MECH A NICA L ENG INEERING

MA C H INE S H O P P R A C T IC E

I.

ST A N L E Y H . M O O RE
H ember or A sm ia le A ns Soc Meek Engra A ns I ns t Bl ed Bugra , A nt A m
'
. . .
, . . . . .

Ad v S e q A m Che m S am. Cen A s a S e Gr M a th " S oc

. . . . Pro . . . .

E ng Edm N at G eog S am, N at Eds A s a ,

. , . . . .

Engineers Club , F ranklin I ndil s le

’

1 9 08

H I LL PUB LISH I NG C O MP A N Y
50 5 P E A RL S T RE ET ,
N EW Y O RK
6 B O UVE RIE S T RE E T . LO ND O N . E C . .

A m er ica n M ac hinist P ower T he Enginee r n i g an d M in ing j l

ourna
Copyright, 1 9 08 , B r THE H ILL PU B LIS H IN G Co u m m r

am
’
m m A! s u r xo nz ns
“
.

All ri
ght : d
res erve

The H ill P ublis h ing Com pa ny, N ew T ori ,

 PRE F AC E

1 . d e a ls w it h m od e rn mach ine s h o p pra ctice and

T h e b o ok
its co rre la t ive me chan ical e ng inee r ing and is writte n primarily
a s a t e x t f o r t h e s t ud e n t and appre n t ic e .

2 .T h e impo rt a nc e and e v e n n e c ess ity o f a lim it ed kn o w ledge

, ,

of Ma te ria ls P ro c esses Me chan ic s Po w e r G e n e rat io n and Trans

, , ,

m iss io n E lec t ric it y and Mo to r D rives to any wh o have t o do

, ,

w it h m ach ine s h o p prac t ic e is o bv io us ; and fo r t h is reas o n

, ,

chapte rs c o n ta in ing much ne w matte r o n a ll t hes e s ubj e c ts have

bee n inc o rpo ra te d in th is wo rk .

3 W h ile its d e s c rip t io n of to ols and pro c ess es is e le m e n t ary

.

e no ugh and wa s writ te n fo r s t ud e n ts it c on t a in s t h e da t a o f

,

o rig ina l inv es t iga t io ns and much ma t te r o f s pe c ia l inte res t to

th e te chn ical man .

4 We h a ve had and c o n t inue to have te chn ical bo oks fro m

.

t h e t h e o ris t s layman s and te ach e r s po in t o f v ie w b ut t h e

’ ’ ’
, ,

n ee d o f s uch w o rk s fro m th e v ie w po in t o f t h e s t ud e n t app re n tic e

-
,

and wo rkman h a s long bee n appare nt By far th e large r numbe r .

o f th e paragraph s w e re wr it te n t o ans w e r ac t ua l que s t io n s t ha t

we re as k ed by s t ud e nts and appre n tic es during their ins t ruc t io n

in m ach ine s h o p w o rk .

5 I ts d es c rip t io n s o f pro c ess e s we re writ te n w it h t h e fo l

.

lo wing para g ra ph f ro m t h e Manua l Tra in ing Maga z in e e ve r in

m ind I f th e c o llege ins t ruc t o r w is h es to pro duc e a b o o k of
“
.

value to t h e m a n ua l t ra in ing te ach e r let h im mak e a c le ar , ,

s ch o larly d e s cr ip t io n of to o ls and t h e bes t me t h o d s o f us ing

t h e m w it h o u t s pe c ia l re fe re nc e to h is o wn part icular c o urs e of

,

s t udy (wh ich is p re t t y s ure n o t t o b e acc e p t ab le t o o t h e r in

s truc to rs in h is own grad e o f w o rk n o t t o m e n t io n t h o s e of lo w e r

,

Ch a rac t e ris tic O pe ratio ns and th e O rd e r o f O pe r

“
6 . Th e
a t io ns for t h e vario us m ach in es and pro c ess e s a re ge n e ra l in
charac te r and ye t s pe c ific e n ough fo r any o ne able to read to
, ,

ge t t h e re s u lt s d es ire d .
Vi PRE FACE
7 . I f t h e re is
any o ne we aknes s c o mmo n to a ll te chnica l
te x ts it is t h e ir fau lt y and m e a g e r ind e x
”
A n o r ig inal and
no ve l fe a ture of t he Tab le of Co n te nts e nab les t he reade r by
.

means of t h e numbe r afte r t he s ubj e c t t o te ll a t a g lanc e th e ,

chap te r th e c las s ificat io n and th e s ec tio n whe re t he informa

,

t io n may b e fo und S uch a s ys te m of inde x ing n ecess ita tes and

.

s e cure s a fu ll and log ica l t r e a t me n t n o t o n ly o f t h e au t h o r s

’
,

s pe c ia lt ies b ut o f t h e e n t ire c o n te n ts o f t h e boo k

, T h e illus t ra
.

—
t io ns a re s im ilarly ind e x ed .

8 T h e info rmat io n c o n t a in e d h as g o n e t h ro ugh a pro c e ss o f

.

se le c t io n and re v is io n f o r a p e rio d o f t hree y e ars and t h e e n t ire

c o n te n ts have be e n s ubm itte d to a fe w e nginee rs and e duca to rs

fo r cr it ic is m and re v is io n .

9 Se v e ra l p o rtio ns hav e a lready bee n pub lis h ed in s uch re pu

.

t ab le pe r io d ica ls a s t h e A m e rica n Mach in is t Po we r Mach in e ry , , ,

et c . O n e p o rt io n F its and F itt ing was d e liv e re d a s a pape r

, ,

be fo re th e A me rican So c ie ty o f Me chan ica l E ng ine e rs ; t h is

pape r wa s afte rward s c o p ied by a f e w E uro pe an ed ito rs .

10 .
—
No ap o logy is t e nd e re d fo r t h e us e o f ha lf to nes cu ts , ,

t ab les et c , fro m t h e cat alogs o f th e va rio us manufac t ure rs

.
, .

Th e ir func t io n is o bv io us a s much mate ria l is ava ilable fro m n o

,

o t h e r s o urc e T h e info rma t io n wh ich t h ese ca t a logs o fte n co n

.

t a in t h e ab ilit y of t h e e ng in e e rs wh o pre pare d t h e m and t h e

, ,

s k ill o f t h e art is ts w h o illu s t ra t e d t h e m is un s urp ass ed

, .

T h e au t h o r d e s ires t o ack no w le dg e h is ind e b te dn e s s t o and ,

t o t hank a ll t h e publis h e rs m anufac t ure rs and c o llabo ra t o rs

, , ,

for t h e ir ass is tanc e and c o u rt es y te nd e re d in t h e pre para t io n

o f t h e wo rk .
 CON T EN TS

CHAPT E R I . I NT RO DUCT I O N AND EQUI PME NT

I NT RO D U CT I O N
F
o re wo rd, 1 1 1 ; Ch a ra cte r o f I ns truct io n 1 12 ; S o h p Ethics 1 1 3 ;
a re o f Se lf, 1 1 5 ; Ca rs
,

C f h p
a re ulne s s in t h e S o , 1 1 4 ; C o f Ma ch in e,
1 1 6 ; T oo ls a nd W o rk , 1 1 7 .

S H O P EQ U I PM E N T A N RE G U LA TI O N D
M hin T l E uipm t f S h p La b en or o o ra to 1 2 1 ; Th e Too l
'

g
ac oo or
1 2 2 ; Th g
e ,

r om
o , h k S t m 1 2 3 ; Th R e ec e , e eco rd ys t e m , 1 2 4 ; T oo l
roo m Rul fo S h l S p 1 2 5
es r c oo O s, .

CHAPT ER II . MAT E RI A LS

Ores an d The ir Reduct ion , 2 1 1 ; I llus t ra t io n o f th e G ph i

ra ca l
Me ta llu o f I ro n , 2 1 2 ; M
e ta llurgica l No te s , 2 1 3 ; I n fl ue n ce o f
C b
a r on, 11 n es e a n d os Ph ph
o rus , 2 1 4 ; I n fl ue n ce o f ro m ium Ch
a n d Nic ke l , 1 5 ; I nflue n ce o f S ilico n a n d S ul ur, 2 1 6 ; I n flue n ce ph
o f T un gs t e n , ol
y de n um a nd M b
a na dium , 2 1 7 ; I n fl ue n c e o f Alu V
C b
m in um , o a lt , T in a ndT ita nium , 2 1 8 ; ra a n dT a le o f s ica l G ph b Phy
P p
ro e rt ies , 2 1 9 .

PI o I RO N
C C
la s s ifi ca t io n o f o m m e rcia l Pig I rons , 2 2 1 ; e ss em e r, 2 2 2 ; B Foun
dry , 2 2 3 ; Ch
a rcoa l, 2 2 4 ; as ic , 2 2 5 ; B
orm -S i lico n , 2 2 6 ; ra F G y Fo g r e,
22 7 .

CA sT I E O N .

C fi A
la s s i ca t io n a nd na l s es o f S ta n da rd a s t I ro ns , 2 3 1 a lle a le C M b
C
as t I n
ro , 2 3 ; A
2 n n ea ed as t iy C
n g ,
s 2 33 ; as e -
h a rd e n ed as t in gs , C C
U A p b y C
da ta ilit a nd o m a riso n wit ro ug t I ro n a n d p hW h
S
34 ; se s ,
t ee l 2 35 .

W RO U G IIT I RO N
M uf t u N wa y Cha l Puddled nd F got I on 2 4 1 ;
an ac re , or , rcoa ,
a a r s,
Pro p t ies 2 42 ; Co m m i l D ign t i 2 4 3 ; W king 2 44
er , e rc a es a on , or , .

ST E E L CO MME RCI L ST E L s A N T H E I R PRO DU c rs

, A E D
Cl s ifi a ti 2 5 1 ; C v t d
as c on, C m t d 2 52 ; Blist 2 53 ;
on er e or e en e , e r,
G m 2 54 ; S ingl d D ubl S h
er an, 2 55 ; C u ible C t 2 56 ;
e an o e ea r r c as
2 5 7 ; O p n H ea t h a nd Pudd
,

led 2 58 ; T oo l C b
g lzg5b
e sa m r e r , or a r on
tee
ST E E L A LLO Y A N D H I G H S PE E D
,

Ch m St l 2 6 1 ; Nick l Ste l 2 62 ; Ni kel Ch rom e S t l 2 63 ;

ro e ee , e e , c - ee ,

M nga e S teel 2 64 ; S ili n St l 2 65 ; T ungst n o Mu h t

a n se , co ee e r s e
S t e l 2 66 ; V nadium a ndCh m e V adium S t l 2 67 ; A lum in um
,

e , a ro an ee s , ,

1 F igure s in co n te n ts re fe r to sec t io n s , no t pa ge s I n te rp re ting 2 69 we h a ve , 2 Ch a p te r

.

2; 6 Cla ss ifi ca t io n 6 o f Ch a p te r 2 ; 9 Sec t io n 9 o f 6t h cla s s ifi ca t io n o f Ch a p te r 2 : o r in

t h e in s ta nce o f 1 7 35 1 7 Ch a p te r 1 7 . Po we r G e ne ra t io n ; 3
, Cla ss ifi ca t io n 3 , y dra ul ic H
Mo to rs : 5 Se c t io n 5 Rea c t io n h ee ls
, W .
viii CO NT ENTS
PA GE
C o b a lt , T in , T ita n ium an d O t he r S t ee ls , 2 68 ; H igh S peed C utt in g
T oo l A y llo s , 2 69 .

L M
ST E E , A N I P U A T I O N L
C
S te e l a s t in 2 7 1 ; S t ruct ure , 2 72 ; T re a t m e n t , 2 7 3 , “ f o rking 2 74 ; ,

h y
T eo r o f a rdc n in g, 2 75 ; a rde n in g a n d T e m e ring, 2 76 ; T a le H p b
o f T e m er gin a ta ,
2 p
77 ; T a lo r-Wh i
t e D
T re a tm e n t o f T oo l S tee ls , y
2 78 .

ALL YS B R N Z ES B RAS S ES T C
O O , E .

id Ch B CO
, ,

P p ti ro er t i ti es ar pp T in A ll y
a ra c e r s cs , ro n zes , e r- o s,
2 82 ; Ph p h B 2 83 B
os - C pp Zi A1 1
or 2 84 ;
ro n ze ,
°

ra s s ea , o
°I
. r-
nc 0 8,
C pp T i Zi A 11
o er 2 85 ; L d U
- n - i A 11 nc 2 86 0 i 8, ea ,
se n 0 8,
°
In os
f 2 6 O din y i l All y 2 8 7 ; 1 h d
‘ '
ti on o mm r p ar n l o e re a o s, e e one a e e

g ph Wrai A ll y 2 88 re o s, .

ALL Y S L
O S, B E RI G ME TA N O I W LL K N O W N A LL YS
O D E RS ,
A N L A D TI ER E O .

C m m S ld C m m P wt G ld S ld S il S ld
o on o e r, o d on e e r, o o e r, ve r o er an

G cS il S ld 29 1 ; B
an i g M t l All y
ve r o B bbit M t l
e r, ea r n e a o s, a e a
2 9 2 ; C m p it i
,

f 24 B i M t l All 2 9 3 ; ( lu l y B ’
o os on o ea r n e a o s, r e s ro n ze ,
29 4 G m S il 2 9 5 ; A um i um
er an 2 9 6; M ve r,
g n ro n ze , an a ne s e
d T yp M t l 2 9 8 ; F b l A ll y
,

B 2 9 7 ; P wt
ron ze , e 2 99
cr an e e a ,
US I e o s, .

CHA PT E R FRIC TI O N LUB RI CA NTS A ND LUB RICATIO N

I II .
,

F RI C TIO N N LO T WO RK A D S 50 o

F i ti 3 1 1 ; F i t i n Redu t i 3 1 2 ; l w o f F ict i n 3 1 3 ;
r c on , r c o c on, a s r o ,

C fli i t f F i t i
oc c eh3 1 4 ; S lid F i ti
o 3 1 5 ; Fluid F i t i n 3 1 6
r c on , o r c on, rc o ,
.

L U B RI C NT S I N G E E
A L N RA
T h Fu t i n f Lub i nt 32 1 T h S l t i n of L Ib Ic t 32 2
e nc o o r ca s, e e ec o I r an s ,
.

O I L CO M O U N P D A U LT T IO N
DS A N D E RA S
C m p iti
o f O il 33 1 ; V g t bl O il
os on o 332 ; A nim l O ils 333 ;
s , e o a
e e s , a
334 ; W l F t 335 O b j t i n b l F t u
,

Pa a fli r ne , 336
oo a ,
°

ec o a e ea res , .

LU B RI C T I N G O I
A LS
o L b 1 O T
O

Q u lifi tai f G dca u i n t 34

o ns o ; il t a3 42 ; D s ito f r ca ,
es s , I n
I
o
G ra v ty T t 34 3 ; V i i it y Fluidity T t 34 4 ; Fl h
es i s c os or es , as or re
T t 34 5 ; A cidity T t 346 ; C ld T t 34 7 ; O il I p t i
,

es , 34 8 ;
es ,
o es ,
ns e
c on ,
V l t il O il 34 9
o a e s, .

O I L S P E C I F I CA T I O N S
b
T a le o f C e m ica l a nd Pb h s ica I P rO pc rt iI s
I
o f 12 O rdin a r Lub ri y
ea t ing O ils , 35 1 ; u rica nt L b ric t io n , 3 2 ; L u
5
b rica n t App
lica t io n , 35 3 .

SO LI L U B R
D I CA NT S
Us e of So lid L ub rica n ts , 36 1 G rphit a e , 362 ; Ta lc 363 , .

H E AT -D I SS IPAT I N G LU B R I C A NT S
f
T wo o ld c t io n o f e a t -diss i a t in g Lu
A H p b rica n t s 3 71 ; H e at d
,
iss ipa t -

ing M
ix t ures , 37 2 ; D ry ut s , 37 3 C .

CHA PT E R IV . C UTT I NG TOO S L

D IS CU S S IO N
dit io ns 4 1 1 ; K ee n n e ss o f th e T oo l, 4 1 2 ; S t re n gt h
o

G o vc rn in g I
C on
d Dura bilit y
,

an o f th e C ut t in g Ed Re la t ive o s it io n s o f P
h e T oo l a n d W h p
o rk, 4 1 4 ; S a e o f t e T o o l a n d t h e Ma te ria l to b
tt
e

‘
u , 415 .

F E E DS A N D S P E E DS
T h e S urfa ce s o f tle ta ls a n
1
d the C a ra cte r O f the C i 4 2 1 ; G e n e ra l h hp ,

Rule s RI la t n e t o F I I da a n d S pe eds 4 2 2 ; Re m a rks Co n c e r nin t h e

I
,

A h
ut o r s I n ve s t im
’
a t io ns ut o r 8 Re s a rc
’
O rdina r w A h e
h y
P f h
,

s pe ed T oo l S t e e ls , 4 2 4 , A
b s t ra c t o f ro e ss o r N ic o ls o n s I n ve s t iga
’
 CO NT ENTS ix

PA GE
t io ns , 42 5 ; Ab t s ra ct o f P
T a lo r s I n ves t iga tio ns , 42 6 ; Te s ts
res ide n t y ’

H h p
of ig
-s e e d T oo l S tee ls o n as t I ro n ,
4 2 7 ; Re v o lut io ns fo r iv eCn G
D C
ia m e t e rs a nd ut t in g S ee ds , 42 8 ; x a m les o f Re cen t p ra ct ice E p P
hH h p
wit ig s ee d T oo l S tools , 42 9
-
.

H L G
A ND TO O S , G RI N D I N A N D US E
Ch G
is e ls , 43 1 ; ra ve rs , 4 32 ; S c ra e rs , 4 33 p .

LA T H E T O O LS
Th e D P
ia m o nd o in t T oo l, 44 1 ; T h e Ro un d-n os e Ro ughin T oo l,
442 ; Th S e ide T oo l 4 4 3 T h e a rt in g o r utt in g
-O H T OO
°
44 4 ; P C
T
,

T he i
or g nB T oo l,
4 4 5 h e ull-n
os e T oo l , 4 4 6 ; T°
h e T re a d inBg h
s Std , 44 7 ; Th e in is in g T o ol, 448 ; T h e
U . . . F h
ras s wo rkin g
-
B
oo 4 49 .

PL A N E R T O O LS .

D h y
is cuss ion a nd T eo r , 4 5 1 ; Th e Ro u in g la n e r T ool , 4 5 2 ; T h e h P
D P
ia m o nd o in t P la ne r T oo l , 4 53 ; T e St ra ig t-c d S ide T oo l, h h
( Pla n e r) 4 54 ; S lo tt e r T oo ls , 4 55 ; Sh a es a n d rin din g o 2 5 S t ra ig t p G h
f P
a ced la n e r T oo ls , 4 56 .

TO O L H O L RS W IT H S L H
DE E F- A RD E N I N G ST L CU I rE ns
EE
' '

La th T ool 46 1 ; Pl n
e s, a er T oo ls , 462 .

CHA PT ER V MEASU RI NG . AN D S MA LL TOO S L

S T A N DA R oDS r M E AS U R M N
E E T
H is t o rica l Sta te m e nt , 5 1 1 .

DI R E c E A S U R I NG T O O L s
Rules , 52 1 ; T h e T ry S ua re , 5 2 2 ; T h e ic ro m e te r a li r, 52 3 ; M C ,

Th e M C p
ic ro m e t e r a li e r q ua re , 52 4 ; Th e e rn ie r a n d I t s Is e , 52 5 V °

Th e V
e rn ie r a li e rs , 5 2 6 ; T h e S t ra ig t -e dg e, 52 7 ; T h e Be ve l
C h
Pro t ra ct o r, 5 2 8 ; a les b
T a le o f T a e rs a nd n gles , T a le o f
, b p A b
A ngles o f G
e o m e t rica l igures , 52 9 F .

G G
A ES
Cl ss ifi
a ca t io n , 53 1
DI ME NS IO NA L G AG E S
T es t a nd Re e re n ce f
a ges , 54 1 ; S t a n da rd lindrica l G Cy G a ge s , 542 ;
C p G
S ta nda rd a li e r a ges , 5 4 3 ; im it a ges , 54 4 L G .

NU M B E R E D G A G E S . .

