batteries has DOD ≈0.8 and above.

• For modified batteries the range can be;0.4<DOD<0.6. otherwise it is less than 0.4

• For the considered site let us assume that S = 3

• For the system voltage of 12 volts, the daily charge (Ah/day) required is obtained as:
Ah/day = Es/(VSYS) = 181.25 Wh/day/12 V = 15.10 Ah/day.

• The total charge needed for S (3) reserved days = 15.10X3 Ah= 45.31 Ah.

• But the battery MUST NOT be fully drained during use,a certain percentage must be
left in the battery.

• Then only 40% is drained from the battery.

• Therefore capacity of the battery, C = required Ah/DoD = 45.31 Ah/ 0.4 = 113.28 Ah.

• Hence a battery with the capacity 120 Ah is selected

No. of batteries shall be;

In parallel = Calculated Ah/Available Ah

= 120Ah/40Ah = 3

In series = DC system voltage/Battery Voltage

= 12V/12V = 1

Total no. of Battery = 3X1 = 3

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 Determining size of the charge controller.

• Charge controllers are rated either in current input from the panel or current output to
the loads.

• The current output to the loads is calculated using the total load power (41 W).

• To cater for losses in the system, we use a multiplying factor (loss factor or efficiency
≈80%) 1.e loss factor of 1/0.80 = 1.25.

• IL≈ (1.25 X 41W)/VSYS = 51.25 w /12V = 4.27 A (Select from standard or available
charge controller, mainly select that one from within a close higher rating)

Controller Should also be able to handle Module current.

• Multiply module short circuit current by modules in parallel. Then multiply this by a
safety factor of 1.25. The resulting figure is the array short circuit amps that the
controller must handle under a short circuit condition.

• Module Short Circuit Current = 3.45 amps

• Array Short Circuit Current = 3.45x1x1.25

• Controller Current = 4.3125 amps

Determining PV Generator and other components for AC systems.

• The procedure is almost similar to the one given for the DC system, except:
• AC loads are considered and efficiency of inverter must be included in the
calculation.
• Good quality, high efficient inverters can be considered with efficiency in the
range (0.9<η <0.98).
INV
• Note that the output of the inverter is 240V, 50Hz AC but other system
components may operate under DC conditions.

Sizing of conductors

Conductor Type

1. Copper

Copper is the most commonly used material in cables. It has a high electrical and thermal
conductivity. It is also cheaper as compared to other good conductors such as silver etc.
Copper has a high resistance against corrosion, and can be easily jointed.

2. Aluminium

Aluminium conductor has an important role in electrical engineering especially in over

head transmission system. Aluminium as a conductor is used where there would be no
chemical or corrosion agents. Although aluminium has only 61% of the conductivity yet
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 it is widely used due to its less weight per unit volume. Weight per unit volume of
aluminium is approx. 30% of that of copper.

Insulation

When buying wire, make sure that the insulation is right for the job. If the wire will be
exposed to harsh weather, as when it is used for connecting solar panels, the insulation
must be designed for exposure to sunlight and rain ie it should be Uv resistant.

Standard indoor house wiring will harden and crack open if exposed to sunlight for long
periods. If the wire will be buried, the insulation must be designed to resist the fungus and
moisture always present in the ground. Standard indoor house wiring will be ruined by
long burial.

Inverter Specifications

Should be able to handle the peak power

Determine the maximum surge watts required. Remember that electric motors can require
from three to seven times their rated wattage during start-up.

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