C
rit ic is m , 55 1 T h eU t dSt t St d dG g 552 ; T h Am ni e n a es an ar a e, e e ri ca

Bro wn S ha G ge 55 3 ; T h Bi n i h m St ub W i
’
or e a ,
e rr n a or s re
G g 55 4 ; T h
a e, hbu I M n Mfg e G ge 555 ; T h
as rn II oe .
‘
o s
’
. a ,
e
Am ica n H i t D ill G g 556 ; T h Am i S w G g d
er s r a e, e e r ca n c re a e an
Oth 55 7 ; C m p iso n f W i
e rs , Shee t M t l nd t h
o ar G g 55 8 o re , e a a o er a s,
e

SMA LL T LS V R U S G G
OO A IO A ES
Th S e w Pit h G g 56 1 ; T h Ce t
cre cG g 562 ; T h e D pt h G g
a e, e n er a e, e a e,
563 ; T h U ive l S u fa
e G g 564
n rsa r ce a e, .

SMA LL T LS O R N A Y K T
OO ,
DI R I
Ab r o rs M d l 57 1 ; R m
or an 5 72 ; C lip
re s 5 7 3 ; Divid
, ea e rs , a e rs , e rs ,

5 74 ; S ib 5 75 ; C t
cr Pu h 576 ; W h 5 77
e rs , en e r nc es , re n c es , .

C HA PT E R VI . C EW
S R A N D PI N DAT A
S C R E w PA RT s
No m e n cla t ure , 6 1 1 ; itc P h ,
61 2 ; L ea d, 6 1 3 ; T h rea ds pe r I n ch , 61 4 ;
T urn s to a n In ch , 61 5 .

ST A N D A RD T A PS A N D D I ES
S ta n da rd T a s , 62 1 ; p
a c ine S c re w T a s 62 2 ; M h p , Di es or S c re w
Pla t e s , 62 3 ; S ta nda rd i e T a s a n d Dice , 62 4 Pp p .
1: CONTENTS

S CRE W S
Ma chine S c re ws , 63 1 ; Ca p S c rews , 632 ; Se t Screws , 63 3 ; oa c o r C h
La g S cre ws , 634 ; a n ge r S c re ws , 635 H .

BO LTS A N D ST U DS
M h
a c ine B
o lts , 64 1 ; Co uplrn g olts , 64 2 ; a rria ge olts , 643 ; B C B
B
S to ve o lts , 644 ; St uds , 64 5 .

N UT S , RI YE T S , CO T T E RS , ET C .

N uts , 65 1 ; Rive ts , 652 ; o t ters , 65 3 ; as h e rs , 654 ; urrs , 655 ; C W B

T um b uckles , 656 .

PI N DAT A
D we l nd T pe r Pin
o a a s,

T A B U LAT E D BO LT N T REA DAT A A D B D

U S S ta nd d Th d B lt nd Nut Da t 67 1 ; T p ndTh ea d
. . ar re a , o a a , a a r
D ta f M h i e S w 672 ; S t nd d Dim i
a or ac f W ugh t
n cre s , a ar e n s o ns o ro
i n W ld d Pi
ro 673 ; T ble f D im l Eq uiv l t
e e f I h a o ec a a en s o an nc ,

674 ; S t nd d t nd C p S
a ws 675 ; Sta nd d M h in S
ar w a a c re ar ac e c re
P porti ns a nd Ot he D t 676
,

ro o r a a, .

CHA PT ER VI I BE NCH A ND VI S E WO RK .

PRE LI MI NA RY P SS L Y I NG O UT
RO C E A
La yin g O ut R tili W k 7 1 1 ; La ying O ut Wh dn ca l W k
ec nea r or ,
n or ,

7 1 2 ; L yi g O ut D ill W o k 7 1 3
a n r r , .

H AMM I NG A N S W I N G
ER D A
H m m i g d P m g 72 1 ; H ck S wing 72 2
a er n an ee n ,
a a ,
.

T H R EA I N G N T PP I N G
D A D A
Th din 73 1 ; T a pp in g 732 ; A lign i g th T a p 7 33 ; D pt h f
re a ,
n e ,
e o
T pp da l e 7 34 o es , .

Chippi g n an d I tsAppli ca t io ns
, 7 4 1 ; Pn e um a t ic H mm a e rs , 74 2 ;
T h e Chi l se , 74 3 ; Th W e o rk , 74 4 ; T h e Out , 74 5 ; i Ch pping G roo ves ,
746 .

F IL I N G F ILE S
AN D
F
.

App P
lica t ion a n d ra c t ice , 75 1 ; Th e T oo ls , 7 52 ; a re o f i les , 7 53 ; C
C F
ross ilin 7 54 ; ia go n a l ilin g, 7 55 ; Dra w F I IIn g, 75 6 ; E lm F D
h
a n d T e ir ra ct e ris t ics , 7 5 7 ; ile T a le , S a e s , uts , U se s , e tc , F b h p C .

75 8 .

S c ra ing a p P f
la ne S ur a ce , 76 1 ; S cra pIn g I n th e L a t e , 762 h .

K E YS , K EY P I TT I N G A N D B RO A CII I N G
K e No m e n cla ture , 77 1 ; K ey F ittin 7 72 ; K ey W a y Out t m 77 3 ;
T a le o f S ta nda rd K e y Sea t s , 7 74 ; ro a c h I n g o r D rI ft m g, 7 5 .

FITS AN D FIT TI N G
I ves t ig t i n 7 8 1
n a Fitti g Proc
o 782 ; Fo ing F t 783 ; n es s e s . rc i s ,

Forcing F it Pre ss u h F
,

7 84 ; S in k in g it 7 85 ; D
re srI v m F t 7 86 ; r s ,
I s ,

Ru n i g Fit s 78 7 ; Lim its f Lim it G ge s 788 ; T bu ted Da ta

,

n n , or a ,
a

R la t iv to Fits a n d Fitt in g 7 89
e e ,
.

CHAPT ER VI II T U RNI NG
”
.

T U RNI N G MA CH I N E S W

L th 8 1 1 ; Th e T oo l-m a e r s k L h
a t e , 8 1 2 ; Th e G a at e , 8 1 3;
’
L h
p
a es ,
Th e x le A L h
a t e , 8 1 4 ; The W
h ee l a t e , 8 1 5 ; T h eL h ‘
urre t at e, L h
8 1 6 ; The ulle P y
La t e 8 1 7 ; Th e h
ra n k S a t Cat e 8 1 7 5; Th e h f L h ,

h L h p h
.

B e nc or re c is io n Pa t e , 8 1 8 ; T h e S e ed o r a n d La t e , 8 1 9 H .
 CO NTENTS

E NG I NE LA T H E
D iptio 82 1 ; Cha ra t is ti O p t i n 82 2
es c r n, c er c e ra o s ,
.

P R A RA I O R P RO CE S ES
EP ’ ‘
Y S
C t in g 83 1 ; D illi g nd C unt i king 832
en er ,
r n a o e rs n ,
.

ST I G H T T U RN I N G
RA
M nipula t i 84 1 ; O d f O p a ti ns 842
a on , r er o er o , .

F N IS H I N G P C ES S E S
I RO
Filing 85 1 S pi g 852 P li hing 85 3
,
°

c ra n ,
°

o s , .

T A PE R T U RN N G I
M th d f T I i g T p 86 1 B wi Sh S dMo s e
I rn n n r
ti l H e g f T
e o s o a e rs , , ro I a e
T p a 862 R ul f S t O v
e rs , 863 T h °
l 864
e or e e r, eo re ca x o oo ,
.

S CRE W C U TT I N G
T h Th di g T l 87 1 Ch g G ng 8 72 ; S im p l G
n i g an e e ea r n
°
e rea oo , e a ri ,

Rul 8 7 3 ; C m p und G
e, in g 8 7 4 ; P nd M
o ipul t i o 87 5 ; ea r , rocess a an a on ,
O d f Op
r er o ti n f S c w Cut t i g 8 76; Not e ra S e w Cut
o s or re n ,
es on cr
t ing, 87 7 .

O R DI N A RY T H RE A D RO PO RT I O N S P
U ua re T rea d, 882 ; T h e h h
Th e
60 D e rec—
S Sta n da rd T rea d, 88 1 ; T h e
V Th re a
.

d, 883 ; T h e
.

ro wn S r p e 2 9 -
e gree o rm B D W
T h rca , 884 ; T h e 2 9- De gree S c re w T rea d, cm e S ta n da rd 88 5 ; h A ,

T a le o f 2 9 -De grec S c re w T re a d a rts , cm e S t a nda rd 886 ; Th e

b h P A ,

B h
rit is S t a n da rd o r it wo rt T rea d, 887 T h e T ra e zo ida l Wh h h °
p
h
T re a d, 888 .

CHA PT ER Ix . BO RI NG
BO RI NG MA CH I N ES
B i g D fin d 9 1 1 ; Th H
or n t l B in g M
e Ma hi ,9 1 2 ; Th e
e ,
e o rI zo n a or ac ne
V t i l B i g M h in 9 1 3 ; T h L th s ho in g M h i 9 1 4
er ca or n ac e, e a e a a r ac ne , .

T H E V T CA L BO
ER G N T RN N G M LL
I RI N A D U I I
Fu t i ncd L im it t i 9 2 1 ; D s ipt i h f P rts 9 22 Ch
on an a o ns ,
e cr o o a ,
°
a ra c
t i ti Op
er s ti 92 3
c e ra o ns ,
.

B R NG
O I
P p t i n f th W k 9 3 1 ; La th b i O p t i n 932 ;
re a ra o o e or e- or n e ra o s,
—
Ch u king Adju t m t i C hu k 9 33 ; A j u t m t
c F s en
,

n c s, s en on a ce
l t 9 34 Adj u t m t C i g 9 35 ; O d f O p t i f
pzth B i g 9 36 ; O d f O pe ti n f Mill B i g 9 37
en on o ns
°
es , s a rr a e, r er o e ra or
‘ e or n , r er o ra o s or orn , .

CH U CKS BO RI N G A N CH I N G T O O LS D U CII
Ch i k
d
,

9 4 1 ; I d p d t Ch u k
rc s, 9 42 U iv i l Ch u k n 94 e en en c s ,
°
n e sa c s,
C m bin t i Chu k 9 44 ; C
o a f Ch u k 9 4 5 ; B i g B
on n c s, a re o c s. or n a rs a
Cutt 9 46 ; Ch u kin g D ill 9 4 7 ; C un t b
e rs , 9 4 8 ; Ch u ki g c r s , o er or s, e
c n
Rea m ers , 9 49 .

CHA PT ER X . DRI LLI NG

DRI LLI N M A CHI N ES
G
Ope r
a t iO
.

D illi g M h i
r n ac ne s an d ns 1 01 1 ; T h e Se n s it ive
, rict io n F
D ill 1 0 1 2 ; T h
r , e U p ight D
r rill , 1 0 1 3 , Ra dia l a n d nive rsa l rills , U D
1014 .

DRI LLI N G
tion
.

Ch a ra ct e riSt ic
. .

P p re a ra of W o rk La yin g O rit ,
O pe ra
t io ns , 1 0 2 2 ; O rde r of O pe ra t io ns ,
1 02 3 ; The S p
ee do f D rills , 1 0 2 4 .

”
DRIL L s
C a ra
h c te rist ics o f a rill , 1 0 3 1 ; Th e la t D n ll 1 0 32 Th e i ed D F °
L pp
1 0 34 ; Th e Ha l -ro und o r
,

D
rill, 1 0 33 ; T h e S c ra in g dge rill p E D f
—
,

H o g n os e Drill 1 0 35 ; T h e Modified H o No se
- “
D rill 1 0 36 D °

g
,

1 0 38 ; S e c ia l
,

T h e S t ra igh t -flute d rill , 1 0 3 7 ; Th e wis t rill D D p

D
rills , C
o un te rs in ks a n d Rea m e rs , 1 0 39 .
x ii CONTENTS

D RI LL S H N S S KET S A N CO LLET S
A II , OC D
D ill S h k 1 04 1 ; M
r T p an S h nk s , o rse a er a s 4 Dim ens ro ns in I n c h es ,
1 04 2 ; D ill S k t d C ll t 1 0 4 3
r oc e s an o e s, .

Light D ill Chu ks 1 0 5 1 ; H vy D ill Ch u k 1 0 52 ; T ppi g

r c , ea r c s, a n
Ch u k 1 0 53 c s, .

CHAPT E R X I G RI NDI NG .

G IN I NG
R D
G indi g O p r ti n H d d M hi 1 1 1 1 ; T h D y G ind
e ra o ns , an an ac ne , e r r er
d A tt h m t 1 1 1 2 ; T h D i G i d 1 1 1 3 ; T h W t G i d
an a c en s , e sc r n e r, e e rn e r,
1 1 1 4 ; T h U iv l C ut t e d Re mn G in d
e rs a 1 1 1 5 ; Th D ill e r an a er r e r, e r
G i d 1 1 16 rn e r, .

U N I E RS L G RI N R
V A DE
F u ti d Lim it ti n
nc o ns 1 12 1 ; D
an ip t i f P t a 1 1 22 ;
o s, e
s cr on o ar s,
Ch t i t i O p t i
a ra c e r s 1 123 c e ra o ns , .

GR N NG H A A R
I DI O ND
AT I N S B ASIVE PE R O
H d G i din g 1 1 3 1 ; H d S u f i g 1 1 32 ; B uffin g 1 1 33
an r n ,
an r ac n , ,
.

G RI N N G DI M H I N A RA I O AC IO N S E B S VE P E R AT
P p t i f th “ f k 1 1 4 1 ; Di u i n d Cl ifi t i 1 1 42 ;
re a ra on o e or ,
sc ss o an ass ca on ,
P i ipl r nc d Ad t g
es I v lv d i Cy li d i l
an va n a d C i l es n o e n n r ca an o n ca
G ind g 1 1 4 3 ; D i u i n f S p ed T
r In , dT m p
sc ss otu o e s, ra ve rse an e e ra re ,
1 1 44 ; T i l S tti g 1 1 4 5 ; C h t t i g 1 1 46 ; R m k
ra e n s, d R pu a er n , e ar s an e
t bl P
a ti e 1 1 47 ; O d
ra c f Opcc , ti f Cy li d i l d r er o e ra o ns or n r ca an
C i l G i di g 1 1 48 ; L ppi g 1 1 49
o n ca rn n , a n ,
.

A RA I v
B AN
S A Es WH S D B RA S I V E EEL
C b u dum S l f H d
ar or n 1 1 5 1 ; A lu dum 1 1 52 ; C rnn
ca e o a r n e ss , n , o
dum 1 1 53 ; Em y 1 1 54 ; G i d t
,
1 1 55 ; A b
er iv Wh l
, d r n s o ne s , ras e ee s a n
Wh l S d 1 1 56 ; N um b
ee f G ia, d Ch ct f Su f er o ra ns , a n a ra er o r a ce
Cut by T m 1 1 5 7 ; G d e H d ,
1 1 58 ; F v it Num b ra nd
e or a r n ess , a or e e rs a
G d s f A b i !t l 1 1 59
ra e o ras ve e s ,
.

CHAPT E R X II . PLA NI NG
PL ANIN GM A C H I N ES
Cla s s e s of Pl a n in g M hi ac ne s , 12 1 1 .

T H E S H A PE R
F
un c t io n a n d Lim ita t io ns , 1 2 2 1 ; D e
sc ri pt i on , 1222 ; Ch a ra c t e ris t ic

O pe ra t io n s , 1 2 2 3 .

S L O I PE RS A N D
' '
K E Y-W A Y UT T E RS C
D p
e sc ri t io n o f S lo t t in g M h
a c in e s , 1 2 3 1 ; S lo t te r T oo ls , 1 2 32 ; Ke y
C
wa y ut te rs , 1 2 33 .

Fun cti n o an d L im ita t io ns , 1 2 41 ; D e s c ri pt i on , 1 2 42 ; Ch a ra c te ris t ic

O pe ra t i n o s ,
1 2 43 .

P p ti n f th W k 1 2 5 1 ; C utt i g S p d 1 2 52 ; Pl i g
re a ra o o e or , n ee s , an n
P t i — R ugh i d F in i h i g o S id d D w Cut 1 2 53 ;
n an n e an o n s,
sG v 1 2 54 ; Pl i g B l Angl 1 2 5 5 ;
ra c ce s
Pl i g Ran n e ce s s e s a n ro o es , an n e ve s o r es ,

U d C utn er d T Sl t 1 2 56 ; C ut T m in t i g i
s an S h uld
- o s , s er a n n a o e r,

1 2 5 7 ; A u cy nd E cc 1 2 58 ; O d
ra f Op a ti f Sh p rro rs , r er o e ra o ns or a e r,
1 2 59 ; O d f O p a ti f
r er o Pl er o ns or a n e r,
 PA GE
CHAPT E R XI I I . MI LLI NG
MILL I N G MA CH I N ES
O rdina T s, 1 31 1 ; Pla in Milling M h in 1 3 1 2 ; V t i l ac es , er ca
M illing a c m es , 1 3 1 3 ; H i n t l Milli g M chines a nd R t y
o r zo a n a o ar
P U
la n e rs , 1 3 1 4 ; n ive rsa l M illing M h i 1 31 5 ac n es , .

TH E U N I V RS L M I LL E R N A rrA C H H N rS ' '

E A A D E
Fu t i nc d Lim it t i ns 1 32 1 ; D
o ns an ipt i n f Pa ts 1 32 2 ; T h e
a o ,
es c r o o r ,

U i sa l Dividi g H ea d 1 32 3; I nd D um 1 32 4 ; T il t k
n ve r n , ex r , a -s oc ,

1 32 5 ; Ra i i g Bl k 1 32 6 ; S w l Vi
s n 1 32 7 ; S t ady Rest
oc d,
i ve se, e an
O th Att h m t 1 32 8 ; Cha ra ct i t i O pe ra ti n 1 32 9
er ac en s , er s c o s ,
.

M I LLI N G
P p ti n f th e W k 1 33 1 ; N m l t ure —T m
re a ra o o d or ,
o en c a er s an
Op ti
e ra D fin d 1 332 ; In flu
ons f Cut t
e Di m t
e , 1 333 en ce o er a e e rs ,
A m bli g Cutt
ss e C ll ts C ll
n t 1 334 ; F ding
e rs , o e , o a rs ,
e c .
, ee an
S p d 1 3 35 ; E d M illin g S l t
ee s ,
1 3 36 ; Cut t i g A t i n o f F
n o s ,
n c o a ce ,
Sd i d E d M ill 1 3 3 7 ; S wiv l V i Adj u t m t
e an n 1 338 ; O d
s, e se s en s , r er
of O p ti n 1 339
e ra o s ,
.

E X A M PL ES OE MI L L I NG
F Milling 1 34 1 ; Slot Milling 1 34 2 ; B ing a nd Fa cin g 1 34 3 ;
a ce , , or ,

K y sea t i g nd Flut in g 1 344 ; G

e n a Cutt i g S gm nt nd S p t , ea r n .
e
e a o
Fi i h ing 1 345 ; H o bbing a W rm
n s , l 1 34 6 ; Cut t ing B v l d o , e e an
Mit G s 1 3 47 ; H lica l G oo ving 1 34 8 ; B king O fl D ill
er ea r ,
e
r , ac
'

r
L ds 1 34 9
an ,
.

G E A RI N G
T h S i ing
e d C utt ing f G ea Wh l 1 35 1 ; T a ble f G
z an T th o r ee s , o ea r oo
P t 1 35 2 ; O d nt g h i (L y i g O ut G a r T th ) 1 3 53 ;
Cy l ida l T tp 1 35 4 ; G t s I nv lut Sys t m 1 355 ;
ar s , o o ra es a n e ee
T bl f
’
a e or c o ee ra n o e e ,

L yi g ut th I nv lut R k 1 356 ; La ing O ut I nte rna l In lute

a n o e o e ac , vo
G a e 1 3 5 7 ; T a bl
rs ,
f I n lut T t 1 358 ; G e a rin g N t
e or vo c ee o es
S t n gt h S p d a nd H p w 1 3 59
,

ee o rs e - o e r,
re ,
.

A RD O RS A N M I LLI NG CI I I rE Rs I N G N E RA L
D
' '
E
Ab r o rs D ipt i n a nd I 1 36 1 ; S hell M ill a nd S rew A b s
es c r o
'

sc , c r or
1 363; C la ss ifi t i n
,

1 362 ; C ll t o e s d D ig n o f C ut t
, nd M ill ca o an es e rs a s ,

1 364 ; Ca o f Cutt s 1 365

re er
—
.
,

MI LLI N G C I r ma S rrzc rn c
- U ' '
I
F a ceMilling Cutt 1 37 1 ; S id M illin g Cut t m 1 3 7 2 ; A
e rs
g ,ula e e , n r
M illi g Cutt n 1 3 73 ; E nd M illi g Cutt r
e rs ,1 3 7 4 ; F rm M lli n e s , o I n
Cut t d F rm d C ut t rs 1 37 5 ; F ly C ut t rs 1 376 ; I
e rs an o e t e , e , n se r
T t h C utt s
oo 1 3 7 7 S lit t i g S w
er d S
, w S l t te 1 3 78 ;
'
n a s an c re o rs ,
S t ra ddle nd G ng M ill a1 3 79 a s, .

CHfi PT E R X I V . M ISCE LLA NEO U S MACH I NE T OO S A N D L

ACC ESSO RI ES
P R ES S E S
Cl as s i fi ca t io n , 1 41 1 ; A s s e m ling b P re s s es —A b r or -h
H yd ra ulic ,
1 4 1 2 ; Die P re ss es , 1 4 1 3 .

D I ES A N D D I E A IN M K G
D ies , 1 42 1 ; D ie M ki a n g, 1 42 2 .

T U RR ET M
A CH I N E S
T urre t a t es L h ,
1 4 3 1 ; Bo x T oo ls an d T u rn e rs , 1 4 32 ; S c re w Ma
h
c in es , 1 4 33 ; M o n it o r at L h es , 1 4 34 ; F o rm in g L h a t e s , 1 4 35 .

D
o

c
i
rill n an i F iling J igs , 1 44 1 ; J i gC h a ra ct e ris t ics an d D e s igns ,
1 442 ; em ple ts ,
1 44 3 .
x iv CO NT ENT S

PA GE
CH APT ER X V SH O P PROCESS ES AN D KI NKS .

MET H O S WO RKI N G I RO N A N ST E L
D OF D E
— O di y D y W t 1 5 1 1 ; Qu n h g B t h B i
—
A n li gn ea n r na r r a er e c in a s r ne ,
—
,

Zi Ch l id S luti M cu y 1 5 1 2 ; T m p i g A i O il tc
nc or e o on , er r ,
e er n r, ,
e .

1 5 1 3; C h d ni g d O th P cess e 1 5 1 4
as e - ar e n an er ro s, .

CO LO RIN G I RO N N S E L A D T E
P pp t y P esse
re a ra o r ro c 1 52 3 ; C h m i s, e
lly O bt
ca dB w d Bl k 1 5 2 4
a i ne ro ns an ac s, .

CLE N I N G C S T I N GS N FO RGI N GS
A A A D
Pi kli g 1 53 1 ; R m vi g G
c n , n dD i t 1 532 ; U f C m
e o n rea s e a r , se o o
p d A i 1 53 3
re ss e r,

—
.

SO L G
D E RI
N S W T I N G B
,
RA zI N G N F R
EA FIx IN ,
A D E RO G
T m er D fi n d 1 54 1 ; S ld in g 1 542 ; Sw ti g 1 54 3 ; B i g
s e e , o er ,
ea n ra z n
Fi i g 1 545
, ,

1 54 4 ; F e rI O - x n ,
.

M IS CE LL N S K N KS A EO U I
F gi g Sq u H l 1 5 5 1 ; Dividi g i th L th 1 552 ; Ru t
or n a re o cs ,
n n e a e, s
J i t 1 553
o n s, .

CHAPT E R X VI MECHA NI CS .

FU N M NT L PRI N LE
DA E A CI P S
W k 1 6 1 1 ; P w 1 61 2
or ,
o e r, .

H T EA
Th y 1 62 1 ; R l tiO B tw
e or H t d W k 1 62 2 ; A n Ee a n e ee n ea an or ,
x

h y
,

p im er t in T r
enm d n m i 1 62 3 e o a cs , .

PO W R G E S N C M
RA PH N A D O PU T AT IO S
Th I di t e C d 1 63 1 ; P w a d St m C m put t i
n ca o r ar 1 632
,
o er n ea o a on s , .

C HAPT E R X V I I POIVE R— G E N E RAT I NG MACH I N ES .

ST A M E G I N
E N N T N ES A D U RB I ES
Th S t m E gi
e ea 1 7 1 1 ; T u bi n 1 7 1 2 ; Th
ne , D w d Pyl r ne s , e o an e
T u bi r 1 7 1 3 ; Th D L
ne s l T u bi 1 7 1 4 ; T h Cu t i T u bi
e e a va r ne , e r s r ne ,
h b b
,

; T h aW t i u e P T ues i n 1 7 1 6 ; To l f C m
se - a rs o ns r ne , a e o o

p t i
a ra S t m ve n C l C u m
ea p t i 1a7 1 7 oa o ns on , .

G AS O N H
IL A A E N G I N ES
D OT IR
Th y d T h m dy m i 1 72 1 ; Be u d R h C lu i ;
,
’
eor an er o na cs ,
a e oc as o nc s o ns
Ot t d C l k Cy
o an y l 1 7 2 2 ; D i eru i f D t il
c es , d M t h d i sc ss o n o e a s an e o s o
R gul t i e 1 7 2 3 ; T h Di
a on , l E gi 1 72 4 ; F u l 1 72 5 O p
e ti es e n ne , e s , e ra on ,
1 7 2 6 ; N ph th E gi e a 1 72 7 ; H t i a C l i E gi 1 72 8
n n s, o -
a r or a or c n nes , .

H Y R U L M RS
D A IC O TO
W t W h l 1 73 1 ; Tu bi s Th Oy id Di u i
a er
'
ee s , 1 7 32 ; r ne e r ar sc s s on ,
—
,

Cl dU 1 7 3 3 ; I m p ul W h l 1 734 ; R
'

Tu b i r nes a s s es an s es ,
se ee s , ea c
ti Wh l 1 735
on ee s ,
.

CHA PT E R X VI I I . E LEMENT ARY ELEC TRICIT Y

NO ME N C LA T U RE
S ta n da rds La ws a nd , F t 1 8 1 1 ; A l g B tw
ac s ,
na o re s e ee n t he Flo w of

W a te r
'

a nd le c t ric itE y 1 8 1 2 ; El t ic C i uits 1 8 1 3

,
ec r rc ,
.

I N D U C TI O N A N D A ET I S M M GN
H
is t o rica l No te 1 82 1 ; a gn e ts a n d a ne t ic , M M g L a ws , 1 82 2 ; T h e
-
h
S t re n gt o f E le ct ro m a gn e ts a nd S o le n o ids , 1 82 3 .

DYN AM O S A N D G E N E RA T O RS
p
De s c ri t io n of a Dy n a m o or G e n e a to r, r 1 8 3 1 ; Prin ciples Of th e
Dy m na o or G e n e ra t o r 1 8 32 ; o m m uta to r
s , 1 8 33 ; C A rm a t ure s , 1 834 ;
l dM 1 83 5 ; W in din gs , 1 836
'

a gne ts , .
 CO NT E NTS XV

PAG E
CHAPT ER XIX . PO WER T RANS MISS I ON
E LE CT RI C T RA NS MIS S I O N
Effi i y f Elect i Sy t m 1 9 1 1 ; Gov ning C ndit i ns in th
c enc o r c s e s er o o e

Se le t i n f S y t m
c o T bul t d T an m i i n Da ta 1 9 1 3 ;
o s e s, a a e r s ss o ,

Sy t m s e f El t i l Di t b ut i n in C m m n U
s o 1 9 1 4; M t
e c r ca s rI o o o se , o o rs ,
Di ussi n nd Prin i l 1 9 1 5 ; M t S p ed R
sc o a ti 1 9 1 6;c es , o or e e on ,
A lt n t i er a u t t 1 9 1 7 ; Sy h ro n us
n -c rre n t 1 9 1 8; o ora , nc o o o rs ,
I nduc t io n Io to ra, 1 9 1 9 .

C O M P RESS E D A I R T RA N S M I SS I O N
Co m res s ed A ir, 1 9 2 1 ; A ir
p C om p ress o rs , 1 92 2 ; C om p res s ed-a i r
E ngIn es a n d a c ines , 1 9 2 3 M h .

H YDRA U LI C T R NS M ISS IO N A
Ad pt bility nd U
a a a s es ,
1 9 31 ; H yd ra uli c Fo rging ,
1 9 32 .

RO PE T R A N S M I SS I O N
W p
ire Ro e T ra ns m is s io n , 1 9 4 1 ; Ro pe D riv m g, 1 9 42 ; S s te m s , 1 9 43 ; y
h P y
S ea ves a nd ulle s , 1 9 44 ; T ra ns m iss io n Ro e , 1 9 4 5 ; S licin g, 1 9 46 p p .

P LL
S H A FT , U E T A N D E T T RA N S M IS S I O N B L
Sh a ft in h f
1 9 5 1 ; S a ting S u o rt s , 1 9 52 ; e a rin gs a nd a nge rs , pp B H
1 9 53 ; ulle s , C h
lut c es a n d o u lin g , 1 9 54 ; rra n ge m e n t of C p A
h f
S a t ing a n ulle s , 1 9 55 ; P y
in in g S a t in g, 1 9 56 ; e lts a n d L U h f B
Be lt in g, 1 9 57 ; e lt B L
a cin g, 1 9 5 8 ; o we- owe r T ra ns m it te d p by
L h
e a t e r Be lt in g, 1 9 5 9 .

CHA PT E R XX . MOTO R DRI V E AN D MOTO R DRI VEN -

MACH I N E TOO LS
MOTO R DRI ES V
Ad t g f M t D iv 2 0 1 1 ; R l t v C t f Eq uipm nt
va n a es o o or r es , e a i e os s o e ,

2 0 1 2 ; E n m y f M ot co D iv 2 0 1 3
o o or r es , .

MOTO RS FO R S H A N MA CH I N E T O O L DRI V I N G
OP D
C n t nt p d M t 2 0 2 1 ; V i bl Adj u ta bl S p d M t rs
o s a -s ee o o rs , ar a e or s e ee o o ,

2 02 2 ; C m p u d M t o 2 02 3; R f
o n t th D t 2 02 4
o o rs , e e re n ces o o er a a, .

W RKI N G A P L C T O N S O TH V RI U S M T RS
O P I A I P E A O O O
O n th C h i f e M t 2 0 3 1 ; C ns t t p d S vi 2 0 32 ;
o ce o a o o r, o a n -s ee er ce ,
V i bl ar a Adj u ta bl Spee d Se rvi 2 0 33 ; D iv n d T ls
e or s e ce , r es a oo
R q ui in g C m p und Se rV c 2 0 34
e r o o I e, .

S R U L AT I O N
PE E D EG
S p d R ng ee 2 0 4 1 S p d C n t l 2 0 42 ; S p d C t l R l t i n
a es , ee o ro ee o n ro e a o s,
2 0 4 3 ; Sy t m a n d W
,
i ing 2 044
s e s r , .

H O RS P W RE Q U I RE ME NTS
E - O ER
M t R ti gs 2 0 5 1 P we R qui m nts f R ip t i T l
o or a n , o r e re e o ec roca n oo s
2 0 52 ; C m pb ll F m ula 2 0 53 ; H p w R uim dt
,
’
e s m v
or o rse- o
f tl e M to Eq uip
a , er e o o e
Chip f a G iv n A e 2 0 54 ; H
s o pow e r a , o rs e -
e rs O o r
m nt f e V i us Ma h ine T l 2 0 55
s or ar o c oo s , .

IN D EX
 CH APTER I
I NTRO D UCTI ON AND E Q U IPME NT

I I I . F oreword Thos e of us wh o ha ve had to do wit h th e

.

e duca t io n and t ra in ing of t h e te chn ica l s t ud e n t kn o w h o w ve ry

d iffi cult it is to mee t s a tis fac to rily th e ins is te nt inquiry for a

c o mpre h ens ive t h o ugh e le me n tary w o rk on me chan ical e nginee r
ing in its re la t io n to mach in e s h o p prac t ic e A p pre n t ic es wo rk .
,

m e n and s t ud e n ts e ach and a ll ca ll for a wo rk f re e a lik e fro m

, ,

pe dant ic d is cus s io ns involve d pres e nt at ions and t hat bugaboo

, ,

of so many c o mp le x fo rmu las

,
T o s upp ly s uch a wo rk was one
.

o f t he aut h o r s e nd e avo rs The re a re s till many wh o O bj e c t to

’
.

any atte mpt to co nve y by m e ans o f d es crip tio ns the c o nte n t

, ,

o f prac t ica l pro c ess es H o we ve r it is t h o ugh t t ha t s uch o b j e c

.
,

t io ns a re o ut w e ighe d by t h e adm itte d va lue wh ich re c o rd e d

‘

inves t igat io ns hav e a s t ime s ave rs and fu rt h e rmo re by t h e free ,

do m O b t a ine d fro m t h e irkso m e ness O f a lways hav ing to be g in

a t t h e be gin n ing I n t h e pres e n t at io ns and d is cus s io n s t h e us e
.

o f gra ph s to illus t ra t e and in s o me ins t anc es to d e rive ma t he

,

m a t ica l fo rmu las w ill it is h o ped b e m os t acc e p tab le to a ll

, , ,
.

Th is fi rs t chap te r th e bulk of wh ich pe rta ins part icularly to

, ,

and ha s to do w it h s tud e nts and s ch o o l s h o ps fin ds its j us tifica

, ,

t io n in m ee t ing t h e n ee d s wh ich t h e n e w ly o rgan ize d ind us t r ia l

and t rades s ch oo ls have create d for mat e rial of t h is s o rt T h e .

de art h of s uch mate rial s h o uld make its inc lus io n in a w o rk of

t h is k ind particu larly acc e pt ab le t o t h os e c o nn e c te d w it h s uch
s ch oo ls .T o t he e xp e rie nc e d mach in is t and t h o s e wh os e us e of ,

t h e bo o k w ill b e ch ie fly fo r ref e re n c e much O f t he c o n te n t O f t h is

,

fi rs t ch ap te r w ill b e fo und s upe rfluo us T o t h es e t h e au t h o r o ffe rs

.

t h e advic e t ha t t h e y t urn s pe ed ily t o o t h e r pages wh e re t h e s ub

j cet of t he ir I nquiry may be found .

The re h as bee n an e nd e avor n o t o nly t o antic ipa te and ans we r

,

s uch qu e s t io n s a s aris e in t h e m ind O f t h e s t ud e n t o r a n

pp r e

t ic e b ut als o t o pres e n t brie fly s uch ot h e r kn o wle dge o f ma te rials

,
2 ENG IN EE RI NG AN D S HO P PRACTI CE

and pro c es s es as t h e needs o f mo de rn prac t ic e s ee m to de mand .

T h e wo rk is writ te n primarily fo r t he s t ud e n t and appre n t ice ,

t h o ugh it is h o pe d t ha t in t h is day of s p e c ia lize d wo rkme n it

, ,

may b e rea d wit h pro fi t by t he te ache r and j o u rneyman We .

have had and c o n tinue to have boo ks o n e ng inee ring and s hOp
, ,

prac tice fro m t he t heo ris t s layman s and teache r s po in t of Vie w

’
,
’ ’

b ut t h e n ee d of s uch a w o rk fro m t h e V ie w po int o f th e s t ude n t -

,

a ppre n t ic e and wo rkman h as lo ng be e n appare n t .

T h e aut h o r h as mad e no a tte mpt to e xhaus t t h e kn o w ledge

of e ng in ee ring in its re la t io n t o mach in e s h o p s or ind ee d of any ,

o n e pro c es s n o r t o t ak e up in d e ta il t h e pro c es s
,
pro duc t and ,

e ach fe a t u re o f e ve ry to o l b ut purp oses to prese n t t h e ma te ria l

,

o f me chan ica l e ng in e e r ing in its re la t io n t o s h o p prac t ic e in s uch

a manne r a s to O bta in a max imum amo un t of d e fin ite kn o wledge

and me nt a l d is c iplin e w it h a m in imum of wo rds .

1 1 2
. Ch a ra cter of In s truction AS t h e w o rk of t h e mach ine
.

s h o p ge n e ra lly c o mes las t in a s ch e m e o f indus t ria l e duca t io n it ,

is t ak e n fo r gran te d t ha t a ll t h e e xpe rie nc e w it h and kn o wledge ,

of ,
me ta ls wh ich t he s t ude nt pos s ess es h a s bee n ga in ed in t h e
fo undry and fo rge s h o p whe re he a t was t h e age ncy by wh ich t he
s t ubb o rn m e t a l wa s re nd e re d t rac tab le and s ubs e rv ie n t In .

t h e mach in e s h o p h o we v e r t h e m e t a ls a re wro ugh t c o ld be ing

, , ,

s ubj e c te d to pro c e ss es v e ry s im ilar to t h os e e mp lo ye d in t h e w o rk

ing o f w o o d t h o ugh t he mach in es and to o ls a re n o v el and pe cu liar

,

and th e pro c es se s a lt oge t he r new F or t h e re as o n t h e n t hat t he

.

wo rk O f t h e mach ine s h o p d oes c o me las t it is t he aut ho r s pur ,

’

pos e to s imp ly re v ie w and e mphas ize t h e impo rtan t p o in ts of

t h e o t h e r s h o p pro c e ss e s ra t h e r t han to t ak e up in d e t a il t h e w o rk
,

of pat te rn mak ing m o ld ing and fo rg ing

-
,
Th os e wh o have not .

had t he advantage of t h e wo rk o f t h e o t he r s h ops and wh ose ,

c o nc e rn is ma in ly t hat of t h e mach ine s h o p w ill find s u ffi c ient ,

mate ria l regard ing t h es e pro c ess e s a s t h e y re late to it to e nable

t h e m t o und e rs t and its impo rt ant d e t a ils .

”
T h e d iffi cu lt y wh ich a lways o bt a in s in t h e p res e n t a tio n O f any

”
proc es s by d es cript io ns a lo ne led to t h e ad o pt io n o f c e rt a in
s ch e du les t e rm e d Charac te ris t ic O p e ra t io ns and O rd e r of “

O pe ra tio ns . T h e e ffi c ie ncy o f t h ese s ch edu les h a s bee n d e m o n

s t ra ted by t h e r e pe a t e d s ucc es s wh ich h as a t t e nd ed t h e ir us e in

the s hop .

1 1 3
. S h op E th ics .T h e s t ud e n t co nfro n te d a s h e is b y
,
4 ENG INEERING AND S H O P PRACT ICE
plan ing ; h is leg pus h e d t h e o pe rating le ve r t h e plane r s tarte d

”
, ,

and th e too l plo ugh e d de e p t hro ugh h is s ku ll .

1 1 5 Care of Self
. Wa n t of ca re does m ore da m a ge tha n wa n t
.
“

of kn o wled g e [t h e it a lic s a re m in e ]; h e nc e car e and kn o w ledg e,

s h o u ld b e w e ll c o mm ing led I t is e as ie r to fo rm a hab it t han

.

t o b re ak o n e o ff t h e re fo re we s h o u ld s t riv e t o fo rm c o rre c t hab it s .

Be fo re beg inn ing to le arn mach in e mak ing we s h o uld le arn

“

t ha t it is dange ro u s t o le an aga in s t a mach in e t ha t is runn ing ,

and t hat it is impo rtan t to k ee p a pro pe r d is tanc e fro m any

me chan is m t ha t is i n m o tio n or is lik e ly to b e s e t in mo tio n
, .

I t is s o m e t im es c o nv e n ie n t t o p lac e o ne s hand up o n a m o v ing

’

p ie c e b ut be fo re d o ing s o o n e s ho uld kno w th e d ire c t io n O f t he

,

m o tio n and t h e p lac e t o uch e d s h o u ld n o t b e t h e t e e t h o f a ge ar

,

o r t h e t e e t h o f a cu t te r I f on e to uch e s a p ie c e s upp o se d t o b e
.

m o ving s o u t h whe n in re a lity it is m o v ing n o rt h o n e s hand may ,

’

b e s e rio us ly injured .

I n t o uch ing a b e lt t ha t is runn ing t h e h a nd s h o u ld b e k e pt

“
,

s t ra igh t and s h o u ld to uch t h e be lt o nly upo n its edge ; if t h e

,

finge rs a re be nt t h e y may b e caugh t be t we e n th e be lt and pulle y .

‘

Ne ve r put yo ur fi n g e rs in t h e way o f a mach in e fo r fun ; in

“

s h o rt n e ve r p lay w it h a mach ine a t a ll fo r it w ill n ot s tand a

, ,

j oke .

I t is da n ge ro us t o s et a la t h e to o l wh e n th e w o rk is runn ing ,

a n d s t ill m o re dange ro us t o s e t a p lan e r t o o l .

Care of Ma chine H av ing g iv e n o ur yo ung mach in e

“
1 1 6 . .

mak e r s o me po in t s fo r h is o wn s afet y we s h o u ld lik e to g ive h im ,

a fe w fo r t h e s afe t y o f t h e mach in e s t h e m s e lv e s W h ile th e .

m ach in e ac t s acc o rd ing to a b lind and unc o n s c io us n e c e s s ity ,

appare n t ly w it h ut t e r fi e rce ness and crue lt y yet it can b e ve ry ,

e as ily injure d Do n o t a llo w a to o l to run by t h e w o rk s o far a s

.

to chuck o r bo re a lat h e s p ind le Do n o t s c o re t h e p la te n o f a

.

p lan e r DO n o t mak e h o les in th e table of a drilling m ach in e

. .

DO n o t g o ug e t h e fo o t s t o ck o r v is e of a m illing mach in e DO n o t .

la y a file o r a n y o t h e r t o o l upo n t h e ways o f a la t h e ; t h e y s h o u ld

b e guard e d w it h t h e gre a tes t care Do n o t c ut in to a lat h e arb o r
. .

T h e run n ing parts o f e v e ry mach in e s h o u ld b e o ile d a t le a s t

“

o nc e a d ay and pe rhaps O fte ne r Slid e s and o th e r e xpo s ed

, .

be arings s h o uld b e w ipe d c le an be fo re o iling I f y o u t ak e a .

m ach in e t ha t s o me o n e e ls e h a s be e n runn ing do n o t t rus t t ha t ,

it h a s bee n O ile d t h e sa m e day o il it yo urs e lf ,

I f a m ach in e is .
 I NT RO D UCTIO N AN D EQ U I PMENT 5

no t pro pe rly O iled it makes a damag ing re po rt it ro ughs up a nd

, ,

s tops O f te n re qu iring h o urs t o re pa ir b efo re it w ill run aga in

, .

Afte r a mach ine h a s t hus bee n s to pp ed yo u n ee d n o t te ll

“
,

t hat it h as be e n pro pe rly o ile d b e caus e n o bo dy w ill be lie ve y o u

, .

T h e e v id e nce of th e mach ine d eals o n ly w it h fac ts and no t w it h

fic tio ns E ve n t h ough an abundanc e o f o il h a s bee n put in to
.

t h e o il h o les th e be arings may n o t have be e n p ro pe rly O iled

-
, ,

be caus e th e oilways a re plugg ed up w it h d irt I t is a bad s ig n .

to hav e t h e O il re main in t h e h o les w ith o u t s ink ing a t a ll wh e n ,

th e mach in e is runn ing E ve ry O il h o le s h o u ld b e ve n te d s o t ha t

.
-

wh e n O il is fo rc ed into o ne plac e it can b e s ee n oo z ing fro m ano t he r .

If an o il h o le is no t v e nted t h e O il may res t o n a cus h io n o f a ir

-

wh ich te nds to lift th e O il o ut I f th e vent is p lugged up it is

.

sa fe r to t ak e t h e b e aring s apart and c le a n t h e o il ways b ut s o m e -

,

t imes a ve n t can b e c le an ed by fo rc ing in naph t ha o r be nz in e If .

y o u h a v e be e n s o unf o r t una te a s to hav e a b ea r ing ro ugh e d t h e ,

fi rs t t h ing to do is to fo rce in naph t ha o r be nz in e ; t h e ne x t t hing

is to t ak e t h e be aring apart and have t h e ro ugh p lac es care fu lly
dres s ed Lik e many o th er t ro ubles t hat have c o me o nc e th e
.
,

ro ugh ing of a be aring is like ly to c o me again .

I t can hard ly b e e xp e c te d tha t o n e can fo llo w t h e ca lling O f

a mach in is t w it ho ut s oiling o ne s hands yet t h e re a re grad es in
’
,

g rime and s o me grad es a re m ore O ff ens ive tha n oth e rs F ro m

, .

a me chanic s po int of vie w o ne mach ine may be d irty wh ile

’
, ,

anot he r is c lean The re a re wo rk s ho ps t hat a re ke pt in a mo re

.
-

healthful c o nditio n t han so me d welling ho us es .

1 1 7 Tools a nd W ork
. So me wo rkm e n arrang e t h e ir to ols
.
“

s o t ha t t h e y can b e eas ily re ach e d and do no t let fi les d es t ro y

o ne an o t h e r by t hro w ing t h e m t og e t h e r Th e us e of a m o nke y .

wre nch fo r a hammer ind icates poo r t as te ; and to jam a p iec e o f

finis h ed wo rk in a v is e or unde r a set s crew pro ves t hat a man -

lack s in m e chan ical ab ility ; wha te ve r e ls e h e s ucc eed s in it is ,

ve ry un like ly t hat he can e ve r be c o me a g ood w orkman A ny

”
.

m a n t o wh o m a bad j ob is no t a las t ing m ortifi ca t io n S h o ws

h ims elf defic ie nt in se lf res pe c t A lo ng j o b may s oo n b e fo r
- .

gotte n a bad o n e neve r

,
.

I ns truc t io n s as to what is wan ted or ho w t h e wo rk is to b e ,

d o ne may b e had v erba lly fro m t h e te ache r o r fore man o r

, ,

gat he re d fro m t h e m echan ical drawing T h e s t ude nt or appren tic e .

s h o uld g ive s pe c ia l a tte n tio n to t h es e ins t ruc t io n s and n e v e r

6 ENG I NEE RI NG A ND S H O P P RAC TI CE
c o mme nc e wo rk un t il h e und e rs tands t ho rough ly j us t what is
wante d I t is ve ry impo rt an t t hat h e fo rm t h e habit O f m eas
.

uring s uch s to ck and cas t ings a s a re pres ented to h im for mach in ing
to d ete rm in e pr io r to any wo rk wh et h e r or no t th e p ie c e w ill
, ,

fin is h to d ime ns io n .

S H O P E Q U I P M E NT A ND R E G U LA T I O N

1 2 1 Tool Equipm ent for Sh op or La bora tory An

Ma chine .

e xc e lle n t lab o ra t o ry e qu ipm e n t fo r t h e te ach ing O f mach in e s h o p

prac t ic e s uitable for a c las s of t we n ty s tud e nts wo uld c o ns is t of

, ,

t h e fo llo wing to o ls
T e n 1 4 F irs t c las s E ng in e L a th es w it h Chuck s and Cha ng e
" -
,

G e ars .

"
T wo 2 0 F irs t c las s E ng in e L at hes H e nde y No rto n Type
-
,
-
,

w it h Chucks and Tape r A ttachme n t

”
.

O n e F la t Turre t Lat h e

”
.

O n e 36 Bo ring Mill
"
.

O n e S mall Ra d ial D rill or 2 6 Med ium U prigh t D rill .

O ne 2 8 x 7 Plan e r
"
.

O ne S pee d o r Se ns it ive F ric t io n Drill .

"
O n e 1 6 S hape r .

O ne U n ive rs a l Milling Mach in e .

O ne U n ive rs a l G r ind ing Mach ine .

O ne Dry E me ry G rind e r .

O ne W e t E m e ry G rind e r .

O ne D rill G rind e r .

"
T wo 1 0 Speed L at h es .

O ne G a s F o rge and A ir Co mpress o r

”
.

O ne Po we r H ack o r Co ld Sa w .

O ne S ma ll Po we r Pre s s and D ies .

E igh t 4 o r 4 4 H eavy Mach in is t s V is es a ttach ed to S u itable

" ’
,

Wo rk be nches
-
.

T e n S e ts V is e T oo ls w it h S u itab le Lo ck e rs o r Cupbo ard s

, .

T e n Se ts L a th e T o o ls w ith S u itab le Lo ck e rs o r Cupbo ards

, .

I n add itio n to t h e ab o ve e qu ipme n t it is ne c es s ary to have

t h e t o o l roo m s to ck e d w it h s uch g e n e ra l s ma ll and m e as uring
-

t o o ls and ma te rials as a re m e n t io n e d t hro ugh o u t t h e s ub s e que n t

pages o f t h is bo o k .

1 2 2 .Th e Tool room T h e t o o l ro o m and its s ucc es s ful

- .
-

manage me n t is o ne o f th e m o s t imp o rt a nt pro ble ms wh ich pre

 I NT RO DUCT I ON AN D EQUI PMENT 7

se a t s its e lf t o h im wh o h a scharge of t he s ho p Th e tool roo m .

-

is t h e d e po s ito ry fo r a ll t h e ge ne ra l and s pe c ial s ma ll too ls and

fo r s uch s ma ll s upp lies as a re e as ily hand led T he to o l k eep e r .
-

s h o u ld b e s o le ly re s p o n s ible fo r a ll t h e t o o ls and s upp lie s und e r

his cha rg e and s h o u ld e x e rc ise a s much ca re in n o t ing t h e c o ndi

,

t io n of t h e re t um e d t oo ls a s h e d oe s in pro m p t ly c o mp ly ing w it h
,

t h e reas o nable re ques t s o f h is ma te s .

T h e t wo c o mmo n s y s te ms by m ean s o f wh ich a wo rkman may

draw too ls fro m th e too l roo m a re th e Ch eck and Re c o rd S ys te ms
-
.

1 2 3 Th e Ch e ck Sys tem
. Th is s ys te m e mplo ys t he us e of
.

brass che ck s se ve ral of wh ich s tamped w it h t he wo rkman s

, ,
’

numbe r a re iss ue d o r p res e n ted to h im fo r h is pe rso nal us e

, .

W he n h e d es ire s a too l fro m th e to ol roo m he mak es h is re ques t -

,

and pres e n ts a ch e ck ; t h is che ck t h e too l k ee pe r plac es in th e -

pos it io n of t he too l wh ich h e g iv es to t he wo rkman W he n th e .

t o ol is re turne d in go o d c o nd it io n it is put in to its p lac e and

t h e che ck re turn e d to t h e o wne r .

1 2 4 Th e Record Sys tem

. O n p ages 8 9 and 1 0 a re g ive n
.
, ,

fac s imiles of too l and t ime re c o rd s ; t h e ir use is e as ily gath e red

-

fro m a read ing re nd e ring any e xp lana t io n s upe rfluo us

, .

1 2 5 Tool room Rules for Sch ool Sh ops 1 The tool kee per
.
- . .
-

is re qu ire d t o e xam ine and make a daily re po rt of all s m all

t o ols s t at ing t h e ir pres e nt c o nd it io n and re po rt ing all m is s ing
, ,

o r bro k e n ar tic les .

2 . T h e t oo l k ee pe r is not allo w e d t o le ave t h e t ool ro om

- -

w it h out pe rm is s io n fro m t he te ache r .

3 T h e to ol ro o m mus t always b e ne at and c le an t h e t oo l

.
-
,

kee pe r t ak ing care t o s e e t hat e ach tool is in its prope r place

be fo re le aving t o w as h .

4 . Cre d it w ill b e g ive n for t oo l roo m w o rk pro vid e d t h e -

,

s t ud e nt h as s ucc es s fu lly pe rfo rn fed t he s am e : ti e h as k e p t t h e .

t oo l roo m ne at cle a n and in o rd e r a t a ll t imes

-
,
.

5 T h e s t ud e nt may ch ip file and s crape a s urface plate

.
,

whe n not e ngaged in the leg itimate tool roo m wo rk -

.
8 E NG I NEE RI N G AND S H O P PRACT I CE

TOOL A ND T I ME RE CO RD
MA CH I NE S H O P
MA N U A L T R A I N I N G H I GH SC H O O L , K A N S A S CIT Y , Mo .

S tuden t Na m e
’
s .

D a te

T im e s pe nt at wo rk on E x e rc is e No . .

Kind o f wo rk do ne
Vis e or M a chin e T oo l us e d durin g pe rio d

P ut a C ro ss o pp o s it e T o o ls re quire d fro m T o o l Ro o m

L AT H E S ET VIS E SET

D ra wer No

C lipe
a rs ,
—
3 in .
, O uts . S pg . Ca lip 6 i
e rs ,
- n.
,
O uts
4-ln .
,
I ns . C t Pu h
en e r nc

Ce n te r Gg a e Ch a lk an d Bo x
P un ch Divid 3 i S rg
e rs , - n .

C ha lk an d Bo x Fil Cl n
e ea er

F ile , 1 2 -in . Mill B . S g Cut

. H a ndl e

Cl ea n e r 1 2 in F l t B D b l Cut
- . a . .

H an dle 12 i - M ill B S i g
n . . n .

th T oo l , A rm s t g No 1 1 2 i H lf Rd B Db l
’
La e .
- n. a . . .

T h rea dg I n s
’
. H am m 2 4 e r, oz

L ft S id
e e S ib
cr e r,8 i - n

B t en S lip S t on e

Pi e ce C pp
o er S t ee l Rule
S li p S to ne . T ry S q ua re
S te e l Rule . Bl a de , 4 5-6 0

I N D I V I DU A L S ET

C ld Chi
o se l

C p Ch i
a e s el

P t L th T
Dia m o n d
’
a e oo l .

R und N
o L th T o se a e oo l . .

Right S id L t he T oo l e a .

P t i g L th T l
ar n a e oo

B i g L th T o l
or n a e o .

Th di g L th e T oo l
re a n a

Rema rks : T oo l Ke e pe r m us t c h k ec a ll too ls re turn e d in goo d d

or e r a n d
re p o rt a ll brok e n o ne s o n t ish recor d .
 I NT RO DUCTI O N AN D EQUI PMENT 9

SH OP RU LE S

1 . p
No s t ude nt is e rm itted to work in th e s h p with
o o ut o ve ra lls , j cket
a ,

a n d ca p , w ic h h
m us t be in good co n dit io n .

2S tude n ts m ust
. ha ve on S h p cl thes a nd b
o o e rea dy to b e
gin wok he n
r w
th e ta rd yb
e ll rings .

3 . S t ude n ts d a ga ins t us ing too ls be fo re th e us e a nd o pe ra

a re ca ut io n e

t io ns o f sa m e ha ve bee n e x pla in e d t o t h em
. Ea ch too l ben ch a nd m a chine
.
,

s h o uld b e ca re fully ex a m in e d, a ndm a chin es turn edo ve r by ha nd be fo re be in g ,

us e d a nda n y de fe c t , da m a ge o r lo ss re po rted a t o n ce
,
T h e la s t us er will t h en .

be h eld res po ns ible .

4 Ea ch st ude nt is he ld res pons ible for th e eq uipm ent of which h e h as

.

cha rge All brea ka ge o r lo ss m us t be m a de goo d

. .

5 Th e s h o p h o urs m us t b e de v o te d t o S h O p w ork
. Loudta lking, collect .

ing in groups a nd s it t in g o n be n ch es o r m a ch in e s is forbidde n De po rtm en t .

a n dn e a t n eu a re im po rta n t fa ct ors in th e d e t e rm ina t io n o f a s t ude nt s s ta n din g

’
.

6 W it h th e ex ce ptio n o f grinding m a chines , n o m a ch ine is to be used

.

wit h o ut pe rm iss io n .

7 . Sp e c ia l p e rm iss io n d fro m th e tea ch er be fore w ork ,

m us t b e o bta in e

o t h e r t ha n t ha t as s igned by h im m a y b e unde rta k e n ,

.

8 As so o n as a n e x e rcis e is fi nis hed it s h ould b e s ta m pe d w ith th e s tu

.

de n t s init ia ls a nd lo cke r n um be r a n d ha nde d t o t h e tea che r C redit will b e

’
.

g iv e n im ed ia t e ly fo r p ro p e rly s t a m p ed a n dfi n is h edw o rk L os t e x e rc is es m ust .

be re pea ted .

9 T oo l a nd tim e re cords a re p ro videdo n wh ich e a ch s t ude n t is to re co rd

.

th e a ct ua l tim e s pe nt o n ea ch p iece o f wo rk t h e kin d o f wo rk , a nd m a c h in e ,

t ools us e d durin g th e pe riod .

10 S t ude n ts a re n o t to lea ve th e s h o p wit ho ut pe rm is s io n

. .

1 1 When th ro ugh work , th e m a ch in e vis e or be n ch m us t b e c lea nedwit h

.
, ,
.

brus h a ndwas te Be fore lea ving th e s ho p to was h , a ll sm a ll too ls m us t be re

.

t urned a n d ch e cked .

12 A st udent s report rep res ents not o nly th e q ua lity o f th e fi n is hed

.
’

wo rk b ut a ls o t h e t im e h e h a s s p e n t upo n it a n d h is a tt itude to wa rdt h e w o rk ;

,

i e h is dis po s it io n to a t te nd to bus in es s a n d to pro fi t by giv e n in s t ruct io ns

. .
- .

Re pea teddis o rde r, ina tt e n t io n , o r dis re ga rd o f s h O p rul es will n e ce sa rily re s ult

in tro uble fo r th e s t ude n t .

F I G 1 2 4b Re verse Side o f F ig 1 2 4a
. . . .
IO ENG INEERING AND S HO P PRAC TI CE

EXERC I SE AN D T I ME RE CO RD
MECH A NI C A RT S D E PT . MC K I N LE Y H IG H SCH OO L

Co m m e n ce d Finis h e d
NO pcs s to ck
. . us ed Kind o f wo rk do ne
T o ta l t im e on E x e rc ise NO

T im e E quipm e nt U sed Re ceive dfro m T ool -

room

D im e nsio ns

Fi n.s h
’ ‘
T oo l-kee p
er m us t c h e ck a ll to o ls re t urne d in
go od o rde r d re po rt a ll b ro ke n o n es a t o n ce
an .

T im e T his re co rd m us t b e ha nded to th e tea ch e r by

t h e s t ude n t be fo re h e lea ves t h e s ho p
T oo ls
.

D e po rtm e n t

G ra de on Ex er cise

FIG . 1 2 4O . ASh c oo l E x e rc is e a n d T im e Re cord .

NOT E : T h e a b o ve re co r d is us ed in a ll sh o ps — Joine ry Fo rgey , , etc .

12 ENG INEE RING AND S H O P P RAC TI CE
and th o s e c o n ta in ing vo latile s ubs tanc es pass fi rs t to th e Ro as ting
,

o r Calc in ing F urn ac e ; t h e y t h e n go to t h e Blas t F urnac e wh e re

t h e o re is changed into t h e c o mme rc ial pig iro ns . Again t h e o re

may go d irec tly fro m t he m in e t o th e Blas t F urnac e or in th e

,

cas e of s o me grad es of pure ore it is change d by t h e d ire c t pro c es s

, ,

in to wro ugh t iro n find ing its way to t h e mark e t a s s uch

,
.Th e
pro d uc t of t h e Bla s t F urnac e is put o n t h e marke t a s th e co m
 MAT E RI ALS 13

m e rc ia l pig i ro ns ; thes e may by pass ing t hro ugh s o me one of th e

,

c o nve rs io n pro c es s es b e mad e int o iro n o r s tee l ; or t he y may by

, ,

way of e it he r of t h e re melting pro ce s s es re ach t h e mark et as ,

cas t iro n o r malle able cas t iro n I f t reate d in t h e P udd ling .

F urnac e t h e pig iro n is change d t o mark e t ab le wro ugh t iro n .

W ro ught iro n wh e n t rea te d by t h e Ce me n ta tio n P ro c es s be c o me s

blis te r s tee l Th is blis te r s teel is pas s ed t hro ugh t h e Cruc ible
.

Pro c es s and t h e pro duc t re a ch es t h e mark e t a s too l s tee l If .

pgi iro n is t re a t e d by t h e O p e n H e art h pro c e s s it is chang ed t o

wha t is kn o wn as ingo t iro n in which fo rm it go es to th e mark et , .

Tre ated by th e Bes s e me r P roc ess pig iro n is als o change d in to

ingo t iro n .

I f h o w e v e r cas t ings a re wan te d t h e pig iro n is re m e lte d

, , , ,

m ixed w it h s cra p e t c in t he Cupola and t h e pro duc t is cas t

,
.
,

iro n. W he n Charc o a l P ig or any pig iro n fre e fro m s ulphur

“

is t re ate d in t h e A ir F urnac e and cas t hard o r wh it e cas t ings ,

res u lt ; t h es e brittle cas tings n o w pass to t he A nne aling and

De carburiz ing F urnac e wh e re t h e y a re change d in t o ma lle ab le
cas t iro n Cupo la cas tings a re s o me times t re ate d in t h e A nne alin g
.

and Decarburiz ing F urnac e in wh ich cas e t hey be c o me malleable ,

cas t iro n .

2 1 3 Meta llurgica l Note s

. Cas t iro n us ua lly c o n t a ins o v e r
.

3 % of carbo n ; cas t s tee l anywhe re fro m 0 6% t o acc o rd ing .

t o t h e pu rp os e fo r wh ich it is us e d ; wro ugh t iro n fro m 0 2 % t o .

Th e qua lit y o f hard e n ing and te m pe ring wh ich fo rme rly

d is t inguis he d s tee l fro m wro ugh t iro n is n o w no lo nge r t h e d iv id ing
lin e be t wee n t h e m s inc e s o ft s tee ls a re n o w pro duc e d wh ich by
, ,

t h e o rd inary b lack s m it h s tes ts w ill n o t hard e n A ll pro duc ts o f

’
.

t h e cruc ib le Be s s e me r and O pe n h e art h pro c e ss es a re n o w co m

,
-

m e rcia lly k n o wn a s s tee l .

Pure iro n is e x t re m e ly inf u s ib le its m e lt ing p o in t be ing ab o v e

,

30 0 0 F
°
I t is ma lle able to ugh a n d duc t ile and as far a s can
.
,

b e de te rm ine d fro m t h e s tre ng t h O f s te el it h as an e x t re m e ,

te ns ile s t re ng t h be t wee n and po und s pe r s quare

inch . By d iffe ren t pro c e ss e s cas t iro n and wro ught iro n a re
pro d uc ed d ire c tly fro m pig iro n ; th e c as t iro n be ing pro duc ed
by m elt ing th e pig in a cupo la and cas ting in mold s I n s t ru e .

t ure it is hard crys t alline and britt le

,
.

T h e o t h e r pro pe rt ies wh ich we n o te in ca s t iro n and s tee l

a re d ue princ ipa lly to t h e pres e nc e o f carbo n t h e m os t o f w h ich ,
14 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S HO P P RACTI CE
is abs o rbe d fro m th e fue l in t he pro c ess of re duc tio n Wit h t h e .

add it io n of carbo n t he fus ibility of iro n increa s es cas t iro n fus ing ,

a t f ro m 2 000 F to 2 500 F ; th e av e rage te mpe ra t ure a t wh ich

° °
. .

s t ee l fus e s b e ing abo ut 2 5 50

°
F .

T h e addit io n o f carbo n re nders iro n and s tee l ha rd and brit

t le . I n cas t iro n o n ly a p o rtio n o f t h e carbo n is che m ica lly
c o mb ined wit h th e iro n s o me O f it ex is ting as free o r graphit ic
,

carbo n Th is c o ns t it utes t h e chie f s t ruc t ural d iff ere nc e bet wee n

.

cas t iro n and s tee l Cas t iro n is t he n a che mical c o mbina tio n
.

o f iro n and carbo n g e ne ra lly c o n t a in ing so me o t h e r ele me n ts

, ,

a s s ilic o n ph os ph o rus ,
s u lphur and mangan es e , wh ic h g iv e to ,

it c e rta in pe cu liar charac te r is tic s acc o rd ing a s t h e y va ry in ,

quan t it y .

2 1 4 . Influen ce of Ca rbon Ma nga n ese an d Ph os ph orus . Ca r

bon is t h e me nt abo ve a ll ot he rs wh ich s tee l mak e rs emplo y
e le ,

whe re pric e is a c o ns ide rat ion in t h e produc t io n O f s tee ls of ,

re qu ire d phys ical pro pe rt ies I n ge ne ral it may b e s tate d t ha t.

,

a g iv e n c o nte nt of carbo n w ill c o nfe r a grea ter hardness and

s t re n g t h w it h less acc o mpany ing brit tle ness t han any ot he r
ele me n t Ce rt a in e xc e pt io n s h o we v e r mus t b e mad e in t h e
.
, ,

cas e s of t h e hard s tee ls c o n ta in ing chro m ium manganes e and ,

tungs te n I t is w e ll kn o wn t h a t e ve ry incre me n t of carb o n

.

d e cre as e s s light ly and regularly t h e duc t ility of iro n and incre as es ,

it s hardness brittle n ess unde r s h o ck and its liab ilit y to crack

, ,

and ch e ck und e r c o nd it io ns of s udd e n h e at ing and c oo ling T he .

c o mb ine d carbo n c o nt e nt is a lways s mall s eld o m e xceed ing o ne ,

and one ha lf pe r c e nt ; ye t t he eff e c t of e ve n s mall incre m en ts is

.

s t rik ing ly illus t ra te d by t h e fac t t hat an incre as e of r i m o f o ne

p e r c e n t w ill g iv.e an incr e a s e in t e n s ile s t re ng t h o f abo u t 1 000

po und s pe r s quare inch .

If a p ie c e O f red h o t s te el (iro n plus c o mb in e d carbo n ) b e

-

s udd e n ly que nch e d in c o ld wa t e r a c o m p o und o f e x t re m e hard ,

ne s s re s ults ; t he carbo n and iro n in t h e me t al co mb in ing in s o me

pe culiar way wh ich is no t t ho ro ugh ly und e rs t oo d A carbo n .

c on te n t of 1 % g ives ab o ut th e lim it of us eful hardnes s th e h igh e r ,

carbo ns pro duc ing s tee ls wh ich increas e s o rap id ly in brit tleness
t hat t he ir use fu ln es s is a ll b ut d es t ro y ed .

”
T h e fo llo w ing c o nc lu s io ns a re t ak e n in t h e m a in fro m th e
re c o rd ed inves t igat io ns of H H Campbe ll and a re g ive n in h is . .
,

boo k T h e Manufac ture and Pro pe rt ie s O f I ro n a nd Stee l a s

,
“
,
 MAT E RI ALS 15

t he ult of e xte nde d expe rie nc e c o ve ring se ve ral h undre d he ats

res

of bo t h ac id and bas ic O pe n h e art h s tee l - .

M a nga nes e P ro bably t h e m os t imp o rtant func tio n wh ich

.

m angane s e s e rv es is t ha t of g iv ing duc t ilit y wh ile t he s tee l is

h o t so t hat t h e p ie c e may b e ro lle d and fin is hed wit h o u t te aring .

A bo ve wh ile add ing to th e te ns ile s t re ngt h it d oes n ot ,

m ate ria lly d e cre ase t h e duc tilit y ; h o we v e r t ho ugh no t pro ve n , ,

it seem s s ligh t ly to inc rease its liab ilit y to b re ak unde r s ho ck .

A n inc re as e o f r ho of on e pe r c e n t of manganes e h as ve ry
.

litt le effe c t upo n ac id s tee l un less t h e c o n te nt e xcee ds

b ut it ra is es th e te ns ile s t re ng t h of bas ic s tee l abo ut 85 p o und s
p e r s quar e in ch

”
.

P ho s phorus Th is e le me nt h as little e ffec t upo n th e h ot

.

pro pe rties of s tee l b ut pro duc es wh at is c o mmo nly te rmed c o ld

,
“

s h o rt n ess ,a te rm us ed to des ignate g re at britt le nes s in t h e

fi n is hed s tee l P h o s ph o rus a lways e x is ts a s an impurit y and o f
.
,

a ll t h e e le m e nts c o mm o n ly fo un d in s t ee l it s t and s pre-e m in e n t ,

as t he m os t und es irab le I ts t e nd e ncy to p ro duc e c o ars e crys

.

ta lliza t io n a n d t h e c o n se que n t reduc t io n in t h e te mpe rat u re a t

,

which it is s afe t o he at s tee l make it high ly O bj e c tio nable in th e

,

rolling m ill- .

T h e ph o s ph o rus c on te n t of o rd ina ry s t ee ls is a lways lim ited

t o 1 % wh ile in s pe c ia l s tee ls much lo we r lim its a re s pe c ified
. .

A n incre ase o f T h o f o ne pe r ce n t o f ph os ph o rus ra is es

.

t h e te ns ile s t re ngt h o f ac id s t ee l abo u t 89 0 p o unds pe r s q ua re

in ch and of bas ic s tee l abo ut 1 0 50 po unds pe r s quare inch .

Ca rbon M a nga nes e P h os phorus T h e fo llo w ing fo rm u .

la e w ill g iv e t he ult imate te n s ile s t re ng t h o f o rd inary o pe n h ea rt h -

s tee ls in p o und s pe r s quare inch t h e carbo n manganes e and

, ,

phos pho rus be ing express ed in un its of 00 1 % and a value be ing .

as s igned to R in acc o rdance wit h th e co nd it io ns of ro lling and

t h e t h icknes s o f t h e p ie c e .

T h e fo rmula for ac id s tee l is

38 600 1 2 1 Carb o n 89 P h os ph o rus R U ltim at e St re ngt h .

The fo rmula for bas ic s tee l is

37 430 9 5 Carb o n Mangan es e 1 05 P h os ph orus R

Ult ima te S tre ng t h .

Th e meta ls fro m wh ich t hes e da t a we re d e rived we re ord inary

16 E NG I NEE RING AN D S HO P P RACT ICE
st ruc t ural s teels rang ing fro m 0 2 % to 35 % carbo n and it is . .
,

unlik e ly t hat th e fo rmu las a re applicab le t o h ighe r s tee ls o r to

s pe c ia l a llo ys I n t he cas e o f ac id s te e ls an incre as e in manga
.

nes e abo ve 60 % w ill rais e t he te ns ile s t re ngt h abo ve t h e amo u nt

.

g ive n by t he fo rmula th e incre me n t be ing qu ite mark ed whe n a

,

c o n te n t O f 80 % is e xc eed ed
. .

I n s tee l c o nt a in ing fro m 30 % to 50 % o f carbo n t h e va lue o f

. .
,

t h e m e ta llo id s is fu lly a s gre a t a s w it h lo w e r s te e ls wh ile t h e ,

pres enc e o f s ilic o n in s uch m e ta l in pro po rt io ns gre a te r t han 1 5 % .

s e e m s t o e nhanc e t h e s t re ng t h e n ing e ffe c t of carb o n I n s tee ls .

c o n ta in ing les s than 2 5 % o f carbo n t h e e ffe c t of s ma ll pro po r

.
,

t io ns o f s ilic o n up o n t h e u lt ima t e s t re ng t h is ina ppre c iab le .

2 1 5 . In fluen ce of Ch rom ium an d Nicke l . Ch rom ium is em

p lo yed g ive an ex t re me hardnes s to s tee l t h e pe cu liar char

to ,

a c te ris t ic be ing t ha t no qu e nch ing o r t e m pe r ing is re qu ire d Th e .

add it io n O f chro m ium up to 5 % increas es th e te n s ile s t re ng t h o f

s te e l and its re s is t anc e to s h o ck s b ut a bo v e t h is pe rc e n tage t h e,

te n s ile s t re ng t h is lo we red

”
.

N ic kel impart s to s tee l a h igh e las t ic lim it and gre a t t o ugh

ne ss und e r s h o ck and in c o mb inat io n w ith carbo n pre v e nts what
,

is kn o wn a s s udd e n rup ture

“
t h o ugh its influ e nc e is no t a lway s
,

un ifo rm Nicke l is us ed to O bta in a s tee l tha t w ill w it h s tand t h e

.

h e avy s h o ck and to rs io na l tes ts t ha t a re requ ired O f armo r p la te

and s pe c ia l fo rg ings .

2 1 6
. Infl uence of Silicon and Sulph ur S ilicon c annot b e .

c las s e d amo ng t h e h igh ly injur ious e le m e n t s like ph o s ph o rus and

s u lphur fo r it s ee m s to e x e r t b ut lit t le influe nc e o n t h e m e chan ica l
,

pro pe rt ies o f s tee l e ve n whe n t he c o nte n t is a s grea t a s A ll

a tte mp ts a t we ld ing s ilic o n s tee l a re uns at is fac t o ry e xc e pt in
s te e l c as t ings wh e re up to 4 % o f s ilic o n in t h e m ix t u re is pe r
.

m is s ible ; any th ing b ut a trac e o f s ilic o n is s e ld o m fo und S ilic o n .

h a s a te nd e ncy t o make cas t s te e l cre amy and s luggis h t h o u gh it ,

w ill run be tte r in t h e s ma ll pass age s o f a m o ld than o rd inary

s te e ls ; wh ich la t te r a re re nd e re d s lo w by t h e s pu t te r ing and .

c o ns e que n t impe d im en t to t h e pas s ages wh ich o ccurs wh e n t h e

o rd inary s te e l is cas t .

S ulph ur is an in jur io us c o n te n t a nd e x is ts a s an impurity ,

hav ing jus t th e O ppo s ite e ff e c t fro m t ha t O f manga n e s e I t n o t .

o n ly injures t h e ro lling qua lit ie s o f s te e l pro duc ing wha t is ,

kno wn a s red s h o rt n e s s c a u s ing it to cra ck a nd te a r b ut it

'

“
-
, ,
 MATE RIALS 17

les s e ns its capac ity to weld I n its effec t upo n t h e c o ld pro pe r

.

t ies of s t ee l s u lph ur s ee m s t o e x e rt no appre c iab le influe nc e w it h in

,

the lim its o f t h e c o mmo n c o n te n t wh ich varies fro m 0 2 % to ,

.

7
2 1 . T
Influen ce
u ngs te of
n M o lyb de n um a n d V a n a ,dium .

Tungs ten T h e effe c t o f t ungs te n in c o njunc t io n w it h o v e r

.
,

of man gan es e in t o o l s tee l g iv es e x t re m e hardne ss and br itt le n ess

,

and t h e pe culiar charac te ris t ic lik e t ha t o f chro m ium of req uiring

, ,

n o que nch ing o r t e mpe r ing pro duc ing a s teel alm os t as hard
,

wh e n c o oled s lo wly in a ir fro m a fo rg ing h e at as carbo n s tee l

, ,

wh e n c o o le d in wate r I t is the ch ie f ele me nt in t h e pro duct io n

.

o f t h e s e lf hard e n ing t o o l s te e ls ; its va luab le pro pe rt ies hav ing

-

bee n d is c o ve re d by Ro be rt Mus h et abo u t 1 865 Tu ngs te n is no t .

t h e t rue hard e n e r b ut p lays t h e imp o rt an t part O f th e m o rdan t

by me ans of wh ich t h e allo y pro duc e d is e nab led to c on ta in a
larg e r c o mb in e d carb o n c o n te n t .

M olybden um was s ubs t itu ted in t h e Taylo r W h ite pro c es s -

f o r t h e t ungs te n in t h e pro duc t io n o f m o d e rn h igh s pee d t oo ls fo r -

,

t h e re as o n t ha t o n e pa rt of m o lybde num e ffe c ts appro x im a te ly

”
t h e res u lt of t wo part s o f t ungs te n ; t ha t is it c o mb in es w it h t h e ,

chro m ium in th e s ame manne r as tungs te n a ndpro duc es t he ne w

qua lit y of red hardnes s wh ich is the ma in fe atu re of th e
“
,

Tay lo r W h ite d is c o ve ry H o we ve r it was d is c o ve red t hat wh ile

-
.
, , ,

mo lybd e num pro duced t h e se lf harde n ing pro pe rt ies and brittle -

nes s of tungs te n it wa s no t a s s a t is fac t o ry an ele me n t be cause ,

t h e e ffe c t was irre gu lar ; t ha t is t o o ls o f t he s am e ch e m ical co m

,

po s it io n appare n t ly t rea te d a lik e gave large variat io ns in cutting

, ,

s pee d and po ss e sse d a pe cu liar britt le n ess and t e nd e ncy t o fi re

crack F or t hese re as o ns m o lybde num was d is c a rded

. .

Va na dium lik e carbo n is capab le o f produc ing gre at changes

,

in th e phys ica l pro pe rt ies o f s tee l by th e add it io n O f v e ry s ma ll

pe rc e n tages I t h a s a ten de ncy to caus e britt len ess b ut vana
.
,

dium s tee ls e xc e l a ll o t h e rs in t h e ir ab ilit y to res is t d y nam ic

s t res s e s Mr Tay lo r s t ate s t hat t he ir e xpe r im e n ts ind icate t h e
. .

pro bab ilit y that t h e goo d e ffe c ts of vanad ium in h igh s pee d -

s t ee ls a re d e r ived fro m it s ch e m ica l pro pe rt y a s a c le an s e r o f t h e

s te e l dur ing t h e O pe ra t io n o f m e lt ing rat he r t han as a ve ry ,

valuab le pro pe rt y of t h e s te e l afte r it is m e lted I n its ac t io n .

a s a c le ans e r it pro bab ly un ite s w it h s o m e O f t h e O b s cure o x id es

and carries the m off in th e s lag .

18 ENG I NEERI NG AN D S H O P PRACTI CE
V anad ium s ho uld no t b e s ubs tituted for ch ro m ium in too l
s t e e ls b ut s h o u ld be add e d to t h e m ix t ure in m e lt ing in quan t ities
,

o f fro m .1 5 % to t h es e a re a s e ff e c t ive a s gre a te r qua n

t it ies in t h e m ix t u re T h e bes t h igh s pee d s tee l p ro duced co n t a in s
.
-

.2 9 % of vanad ium .

2 1 8
. Influen ce of Alum inum Coba lt Tin an d Titan ium , , .

A lum in um Mr Campbe ll makes t h e fo llo w ing re ma rks c o nce rn

. .

in g a lum inum : I t is hard ly n eces s a ry to d is cuss a t le ngt h t h e

“

”
e ff e c t of a lum inum up o n s tee l fo r a lt h o ugh it is o f t e n use d t o
,

qu iet t h e m etal it un ites w it h t h e o xyge n of th e bat h and pass e s

,

in t o t h e s lag So me t imes a v e ry s ma ll pe rc e n t age re ma ins in

.

t h e s t ee l cas t ings .

T h e add it io n O f 5 % o f alum inum incre as es t he te ns ile s t re ngt h

.

bet wee n 30 00 and 8000 po unds rais es t h e elas t ic lim it in abo ut ,

t h e s am e p ro po rt io n and injures ve ry ma te ria lly t h e e lo nga t io n

and c o nt rac t io n of a re a T he add it io n of ano t he r 5 % do es no t
. .

have much e ff e c t o n t h e ultimate s t re ngt h o r e las t ic lim it b ut ,

s t ill furt h e r d e cre as e s t h e duc t ilit y o f t h e me t a l and a t fro m 2 %

t o 3 % it caus e s g re a t brit tle n ess T h e e ff e c t upo n t h e s t re ngt h

.

and duc t ility is mo re mark ed in lo w t han in h igh s tee ls T h e

”
.

a dd it ion of 5 % t o 1 % t o cas t iro n incre as es flu id it y and mak es

”
.

cas t ing p os s ib le w it h th e wh ite r irons W he n me lt ing t he add i .

,

t io n o f a pro pe r am o un t o f a lum inum w ill k ill t h e m os t fi e ry

“

Of s tee ls and a llo w it wh e n dead to po ur lik e t he d e ad melte d

“

s ilic o n s tee ls .

Cobal t T in a nd Tita n ium

, I n a pape r be fo re t h e F re nch
.

So c ie t y o f Civ il E ng inee rs M G u ille t 1 9 0 7 brings o ut t h e fo l

,
.
, ,

lo w ing pO in ts : Co ba lt T in and T it an ium in s tee ls e nte r in to

,

s o lu t io n in t h e iro n and t h e carb o n e x is ts t h e re in a t le as t

w it hin th e range of t h e experime n ts made in t h e s hape of iro n

carb ide The me chan ica l pro pe rt ies of th es e s te e ls do n ot se e m
.

t o pro m is e any indus t rial applica t io n t he re o f The y do s ho w .

ve ry c le arly h o we ve r t he mark e d d iff e re nc e be t wee n t in t ita

, , ,

n ium and s ilico n s tee ls on t h e o ne hand and n ick el and c obalt o n

th e o t he r .

2 1 9
. Ta b le of Ph ys ica l Properties T h e graph (F ig 2 1 9 a ) . .

t h o ugh O f mo re t han pas s ing inte re s t h e re is s e lf e xplana to ry ,

- .

I n t h e tab le o f phys ica l pro p e rt ies o n page 2 0 (F ig 2 1 9 b ) c o mp ile d,

.

fro m re c e n t aut h o rit ies ave ra ge values a re giv e n Th e ato m ic

,
.

we igh t O f iro n is 56 .
20 ENG INEE RI NG AN D S H O P PRA C TICE

“ * (I)

C as t I ro n . 1 2 9 8 2 30 0 2 60 4 0000 06 1 7 . . 12
to

w
Ee
. 1 1 38 2 9 1 2 . 2 77 9
18 )

16
. 1 1 70 2 5 50 2 834 0000 0 59 9 . .

to
. 0000 0 70 2

F IG . 2 1 9b Phy s ica l Prope rt ies o f I ro n a n d S teel .

P1 0 I R O N

2 2 1Cla s s ifi ca tion of Com m ercia l Pig Iron s

. . The c la ss ifi c a

t io n O f pig iro n by frac t ure , o n a cc o un t of it s unre liab ility is ,

abo u t o bs o le te , and mak e rs o f pig iro n re ly s o le ly o n t h e ch e m ica l

analys is T h e mo d e rn c las s ificat io n t he re fo re s ta tes th e max i

.
, ,

m um o r m in imum quan t it ie s of t h e ele m e n ts wh ich a g ive n g ra d e

O f pig s ha ll c o n t a in A cc o rd ing ly we hav e : .

2 2 2 Besse m er
. Be ss e m e r iro n mus t no t e xc e ed
. o f s ili

co n 1 % o f ph o s ph o rus
, 0 5 % of s u lphur wh ile t h e m angan e s e
, .
,

may vary fro m 3 % to Bess e m e r iro n is us e d ch ie fly in th e

.

manufac ture of s tee l ingo ts and fo r s uch pro duc ts a s a re O b ta in e d

fro m t h e m .

2 2 3 F oundry
. F o undry iro n t h o ugh s im ilar to Be s s e m e r
.
,

iro n may c o n ta in fro m 2 % to 4 % o f s ilic o n and ph os ph o ru s up

, ,

to wh ile t h e 0 5 % of s u lph ur and t h e 3 % t o l % o f mangane se

. .

re ma in th e s ame F o undry iro n o n acc o un t o f its fl o wing we ll

.
, ,

m a y b e us e d fo r in t rica te cas tings .

2 2 4 Ch arcoa l
. Charc o a l iro n is s o ca lle d be cau s e it is mad e
.

w ith charc o al to e liminate t h e s ulphur fo und in o th e r fue ls and

, ,

fo r t h is rea s o n it is v e ry lo w in s u lphur I t s h o u ld c o n t a in le s s .

t han 2 % o f s ilic o n n o t o v e r 1 % o f ph o s ph o rus le s s t han 0 1 %

, ,
.

o f s u lphur and n o t m o re t han 1 % o f mang a n e s e .

 MAT ERI ALS 21

2 25 . Ba s ic . B as ic iro n
h o u ld n o t c o n t
s a in o ve r 1 % o f s ilic o n ,

alth o ugh th e ph os ph o rus c o nte n t may vary fro m 3 % up to as .

h igh a s it s h ou ld rarely e xc ee d Bas ic iro n s h o uld

ne ve r possess m o re t han 0 5 % of s ulphur and 1 % of mangan ese
—
. .

2 2 6 F e rro Silicon
. F e rro s ilic o n iro n is us e d ch ie fly as a
.
-

s o fte ne r in a m ix t ure o f ha rd grad es o f pig iro n I t ge ne ra lly .

c on ta ins fro m 6% to 1 6% O f s ilic o n ; fro m 5 % to of ph os

.

p h o ru s s u l
,
phur fro m 0 1 % to 05 % and mangan ese up to
. .

2 2 7 G ra y F orge
. G ray fo rge iro n is t h e p oo re s t and ch e apes t
.

r
io n o n t h e mark e t I t is use.d ch ie fly f o r t h e man ufac t ure of

wate r p ipe s and th e pro duc tion of wro ugh t iro n I t gene rally .

c o n ta ins les s than 1 % of s ilic on ; is h igh bo t h in phos pho rus and

manganes e and o fte n as h igh as 1 % in s ulphur
,
. .

CA S T I RO N

2 3 1 . Cla s s ifi ca tion an d An a lyse s of Sta ndard Ca s t Iron s . The

fo llo w ing c lass ificat io n and analyse s of cas t iro n is c o mp iled fro m .

dat a s ub m it te d by th e c o mm itte e appo in te d by th e Ame rican

F o un dry m e n s Ass o c iat io n to in ves t igate and s tandard iz e t h e
’

produc t :

Ge n e ra l M hi y
ac ne r .

S t o ve Pla t e

Bes s em e r

2 3 2 . Ma llea b le Ca s t Iron
”
d es cript io n s ubm itt ed by th e
. T he
n o me nc la ture c o mm it tee a t th e Brus s e ls Cong res s of th e I n te r
nationa l Ass oc ia tio n fo r Tes ting Ma te ria ls 1 9 06 is a s follo ws , ,

I ro n wh ich wh e n firs t mad e is cas t in t h e c o ndit io n O f cas t

“

iro n and is mad e ma lle able by s ubs e quen t t re at me n t wit h o u t

,
22 ENG I NEE RI NG A ND S H O P PRAC TICE

”
fus io n is n o t t ruly a variet y o f cas t iro n b ut ra t h e r fo rm s
an inde pe nde n t s pec ies of iro n be caus e it lack s the ess e nt ial
pro pe rt y of cas t iro n viz its e xt re me b rittle nes s
, .
,
Malle able .

cas t iro n wa s ge ne rally mad e by s ubj e c ting o rd inary c a s tings ,

pre fe rably o f charc oal cas t iro n to a pro c es s of de carburiz ing and
,

anne aling in an ann ea ling furnac e I t is t h e prac tic e no w to

”
.

s e le c t a s u it ab le pig iro n and re m e lt it in an a ir furnac e ins te ad

”
of in t h e cupo la t h e a ir furnac e p oss es s ing se ve ra l advan t ages
o ve r t h e cupo la fo r th is purpo s e T he res ulta nt ha rd o r “
.

“
white c as t ings c o n tain lit tle o r no gra ph itic carbo n and a re
t re a te d in t h e us ua l manne r as fo llo ws : T h e cas t ings a re pack ed
in h e ma t ite o re o r pe ro x id e of manganes e c o n t a in ed in c lose d
c as t iro n bo xes T he fu rnac e is ra ise d rap id ly t o t he m aximum
- .

te mpe ra t ure and a t t he c lo se of t h e o pe ra t io n a llo we d to c oo l

,

ve ry s lo wly W ith o rd inary c as tings t he O pe ra tio n requ ires

.
,

fro m two to fi ve days wh ile t h e la rge r p ie ces may tak e as lo ng a s

,

t wo w ee ks Ma lle ab le cas t iro n t ho ugh ve ry brittle wh e n h o t

.
, ,

may b e hamme red in to any d es ired s hape whe n c o ld T he .

fo llow ing da ta wa s c o mp iled by P rofes s o r J o hns o n

Con fi ned G m Ma D8 3
5n
T ota l iti
3 km Sulph ur
Ca rbon Ca rbon 0 .

Bf e o re Ann e a lin g

A fte r A nn ea lin g .

Loss carbo n
of max imum te ns ile s tre ngt h pe r s q ua re
,

inch , e lo nga t io n All ba rs we re cylind rical in

s e c t io n and i f inch in d iam e te r The y we re n o t mach ined as .
,

s k in is ab ou t t w ic e as s t ro ng as t h e in t e rio r r un it o f a re a
p e .

These figures re prese nt a n ave rage of 42 tes t bars anneale d 1 0 8 ,

ho urs .

2 33 Annea led Cas tings

. Cas tings may b e annea le d by pack
.

ing t h e m in a cas t iro n b o x w it h a m ix t u re o f o n e half brigh t

-

cas t iro n t um ings o r fi lings and o ne ha lf pu lve rize d charc o a l

-

”
.

T o kee p t h e cas t ings fro m warp ing and to h e at t h e m m o re un i ,

fo rmly t he re s ho u ld be a laye r O f t h e m ix t ure be t wee n t h e m

, .

The po ts a re t he n plac e d in t he o v e n and bro ugh t to a brigh t

che rry red wh e n t he y a re a llo wed to c ool o ff I f very s o ft
, .

cas t ings a re d es ire d t h e furn a c e s h ould b e held a t a b righ t che rry

,
 MAT E RI ALS 23

re d fo r t wo or t hree ho urs . I t is abs o lu tely c

ne ess ary that th e
c as tings b e lef t in t he b o x to c o ol off .

2 34 . urfac e of cas t iro n may

Ca s e -h a rden ed Cas tings . Th e s

b e hard e ned in t h e fo llo w ing manne r : T h e p ie c e is h ea ted to a

c he rry red and t he s urfac e rubbe d or c o a ted w it h po tas s ium
,

cyan ide o r po t as s ium fe rro cyanide ; it is t he n s udde n ly ch ille d -

by d ipping in wate r T he cyan ide by carbo n iz ing the iron to

.
,

abo ut a dep t h of 3 , inch c o nve rts it in to s teel wh ich we kn o w

1
, ,

may b e hard e n ed by he ating and s udd e nly c oo ling .

Cas t ings may a ls o b e case hard e n ed by a p ro c ess s im ilar to

-

t ha t of pro duc ing ma lleab le iro n w it h t h e e xc e p t io n t ha t in s tead , ,

of imbe dd ing in t h e o re t h e p ie c es a re imbedd e d in granu la te d

,

raw bone Afte r pack ing the bo xes a re luted w it h c lay and
.
,

c ove red Th e furnac e is th e n bro ught t o a brigh t ch e rry red

.
,

and h eld a t t hat h eat f ro m t h ree to te n h o urs acc o rd ing to th e ,

de pt h o f t he cas e hard e n ing des ire d and t he s ize of the p ie ces to

-

be case harde ne d afte r wh ich t he p ie c es a re re m o v ed fro m t h e

,

bo xes and s udd e nly c ooled .

T h e Co llie ry E n g inee r 0 0 prin t t h e fo llo w ing fo rmula fo r .

a cas e ha rd e n ing s o lu tio n for cas t iro n d ies : D ies etc mad e o f
- -
“
, .

cas t iro n may be cas e hard e ned by heating to a che rry re d and
-
,

t h e n ch illin g t h e m in t h e fo llo w ing s o lu t io n : 1 q uart o f O il Of

vit riol 4 peeks o f s a lt 8 p o und s of a lum 1 po und of yello w prus
, , ,

s iate O f p o t as h 1 po und of cyan id e o f po tas h 2 po und s o f s a lt

, ,

pete r wh ich ingre d ien ts have be e n d is solve d and m ixed in 40

,

gallo ns o f wate r th e cyan ide o f pot as h and yello w prus s ia te of

,

po tas h be ing d iss o lved in h o t wate r and t h e o th e rs in c o ld If .

o ne h ea t ing and ch illing d oes no t hard e n t h e die e n o ugh t he ,

proc es s may be re peated .

2 35 Use s Ada pta b ility and Com pa ris on with Wrough t Iron
.
,

an d Stee l Co mparing cas t iro n w it h wro ugh t iro n and s tee l we

.
,

have : cas t iro n is mo re eas ily g ive n by cas t ing any des ire d s hape , ,
.

I t o x id izes les s e as ily t h a t is rus t s les s t han w ro ught iro n o r

, ,

s tee l ; it h as a ve ry h igh c o m pres s ive (crus h ing ) s t re ng t h On .

t h e ot h e r hand it is liable to h idd e n d e fe c ts re nd e ring its s t re ng t h

, ,

unc e rta in I t cann o t b e forg ed and d oes n o t w it h s tand s h o ck s

.
,

and ja rs I t s t retch es b ut little and o w in g to its b rit tle nes s

.
,

brea k s o ff w it h b ut little warn ing I t is als o s ubj e c t to in te rnal .

s t res ses se t up fro m un e qua l c o o ling in t h e m old ; its te n s ile

,

s tre ng t h is c o mpara t ively lo w I t is use d by e ng inee rs in co n .

24 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S H O P P RACT ICE
r c t io n wh e re great c o mpress ive s tre ngt h is d es ire d and in
st u , ,

mach in e de t a ils whe re s hape mass and we ight a re of more im

,

po rt anc e t han s tre ngt h .

W RO U GH T I RO N

2 4 1 . Ma nufa cture Norwa y, Charcoal , Puddle d a nd F a got

Iron s . W ro ugh t iro n pro duc t o btaine d by ext rac t ing th e
is t he
carbo n fro m cas t iro n by pas s ing th e blas t t h ro ugh it o r o ve r
,

it wh ile it is in a m o lte n c o nd itio n

,
D urin g t h e o pe ra tio n t h e
.
,

o xyge n o f t h e a ir un ite s w it h th e carbo n in t h e iro n and pass es ,

o fl a s carb o n ic ac id gas Th is pro c es s leav es th e iro n po ro us and

'

pas ty ; it is no w hamme red o r ro lled into ingo ts o r bloo m s and ,

fo rge d in to ba rs o r s hapes So me ti mes it is cas t and th e b loo m

.

reh e a te d and ro lled ; in e it h e r e ve n t it is ne c es s ary to o b ta in

goo d iro n t hat it b e re he a te d and ro lle d s e ve ra l t imes in o rd e r
to re nd e r t h e pro duc t flaw le ss and h o moge n eo us Th e exce lle nc e .

o f No rway and o t h e r S w e d is h iro n s is d ue large ly to t h e fac t t ha t

charc o al be ing free fro m s u lphur is use d during t h e p ro c es s O f

, ,

me lt ing ; alth o ugh part o f t h e goo d qualities a re due in a mea s ure , ,

to t h e pur ity O f t h e o re .

T h e be s t grad e s o f charc o a l iro n s h o u ld s ucc es s fu lly w it h s tand

th e tes t of be ing be n t d o ub le hamm e re d d o wn and s t ra igh te n e d
,

wh ile c o ld w it ho ut s h o w ing s igns o f frac t ure

, .

I n t h e pudd le pro c es s o f p ro duc ing wro ugh t iro n t h e cas t ,

iro n is m e lte d in an o pe n h e art h w it h iro n o re w h ich c o n t a in s ,

t h e n e c e ss ary am o un t o f o xyg e n ; t h e flame pas s ing o v e r t h e

mas s and re m o v ing t he impurities I t w ill be s ee n t ha t wro ugh t.

iro n is t h e re s u lt o f a s e r ie s o f w e ld ing o pe ra tio n s wh ich g ive to

it its fibro us na t ure .

W ha t is kn o wn a s fago t iro n is th e pro duc t o bta in e d by

we ld ing to ge t h e r wro ugh t iro n s craps wh ich a re s ubs eque n t ly
-
,

fo rge d in to th e d es ire d s hape .

T h e ch e m ical c o mpo s it io n o f a g o o d pure wro ugh t iro n wh os e

te n s ile s t re ng t h wa s po und s wa s : s ilic o n 0 73 ph os ph o rus .
,

.0 78 s u lphur 00 5 m angan e se 00 5 carbo n 0 42 and s lag 9 7 4

,
.
,
.
, .
, .
,

t h e va lu e s be ing g ive n in frac t io n s o f H o w e ve r it is fo und ,

t ha t t h e mark e d d iff e re nc e in t h e qua lit ies o f iro n s a re caus e d

mo re by d iff e re nt m etho ds of t re a tme n t t han by d iff e re nc e in
c o mpos itio n .
 MAT E RIALS 25

2 4 2 . Properties . Co mparing
wro ugh t iro n w ith cas t iro n we ,

have : wro ught iro n is th e to ughe r a n d is capable of w it hs tand ing

a gre ate r te ns ile and t ran s ve rs e s t ress t han cas t iro n I t is m o re .

capable of w it hs t and ing s ho ck s and als o s tress es due to changes

in te mpe ra ture ; po ss ess es gre a te r d uc tilit y and giv es m o re warn ing
O f frac t ures O n th e o t h e r hand wro ugh t iro n ca n n o t b e m e lte d
.
,

and cas t n o r is it e as y to g ive to it a des ire d s hape H o we ve r

, .
,

t wo p ie c es o f w ro ugh t iro n wh e n s ubj e c te d to a pro p e r t e mp e ra

,

t ure may b e w e ld e d
,
un ite d by a pro c es s o f hamm e r ing whe n

a t t h e p ro pe r te mp e ra t ure .

2 43 Com m ercia l Designa tion

. T h e c o mm e rc ial te rms ind ica.
‘

t iv e of t h e w ide v aria t io n in th e qualit y o f wro ugh t iro n a re

c o mmo n bar bes t d o ub le bes t t riple bes t and c o ld ro lled
, , , ,
.

T h e pro c ess O f c o ld ro lling n o t o n ly gre at ly incre as es t h e e las t ic

lim it and t h e s t re n g th b ut pro duc e s o n t he iro n a p o lis h e d
,

s urfac e Th is latte r pro c es s ho we ve r re duc es its duc t ility

.
, , .

2 44 W orkin g W ro ugh t iro n is t h e m o s t e as ily w o rk ed

. .

m a te ria l w ith wh ich t h e s m it h h a s t o d e al O w ing to t h e lack .

o f carb o n in its c o mp o s itio n it d o e s n o t hard e n by b e ing s udd e n ly

,

c o ole d fro m a h igh t e mpe rature ; h o we ve r it may b e cas e harde ne d ,

-

in a mann e r s im ilar to t ha t d es cribe d fo r cas e hard e n ing cas t iro n -

.

ST E E L , CO MME R CI A L ST E E LS A ND T H EIR PR O D U CT I O N

2 51 . Cla s s ifi ca tion . Sinc e t h e

x t rac tio n o f carbon fro m cas t e

iro n re nd e rs th e wro ugh t iro n to ugh duc t ile and s o f t it fo llo ws , ,

t ha t it is po ss ib le to o b t a in s uch a m ix t ure of wro ugh t iro n and

carbo n as w ill po s s es s s o me o f t h e exc elle n t qua lit ie s of bo t h
wro ugh t iro n and cas t iro n Th is pro duc t kno wn a s s te e l may
.
, ,

b e d iv id ed acc o rd ing to its pro c es s o f man ufac t ure in t o fo ur

ge ne ral d iv is io ns wh ich acc o rd ing to Me tca lf a re
, ,

Co nv e rte d or C e m e n te d S tee l .

C ruc i b le-Cas t S tee l .

Bessem e r
A id Cas t S te l
c
e
Bas i c
.

A id
{B s ic }C
c
O pe n H-
ea r th as t S te el
a
.

2 5 2 . Converted or Cem en ted . Co nv e rte d or c e me n ted s teel

is d iv ide d acc o rd ing
, to its manufac ture in to ,
b lis te r G e rman
, ,
26 ENG I NEE RI NG AND S H O P P RACTICE
s he ar o r s ingle s hea r and do ub le s h ea r s tee l ; h o we v e r t ho ugh the ,

pro cess of produc tio n of t hese brands be in te res ting t hey h a v e ,

bee n s upe rs e de d by the cas t s tee ls .

2 53. Blis ter Blis te r s tee l is manufac t ured by s urro und ing
.

s ma ll (5 inch s quare ) ba rs o f charc o a l iro n by s o me fo rm of car

1

b on s uch as charc o al o r bo ne as h in a s uit ab le v ess el wh ich is h e r

, , ,

m et ica lly se a led and t h e n s ubj e c te d to an e v e n h igh t e mpe ra t ure

,

for so me days . U nd e r t h is ac tio n t h e carbo n pe n e t ra tes th e iro n ,

and wh e n th e bars a re re moved t he y a re fo und to be c o ve re d

w it h s ca les o r b lis te rs hav ing bee n c o nve rted fro m to ugh wro ugh t
,

iro n t o h igh ly crys t a lline s tee l O fte n times a bette r grad e o f .

s tee l is pro duc e d by re m o v ing t h e s ca les and b lis t e rs and ag a in

s ubj e c t ing t h e bars t o a ch e rry h e a t fo r a fe w day s t hus pro duc ing ,

a mo re un ifo rm d is t ributio n of the carbo n .

2 54. G erm a n G e rman s tee l is p ro duc ed by h e a t ing b lis te r

.

s tee l and ro lling it d ire c t ly in to fin is h e d ba rs .

2 55. Single a nd Doub le Sh ear Single s h e a r s tee l is pro duce d .

by s ubj e c t ing b lis te r s teel to a h igh te mpe rat ure we ld ing it ,

unde r t he hamme r and t he n ro lling it into bars

,
.

Do ub le s h e ar s tee l is pro d uc e d by w e ld ing tog e t h e r b ro k e n

-

bars o f s ing le s h ea r s teel wh ich a re t h en hamme re d or ro lled into

-
,

d es ire d s hapes t hus p ro duc ing a mo re un ifo rm pro duc t

, .

2 56. Crucib le Ca s t Cruc ib le cas t s tee l may b e o b t a ine d in

.
-

t wo ways t h e a im b e ing to pro duc e a s te e l un ifo rm and h o m o

,

g e n e o us in s t r c
u t ure I n t h e fi rs t bar
. s o f b lis t e r s t ee l a re bro k e n ,

up and melted in a cruc ible th e c onte n ts of wh ich a re t h en cas t ,

in to ingo ts and ro lle d in to bars Th is pro duces t he fine r qua lities

.

o f t he cruc ib le and cas t s tee ls n o w o n th e mark e t B y far t h e .

larg e r po rt io n of cas t s tee l is p ro duc e d by pack ing S wed is h iro n ,

toge t h e r w it h charco a l in a sc a le d v e s s e l t h e c o n t e n ts o f wh ich

,

a re t h e n m e lte d and po ure d w ith th e c o n ten ts o f s e ve ra l o t he r

s im ilar v e s s e ls in to a la rg e lad le T he m e t a l in t h is la rge .

lad le is t h e n ca s t in to ingo ts wh ich a re s ubs e qu e n tly f o rg ed und e r

t h e hamme r o r w it h ro lls .

2 57. Be ssem er Be ss e m e r s tee l

. T h e s o ft o r m ild mach in e ry .

s te e ls of c o mm e rc e c o n ta in b ut little carbo n S h o w b ut a fe w o f ,

t h e charac t e ris t ic s of s tee l and a re b ut lit t le be tte r t han iro n

,
.

The y a re pro duc e d by b ot h t he Bes s e m e r and t he o pe n h eart h -

pro c es s es T h e Be ss e me r pro c ess c o ns is ts O f de carbo n iz ing m olte n

.

cas t iro n by blo w ing t h ro ugh it a blas t of a ir; t he re quis ite amo unt
28 G EERIN G
EN I N A ND S H O P PRACTI CE

ST E E L , A LLO Y A ND H I GH S P E E D
2 61 . Ch rom e Stee l . Carbo n add itio n of 1 % o r
s t eel, by th e
2 % o f chro m ium pro duc es a m eta l n o t o n ly e xt re me ly hard b ut
, ,

o n e wh ich is s e lf hard en ing -

I t is fi ne gra in e d and v e ry hard in
.
-

t he hard e ned s t a te b ut d oes n o t s t and redres s ing b e c o m ing ,

infe rio r be caus e o f th e rap id o x ida t io n O f chro m ium a s it is

redress ed J W L angley s ays t hat chro me like mangan es e is a
. . .
, ,

t rue hard en e r of iro n e v e n in th e abs e nc e O f carbo n

, .

A too l o f h igh chro m ium 3 % to with th e pro pe r amo un t

,

o f t ung s te n invariably pro duc es a h igh s pee d to o l s teel e ve n

,
-

wh en t h e mangan es e c o nte n t is low T h e bes t h igh s pee d tool .

-

s tee ls no w c o n t a in fro m 5 % to 6% O f chro m ium I t is s u itab le t o .

use in t h e manufac t ure o f s o me m e t a l cutt ing too ls o r arm o r p la te -

and s hells .

2 62 .Nicke l Steel Nick e l s te el may b e purchas e d in th e o pe n

.

mark et w it h a n ick el c o n te n t fro m 0 up to 35 % and a carbo n

c o mpo ne n t be t wee n 1 % and . I t p oss e ss es a remarkab le
te ns ile s t re ngt h and duc t ilit y a h igh e las t ic lim it and h o m o
,

g e n e it y and a gre a t r es is t anc e t o c rack ing T e s t s s h o w a t e n s ile .

s t reng t h o f fro m to po unds pe r s quare inch w it h ,

an e las tic lim it of fro m to po und s per s quare inch

and an elo ngatio n of fro m 3% to
K e nt s ays t hat s udd e n fa ilure o r rup t ure of t h is s te el w o uld
b e im p o s s ib le fo r it s ee m s t o p o s s es s t h e to ughn e s s o f rawh id e
,

w ith th e s t re ng th o f s tee l A n a llo y of 2 7 % n icke l is prac tically

.

no n c o rro d ible and n o n m a gn e t ic

- T h e e ff e c t wh ich n ick e l pro
-
.

duc es o n s teel is to ra ise th e e las t ic lim it and to g ive grea t to ugh

n ess und e r s h o ck th e n icke l e v id e n tly pre ve n t ing t h e s ho rt nes s
,

caus ed by th e carbo n to t h e e x te n t of e ve n as s is ting t he latte r to

e x e rc is e its s t re ng t h g iv ing pro pe rt ie s
-
T h e e ff e c t O f n ick e l is .

n o t a lway s un ifo rm ; t hus p e rc e n tages up t o 8 70 incre as e t h e

te n s ile s t re ng t h and e las t ic lim it wh ile in t h e z o n e b e t wee n 8 %
,

and 1 5 % brittle nes s is pro duc e d ; b ut a t 1 6% th e s tre ngt h and

e la s ti c lim it a re re t urn e d ; aga in s tee l w it h 2 % O f n ick el and 9 %
, .

O f carb o n cann o t b e mach in e d Wit h les s t han 5 % of n ick el it

.

can b e wo rk ed c o ld pro v ide d th e carbo n c o n te n t b e lo w ; a s t h e

pro po rt io n O f n ick e l ra is es c o ld w o rk in g be c o mes d ifficu lt t h o ugh ,

it fo rg e s e as ily wh e t h e r th e n icke l c o n te n t b e gre at o r s mall .

Th e mangan es e c o n te n t in n ick e l s te e l is m o s t imp o rt an t ; it

 MATERI ALS 29

w ould s ee m t hat w it h o ut its ass is t anc e in prope r pre po rtion t he ,

c o nd it io n s of t rea t m e nt w o uld n ot b e s ucc ess fu l T h e carbo n .

c o n te nt is a ls o impo rt ant for upo n it d e pe nd s t h e s t re ngt h and

hardness I n t h e he at t re at me nt of t h is a llo y wh ich is a lways
.
,

be ne fic ia l n ick e l o ve rc o m es th e te nd e ncy to burn and th e e xte nt

, ,

t o wh ic h it may b e s waye d by h e a t t re a t m e n t is illus t rat e d in

t h e fo llo w ing t ab le by E F L ak e : . .

H ardness
T ens ile Str
L b s Pcr Sq
. . n . L bs Per Sq I n
.
L
E la s tic im it
. . 2
”
Elo nga tio n in
Per Ce n t .
Reduction o f
Per Unit
A rea

Th e c o mpos it io n Of th e abo ve s tee l wa s Nick e l, Carbo n ,

Mangan es e ,
P h o s ph o rus ,
and S u lphur ,
0

As is we ll kn o wn n ick e l s tee l is e m ine n tly adapted for o rd i

,

na nc e wo rk ; and arm o r p la te s urfac e hard e ne d by t h e H arv e y

,
-

pro c e ss is us e d in a ll t h e nav ie s o f t h e wo rld O n acc o unt O f its

,
.

ab ility to w ith s tand he avy s h o ck and to rs io nal tes ts n ickel s tee l ,

is adap te d fo r crank and pro p e lle r s haf ts c o nn e c t ing ro d s ex plo , ,

s iv e e ng ine and au to m o b ile w o rk .

2 63 . Nick el ch rom e Stee l

-
An a llo y O f n ick e l chro me a n d
.
,

carbo n de velo ped during th e las t de cad e b ids fa ir to o ccupy a s

, ,

h igh a p lac e as any c o mme rc ial s tee l manufac tured I t is us e d .

ch iefly fo r h igh grad e mach ine ry t hat re qu ires a s tee l of gre a t

-

res is t an c e t o s h o ck and to rs io nal s t res s es h igh e las t ic lim it and ,

great te ns ile s t rengt h Chro m ium in c o nj unc t io n w it h n ick e l

.
, ,

o v e rc o m es a te nd e ncy o f lam ina t io n and pro duc e s an e la s t ic lim it

be yo nd a ll e xpe c t at io ns W he n n ick e l chro me s tee l is g iv e n a

.

pro pe r h e at t rea tme n t it is prac t ically a h o m oge n e o us mass

,

s h o w ing n o gra in o r fibe r and s o man ifes t ing an e x t ra o rd inary

po we r t o res is t s h o ck s .

Th e ac t io n o f ch ro m ium in t h e a llo y b e c o m es c o n s p icuo us

a bo v e a c o n t e n t o f and w it h 2 % great d ifficu lt y is e x pe
rie n ce d in cut ting c o ld w it h o u t t h e us e o f a s p e c ia l too l s tee l .

Nick e l chro m e s tee l is us e d large ly fo r au to w o rk pro p e lle r

-
,

s hafts, and wh e re t h e pric e is s acrific e d t o O bta in qua lit y T he .

30 ENG I NEE RI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE
follo wing tab le th e las t two lines of wh ich g ive t he s pe c ifi catio ns
,

ad opte d by th e Ass o c iatio n of Lic e nsed Auto m ob ile Ma nuf a c

,
i l—
t ure t s g ives t h e c o mp os it io n o f n ck e chro me s tee ls toget he r
w it h t h eir re markable phys ical pro pe rties

Nic k e l-C h om
r e . 3 30 1 40 31 . 20 40 0 1 2 0 2 8 . 38 16
Ch ro m e Nic ke l
-
. 1 60 4 4 1 25 . 20 35 0 1 2 0 1 3 . 14 48
2 50 A uto Mfgr . . 1 50 80 25 40 0 3 0 35 . 12 30
4 5C 1 50 80 45 40 0 3 8 20

2 64 . Ma nga nese Stee l . T he add it ion of fe rrO -manganese t o

iro n pro duces manganese s tee l t h e carbo n c o nte nt of
o r s tee l ,

wh ich is of c ons ide rable pro portio n be ing inc id e nta l and almos t ,

unavoidab le ra the r t han in te ntio nal Manganese like carbo n .

, ,

is a t rue hard e n e r .

T h e fo llo w ing t ab le is ind icat ive of t h e pe c uliar pro perties

wh ich manganes e gives to s tee l :
0 % to Littl e o r no a pp
bl ff t if ca b n c nt nt b
rec ia e e ec r o o e e low .

to . S tre n gt h nd duct ility d

a im i is h wh il h rdn es s i n e a n cr
e as es

re m ka bly b it tl wh n co ld v n with low

ar r e e , e e b
ca r o n

co nte n t .

4} % to 6% W ith a b
ca r o n co nte n t of b ut . 3 7% is re po rte d to b e so

ex t re m e ly b ritt le t h at it ca n be po wd e re d under a ha m m er

w h d a nd is duc t ile wh e n h o t
e n co l .

to 8% S t re ngt h a nd duct ilit y a re in c re as ed wh ile th e m a gne t ic

q ua lity de c rea s es .

Is ve ry duct ile a nd if no t to ugh m a y b e im p roved by wa te r

q ue n ch ing . St re n gt h e qu a ls t h at o f cruc i bl e s te e l; it is
too h d t fil ar o e .

Lin h m ys th i
e a sa s m e ta l is e n t ire l y
la c king in s t re n gt h no

m a tt wha t t h e
er t rea t m e nt , b ut th e s t re n gt h re t urn s in
its m a x im um at Re la t ing hin g ega ding th
no t r r e

12% co n te n t , H o we s t a te s th t t h p o p t i n f th i
a as e r or o o s

e le m e n t rise s ab o ve th e t ngth nd duct ilit y bot h

s re a

in creas e wh ile th e ha d
r n ess dim in i h s light ly s e s .

I t is p ra ct ica ll yn o n-m a gn e t ic .

T h e m a x im um of b tho st re n gt h
d duct ilit y is rea ched
an .

With th i p ropo t i s r on t h e m e ta l is so ha rd th a t it is diffic ult

t ut wit h t
o c l t s ee o o ls .
 MAT E RI AL S

1 5 % to . Th e ductilit y f a lls off a b up tly

r , th e st r
e ngt h re m a ining

1 8% St re n gt h dim inis hes s udde nl y .

Manganese s tee l is qu ite free fro m b lo wh o les is s t ro ng duc tile , ,

a n d hard m o re fluid
,
t han cas t s tee l b ut p ipes bad ly and whe n,

cas t re quires large fee d ing ga tes I t is d iffi cult to m o ld on s e

.

c o unt of its hav ing a s hrinkag e of inch per fo ot I t w e lds w it h .

gre at diflieult y and its toughnes s may be incre as e d by que nch ing
fro m a ye llo w h eat I ts e n o rm ous e le c t ric res is tanc e is a lmos t
.

c o ns t ant w it h changing te mpe ra tures and it is lo w in t he rma l

c o nduc t iv it y Such a re markable c o mb inat io n of qualities of
.
,

great hardness wh ich re fus es to be d im in is he d by anne aling a ,

high t ens ile s t re ng th w ith as to nis h ing to ughness and duc tility ,

co mb ine d w it h its n o n magn e t ic qua lit ies

-
wo uld mak e t h is t he ,

ide a l m e t a l b ut fo r t h e fac t t hat its hardn ess p re ve n ts its be ing

mach ined or fi tted by any b ut abras ive pro c ess es .

I n its ab ilit y t o res is t w e ar mangan ese s tee l is t h e m os t

,

durable metal kno wn for hardn es s to ughn es s and ma lle abilit y , .

I t is s u it able fo r s tea m s h o v e l tee t h dre dge p ins p lo w po in ts , , ,

fi n e ra ils frogs s w it ch es and cross ings crus h ing ro lls for o re

, , , ,

ro ck s cree ns ge ar s prockets or any t h ing whe re a grind ing wear

, ,

in dus t is re qu ired Th e bes t c o mpo s it io n is manganes e fro m

.

1 2 % to carbo n not o ve r ph os pho rus no t mo re t han

and s u lphur n ot mo re t han Manganes e cas t ings
s h o u ld a lways b e anne a le d .

2 65 . Silicon Stee l Me t ca lf mak es t h e follow ing t rite re mark s

.

c on c e rn ing s ilic o n s t ee l : Stee l c o n t ain ing 3 % of s ilic o n h as

“

bee n put U po n t he mark et and gre at c la ims made for it I t is .

e xc eed ing ly fi ne gra in ed and hard e ns v e ry hard ; it is britt le ,

much m o re liable to crack in hard e n ing than o rd inary s tee l and

”
it is n o t n e arly s o s t ro ng a s carbo n s tee l altoget h e r t he n , ,

s ilic o n s t ee l is e xpe n s iv e and it p res e n ts n o v e ry go o d qua lit ies

in c o mpe n s a t io n .

2 66 . Tungsten or Mush e t Stee l Tungste n o r se lf hard e n ing.

-

s t ee l is a s pe c ia l cas t s t ee l an a lloy O f iro n carbo n t ungs te n , ,

and manganes e s o m e brand s of wh ich c o nt a in chro m ium I t

, .

wa s e rro n e o us ly s uppo se d fo r a lo ng time t ha t t ungs te n wa s t h e

me ta l t hat gave to t h is allo y its pe culiar pro pe rties ; h ow e ve r it ,

is no w c o nc lus iv e ly pro ve n t hat t h e mangan ese t o ge t h e r w it h

carbo n a re th e hard e n ers and t hat chro m ium im pro ves t he qualit y
32 ENG INEE RI NG AN D S HO P PRAC TI CE
of the s te e l . I t is nfe rre d t hat tungs te n is an un neces
not to b e i
s ary c o ns t it ue n t fo r it p lays an imp o rt an t part as t h e m o rdan t

by wh ich t he a llo y pro duc e d c o n ta ins a large r c o mbin ed carbon

c o n te nt Th is s tee l re ta ins its hardn ess a lmos t U p to a red he a t
. .

Re gu lar t ung s te n s t ee ls c o n t a in fro m to 1 0 9 2 O f t un gs te n ,

”
.

Pro fe ss o r L ang le y re m arks in t h is c o nn e c t io n : I have mad e

“

s t ee l c o n t a in ing as h igh a s 2 5 % t ungs te n and ve ry litt le carbo n

wh ich was s o s o f t t ha t it c o u ld b e re ad ily to uched w it h a fi le .

H a d t h e g oo d pro fes s o r acc id e n ta lly burne d a to o l o f t h is s tee l ,

a s wa s d o ne by t h e care le ss s m it h dur ing t h e Tay lo r W h ite -

e xp e r im e n ts and th e n t ried to s ee jus t wha t wo rk it w o u ld do

, ,

in a ll pro bab ility we wo u ld h a ve had o ur h igh s pee d s tee ls s o m e -

t we n t y ye a rs s oo n e r .

Tungs te n s tee l is m o re w id e ly kn o wn a s se lf hard e n ing o r -

a ir hard e n ing s tee l fro m it s pro pe rt y O f hard e n ing wh e n a llo we d

-
,

t o c oo l in qu ie t a ir I t is s o hard in its o rd in ary c o nd it io n t hat

.

it cann o t b e mach in e d a n d lik e a ll s tee ls o f t h is c la s s h a s to b e

, ,

fo rge d t o t h e d e s ire d s h a pe S e lf hard e n ing s tee l too ls a re

.
-

e s s e n t ia lly ro u gh in g to o ls o t h e r brand s O f s tee l pro v ing m o re

,

e ffic ie n t fo r fin is h in g I t s hardnes s is no t im pro ve d by t h e

.

o rd inary t e mpe r in g ; it m a y b e ann e a led h o we ve r by k ee p ing , ,

it a t an o range h ea t fo r fro m 2 4 t o 36 h o urs a n d a llo w ing it t o

c o o l im b ed de d in t he furnac e in ho t s and o r as hes fo r t h e s ame
,

le ng t h o f t ime ; it m a y t h e n b e ma c h in e d I ts ch ie f us e is fo r .

cutt ing to o ls .

Pe rhaps it w ill b e o f in te res t to n o te t ha t o f t e n s a m p les o f

t h e c e le bra te d Da m a s c us s tee l o f t h e O r ie n t ana ly ze d by D ue de
L uyn es e igh t c o n ta in e d t ungs te n t wo o f t h e m in quan t it ie s O f
, ,

.5 2 % to a n d a ll s amp le s c o n ta in e d n ick e l s o m e as h igh ,

267 Va na dium a nd Ch rom e

. Vana dium Steels As h a s be e n .

pre v io us ly n o te d, van a d ium b ids fa ir to be c o me a riva l o f carbo n

in its a b ility to pro du ce gre at chang e s in s tee l by t h e add it io n
of v e ry s m a ll pe rc e n ta g e s V anad ium h a s a te nd e ncy to caus e
.

brit tle n es s E F L ak e re po rt ing o n t h is a llo y s tee l s ta tes t ha t

. . .
, ,

it c o m pare s favo ra b ly in s t a t ic s t re n g t h w it h any O f th e s tee ls

and t ha t it e x cee d s a ll o t he rs in its ab ilit y to res is t dynam ic
s t re s s e s A n in s ta nc e is g iv e n by an o t h e r s tee l man wh e re t h e
.

add it io n O f 5 % O f vanad ium increas e d t he te n s ile s t re ngth o f

2

a carbo n mangane s e s tee l 65 94 wh ile t he e las tic lim it wa s in ,

 MAT E RI ALS 33

c reas e d Th is alloy o f carbo n mangan es e and vanad ium , ,

w it h an add it io n o f o f n ick e l had its te ns ile s t re ngt h ,

incre as e d 6 1 % fro m to wh ile th e e las tic lim it

was ra is e d 64 % to w it h an e lo ngat io n of
O n acc o un t o f its brit t le ness vanad ium s tee l s h o u ld a lways ,

b e an ne a led and wh e n ann e a led a t abo ut 1 47 5 deg rees and O il

,

te mpe re d as w ill b e see n fro m t h e t ab les g ive n be lo w s o m e

, ,

re markab le pro pe rties a re paten t Th e c o mpos ition of t h e s tee l .

t abu late d is as fo llo ws

V anad ium Ch ro m ium ,
Carbo n Manganes e , , ,

T e nsile Stren t h L
Elas tic im it
L bs Per Sq 1 1
. . g
. L bs Per Sq I n
. . .

A nnea l d a t
e 1 4 75 de g .

An n d
ea le at

T he bes t h igh s peed cutt ing s tee l pro duce d by Tay lo r W h ite
- -

t o t h is da t e (1 9 0 7 ) h a s a vanad ium c o n te n t O f
2 68 A lum inum
. Coba lt Tin Tita nium a nd Oth er Stee ls
, , , .

Alum in um Coba lt T in a nd T ita n ium

, ,
A s w ill b e ga t h e re d fro m a .

re ad ing O f Se ct 2 1 8 t h e re is n o t h ing in t h e me chan ical pro pe rties

.
,

O f t h es e fo ur s t ee ls wh ich w o u ld le a d any o n e t o mak e a pre fe re nc e

in t h e ir favo r T he s ma ll pe rc e n t a g e O f a lum inum wh ich t e

.

ma ins in t h e s tee ls n o t pas s ing o ff in t h e s lag up t o a c o nte n t o f

, ,

.5 % incre ase s t h e te n s ile s t re ngt h and ra ise s t h e e las t ic lim it b ut ,

t h e e lo nga t io n and re d uc t io n o f are a a re mate ria lly injure d .

K e n t c las s es t h e ac t io n of a lum inum a lo ng w it h t hat o f s ilic o n ,

s u lphur ph os ph o rus and c o ppe r a s g iv ing no incre as e to t h e

,

hardness O f iro n in c o nt rad is t inc t io n t o carbo n mangan es e

, , ,

chro m ium t ungs ten and n ick e l Alum inum se e ms to c o mb in e

,
.

in its e lf t h e advan t a ges o f b o t h s ilic o n and mangan es e b ut s o ,

lo ng as a llo ys c o n t a in ing t h e s e m e t a ls a re s o ch e ap and a lum inum

so d e ar its e x t e n s iv e us e s e e m s hard ly pro bab le
,
.
34 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S HO P PRAC TICE
Othe r S teels nam e g iven to a me tal wh ich is a
. I n va r is t h e
n o n e xpand ing n ick e l s tee l hav ing an appro x ima te c o mpo s it io n
-
,

O f 64 % iro n 35 % n icke l and t h e re ma in ing

, 1 % mad e up o f
carbo n s ilic o n manganes e e tc Be caus e it is no n e xpand ing
, , , .
-
,

I nvar h as be e n fo und to b e e xc eeding ly va luab le in t h e c o n s t rue

t io n o f s c ie n t ific ins t rume n ts .

Resis ta s tee l s o ca lled h as a che m ical c o mpo s it io n of

, ,

iro n 6% mangan ese 1 5 % n ick e l and a te ns ile s tre ngt h O f 68

, ,

t o ns w it h a n e lo nga t io n of fro m 50 % t o
,

2 69 H igh s peed Cuttin g Too l Alloys

.
-
As ind icat ing t he fo ur .

e p o chs in t h e h is t o ry O f too l s tee ls t h e carbo n t o o l s te e l e ra ; ,

t h e s e lf hard e n ing s tee l e ra ; t h e d is c o v e ry o f h igh s pe e d t o o ls ;

- -

and mod e rn h igh s pee d tools t h e fo llo w ing tab le t ake n fro m
-
, ,

Pre s id e n t Tay lo r s m o num e n t a l A S M E address o n t h e

’
.
. . .
,

A rt of Cut t ing Me t a ls is g ive n , .

Th e tab le g ives t h e ch e m ica l ana lys is of fo ur s tee ls wh ich a re

t yp ica l of t h e vario us e ras in t h e d e ve lo pme n t o f m e t a l cu tt ing -

to o ls .

5 a
a 5 P
B r i
s a 5
Make d Steel U 2

6 C
5 0
if B l:
a. a. a.

J e ss u p 0 1 89 0 2 06
Mus h e t S e lf , H d
a r e n ing,

T un gs t e n 1 0 44
O rigina l T a lo r- y W hit e 1 85 0 30 O 15
B es t Md o e rn H igh S p e d e

Ta yl IVhitor -
e 0 67 0 1 1 0 0 43

Th e che m ica l c o mpos it io n o f th e me d ium s te e l fo rg ing us e d

fo r t h es e cu tt ing tes ts is a s fo llo ws :
Carb o n Mangan es e
, S ilic o n Ph os , ,

p h o ru s , S u lphur T e n s ile S t re ng t h, ,

pounds ; E las t ic Lim it pounds ; A ng le o f t oo ls us e d o n

,

medium s tee l fo rg ings Cle ara nc e A ng le 6 d egrees ; Back S lo pe

, ,

8 and S ide Slo pe 1 4 d eg rees .

36 ENG I NEERING A ND S HO P PRAC TI CE
T h e t o t al
carbo n g ive n in th e tab le was fo und by th e c olo r
tes t wh ich is aff e c te d n o t o nly by t h e to ta l carbo n b ut by th e
, , ,

c o nd it io n o f t h e carbon .

T h e analys is o f t h is s tee l is

Ca b r on (t rue to ta l ca r

bon by com bus tion)

N ote . Bo t h t h e B es s e m e r
pe n h earth pro c es ses a re
an d o -

us ed fo r th e produc tio n o f s t ruc tura l s tee l; h o we ve r acc o rd ing ,

to Me t calf fo r fi n e bo ile r p lat es arm o r p la tes and gun parts

, , ,

o p e n h eart h s tee l h a s wo n it s p lac e as c o mp le te ly a s h a s th e

-

cruc ible fo r fi n e to o l s tee ls o r t he Bes s e m e r for ra ils

,
.

2 74 W o rking G rea t care s h o uld b e e x e rc is ed in wo rk ing

. .

s tee l a s c o s t ly ma te r ia ls may b e re nd e re d u s e le s s by impro p e r

, ,

hand ling o n th e part o f th e o pe ra to r ; th e d e fe c ts t hus e as ily

caus e d a re o ve rh ea ting burn ing and ch e ck ing I n ge ne ral us e a
,
.

ve ry ge nt le blas t w it h a g o o d bo dy of fu el and fo rge a t a s lo w ,

a h e at a s p os s ible H ard e n a t a lo w ch e rry re d 1 45 0 to

.
— °

1 5 0 0 F ahr L igh t rap id b lo ws w it h t h e hamm e r a s th e c olo r

"
.
,

is dying o ut hav e a p e cu liarly be ne fic ia l e ff e c t o n t h e gra in of

t h e p ie c e s o t re a t e d ; t h is is ca lle d ham m e r re fin ing “
.

2 75 Th eory of Ha rdening As o t he r e le m e n ts s uch as s ma ll

. .
,

quan t it ies of mangan es e s ilic o n ph o s ph o rus and s ulphur appear

, ,

in carb o n s tee l ra t h e r as inc id e n ta l t han in te nt io na l c o n te n ts we ,

may n egle c t t h e o t h e rs and c o nce rn o urs e lves w it h carbo n a s

”
t h e t rue hard e n e r B road ly s pe ak ing carbo n may e x is t in t h e
.
,

s tee l in e it h e r O f t wo fo rm s o r s t at es ; v iz a s c e m e n t it e wh ich

”
, ,
.

Mr Taylo r c a lls
. hard e n ing carbo n o r a s pe arlite te rm ed
“
, ,

s o ft e n ing carb o n I n t h e anne a le d bar as it is re c e ive d fro m

“

”
.

t h e d e a le r t h e carbo n e x is t s as pe arlite o r s o fte n ing carbo n

“
, .

Be fo re th e s t ee l can be c o m e hard t h e pe arlit e m us t change to ,

t he hard e n ing carbo n c e me n t ite T h e c h ange is eff e c te d by

“
, .

h e at ing t h e s tee l t hro ugh a c e rt a in range O f te mpe ra tures wh ich

ha ve bee n d ete rm ine d by s c ie n t is ts and wh ich c o nfo rm c los e ly
t o t h e fo llo w ing d es crip t io n

”
I t is a mat te r of g e n e ra l kn o wledge t hat to hard e n s teel it
mus t b e h ea ted to what is em p irica lly kn o wn a s a low che rry “

re d , a te mpe ra ture c los e to 1 450 F W he n th e te mpe rature °

.

pas s es s ligh t ly abo ve 1 450 F th e pea rlite is e ntirely changed to

°
.
 MATERI ALS 7

c e me n tite pro v ided a c e rta in s h o rt interva l of time be a llo wed

,

fo r t h e pro c ess be cause it t ak es t ime to e ff e c t t h e change If the .

”
t e mpe ra t ure is a llo w ed t o dro p be lo w 1 400 F t h e ce m e n t ite °
.

will change back to pe arlite ; i e fro m hard e n ing to s ofte n ing

. .
“ “

carbo n and th e change may b e mad e o ve r and o ve r aga in

,
.

T h e fac t t ha t it takes a c e rt a in appre c iab le t im e f or t h e change

t o t ak e p lac e e nab les us by que nch ing t o h o ld o r arre s t t h is
t rans fo rma t io n a t any d es ired po in t If a t oo l h e a ted abo v e
.

””
1 450 b e rap id ly and c o n t inuo us ly c o o le d by que nch ing in wate r
°
,

o r o t h e rw is e d o wn be lo w a te mpe ra t ure o f 3 9 2
,
F t h e c e m en t ite °
.
,

or harden ing carbo n w ill n ot have had t ime to change to

“

pearlite o r s ofte n ing carbo n and w ill re ma in t rappe d in t he

“

s tee l as it w e re in its hard o r d iam o nd lik e fo rm

, ,
Th e t rappe d - .

c e me ntite gives to th e wh o le to o l its hardne s s and s o long as t h e ,

te mpe rat ure re ma ins be lo w 39 2 F it cann o t b e changed back

°
.

to pe arlite Tools harde ned in t h e abo ve mann er a re ge ne ra lly

.

to o hard and britt le t o b e u s e d fo r o rd inary mach in e s h o p w o rk

and have to b e te mpered o r s o fte ne d I f we had s to pped t he .

proc ess of c oo ling a t any po int be tween 1 450 and e ve n

°

fo r a c o mparat ive ly s h ort t im e t h e n t o a gre a te r o r les s d egree

,

t h e change fro m c e m e n t it e to pe arlite w o uld have t ak e n p lac e

and t he too l wo uld have bee n so fte r and less brittle I f no w .
, ,

afte r hav ing c oo led th e too l rap id ly fro m 1 450 d own be lo w °

39 2 R we re h e at it t o s o m e p o in t abo ve 39 2 and be lo w 600 F

°
,
° °
.
,

t h e change fro m c e m e n t ite to pe arlite be g ins t o ta k e p lac e t h e ,

t oo l be c o m ing s o fte r and s ofte r un t il 60 0 is rea ch e d whe n it

°
,

will b e fo und e ntire ly so ft and t he ce me n t ite change d to pearlite .

With t h e a id O f a Le Chate lie r pyro me te r it was d is c o ve re d ,

t ha t as t h e carbo n change d fro m c e me n t ite t o pe arlite s o d e fin ite ,

and po we rfu l was t h e m ole cu lar change in th e s t ruc t ure of t h e

s tee l t ha t t h e h e a t d e v e lo pe d was s ufli cie nt t o h o ld or e ve n ra is e
,

” ” ” ”
t h e te mpe rat ure s lig h t ly Th is o ccu rs a t 1 400 F and it wa s °
. .

fo r t h is re as o n t ha t t h is po int be cam e kn o wn a s t h e re h eat ing “

po int re ca le s c e nc e po in t
“
or crit ica l po in t A ll to o l s tee ls

”
, ,
.

whe t he r carbo n or h igh s pee d have a t le as t o ne critica l p o in t s ays

, ,

Mr Taylor and many of t he m have t wo o r m o re in c o o ling fro m

.
,
“

a h igh hea t to th e no rmal te mpe rature O f th e a ir At e ve ry .

critica l po int the n s o me in te rna l mo le cu lar change take s plac e

, , .

T he lo w e r cr it ica l po in t of carbo n t oo l s tee l a t wh ich p o in t ,

s o ften ing or t e mp e ring t ak es p la c e bro ad ly s pe ak ing lies s o m e

, ,
38 E N ING EERI NG AND S HOP PRAC TI CE
wh e re be twee n 39 2 and 600 F ; and th e uppe r critica l po int
° °
.

o ccu rs ab o u t 1 45 0 F wh e n t h e change fro m pe arlite to ce m e n

°
.

t ite t ak es p lac e
. It is impo rt ant t o kn o w t ha t t h e critical po in ts
do not o ccur a t t h e s ame te mpe rat ures wh e n c o oling ; ie
—
. .

—
whe n the h ea t is go ing d o wn as wh e n h e ating i a whe n th e . .

F IG . 2 75a . C
a rb o n S teel Cu vr es .

h eat is go ing upward ind ica ting that t h e in te rn al changes

o ccur a t d iff e re n t t e mpe ra t ures See F ig 2 7 50
. . .

By a c o mpar iso n O f Mr Tay lo r s curves h e re w it h F ig 2 7 5 b

’
.
, ,
.

it w ill b e n o te d t ha t t h e princ ipa l crit ica l po in t in h e a t ing is

h igh e r by abo ut 1 60 F t han th e princ ipal crit ical po in t in th e
°
.

c oo ling and t he re fo re t he o pe rato r wh o is harde n ing carbo n

,
 MATE RI ALS 39

s t ee l is much m r n
o e i te res t e d in t h e h e a t ing t han in t h e c oo ling
curve as it is to the fo rmer he mus t loo k for a point jus t above
,

a0 s r s r a s 5 14 fi é é é t é
iirpera tu
O O 0 0 O O 0 O 0 0
Te re , F ah renh eit

wh ich h e mus t h eat h is too l in o rde r t hat it may hard e n t ho r

O ugh ly pre s e rv e a fi ne gra in and b e free fro m th e br itt le ne ss and
,

ot h e r t ro ub les wh ich c o m e fro m t h e o v e rh e a t ing .

40 E NG INEE RI NG AND S HO P P RAC TICE
2 7 6 . H a rdening an dTem pe rin g . W h e n a c le an p ie c e o f s tee l,

harde ne d or unhard e ned is expose d to h e at in a ir it w ill as s ume

,

d iff e re nt c olo rs as th e he at incre as es I t is a well es t ab lis he d fac t .

-

t ha t t h ese c o lo rs a re due t o t h in fi lm s of o x id e t ha t a re fo rm e d a s
t h e h e at progres s es Th es e c o lo rs a re a s us eful as beautiful and
.

furn is h an unvary ing guid e wit h a g ive n grade of s tee l a s to t he, ,

c o nd itio n O f th e hard e ned too l Te mpe ring s tee l is t he a ct O f giv

.

ing it afte r it h a s b ee n s hap e d t h e hard ness n e c es s ary fo r t h e

, ,

wo rk it h a s to do I n mos t cas es t h is is do ne by firs t hard e n ing

.

t h e p ie c e g e n e ra lly a gre a t d e a l hard e r t han is n e c ess ary by s ud

, ,

de n ly c o o ling fro m a lo w ch e rry h e at 1 45 0 to 1 5 00 F ahr and

° °
.

t h e n to ugh e n ing it by s lo w h e a ting and gradua l s o ft e n ing un t il it is

jus t righ t fo r th e wo rk it h a s to pe rfo rm A m o d ifica tio n o f th is .

la t te r pro c e s s c o n s is ts in hard e n ing t h e cu t ting po rt io n o f th e to o l

by a mo me n tary ch illing and t h e n allo w ing t h e s till h e ate d po r
,

t io n to ra is e t h e t e mp e ra t ure O f t h e ch ille d and hard e n e d p o rt io n

t o t h e d es ire d p o in t wh e n furt h e r ris e is pre v e n te d by a s udd e n
,

que nch ing T h e wo rd te mpe r wh e n applie d to s te e l h a s unfo r

.
, , ,

t un a te ly t wo d ive rs e me an ings
,
T h e s te e l man ufac t ure r us e s t h e
.

w o rd to des igna te t h e amo unt o f carbo n wh ich s te e l c o n ta ins ;

and t h e wo rk e r t h e c o lo r O f th e o x id e a t a g ive n te mperat ure .

2 77 Ta b le of Tem perin g Da ta
. .

M A NurA WO R KE R S
'
D A rA
'

V y diffi
er c ult La rge la t h pla
e n e r S c ra pe rs , s cri

to fo rgc an d b o rin g to o ls be rs ,files ,la t h e

an d ea s il y fo r m a c h in i n g a n d pl a ne r

burned ro lls , too l s t ee l too ls fo r ha rd

an d t ires .

La rge la t h e an d

m ed . s ize dies .
 MATE RI ALS
2 77 . Ta b le of Tem pe rin g Da ta con tinued .
( )
MA nurAc rum ’
s AND Puca sn
’
s D ATA We e m ’
s D Ar A

Bea rs h t S rew cutt ing di s

ea c e , Milling cutt e rs ,

n ot a bo v hise ls p un ch
e c , es , la the to o ls ,
h
c erry red a nd m illin g c ut ta ps , di e s ,

nes s ; grea t te rs . S tra w r e a m e rs

ca
r
e is re
Col dch is e ls p un ch
q ui red "1
,

es , dies , la rge dies , ha m m e r

work ng i .
t a ps , a nd m illin g
cut te rs a n d s m a ll

s hea r k niv es .

E a s i l y La c es r ge p u n h .

b urne d, re s h ea r b la de s , la rge

q uire s s il k
dies , a n d so m e
ful m a n i p bla cksm ith s ’

ula tio n in to ols .

k
wo r in g .
S ta m p in g di e s ,

ham m e rs , cold

sets , k h ise l
tra c c s

a nd bla ks m it h
’
c s

t ools .

La the pla n , er an d
m a ch i i t too ls
’
n s s .

Ag oo d co m La th pl ne, a er a nd C o hi l
ld c s e s ,

tool m a ch inis t s o m e h a k
’
m on s too ls . c

s tee l . 8 wa gc s fla t te rs , Brown sa ws ,
wood
cu pp
ing too ls a n d k
wor ing too ls .

bl a cks m it h t oo ls

ge n e ra ll y .

Wk or s so m e S p r in gs , fine
h
w a t like T ires , et c . sa ws .

wro iro n. .

T p B Pl Co m m on sa ws ,
e m e r s o ile r a te s an d
s lig htly . ax le s .

Doe s n o t Som e m a c h in e T oo so ft to be
tem pe r .
pa rts
42 E NGI NEE RI NG AN D S H O P P RAC TI CE
Note . use s g ive n for te mpe r c olo rs and th e ot he r da ta
Th e
in t h e ab o ve t ab le a re to b e t ak e n as m e re ly g iv ing a g o o d g en e ra l
id e a ; expe rie nc ed m en a re gu ide d by res ults and se le c t and te m ,

p e r in t h e w a y t h a t g iv es t h ese re s u lts .

T h e te ns ile s t re ng t h of s tee l varies fro m po unds to

pounds pe r s quare inch .

1 00 carbo n s tee l i e s tee l c o n ta in ing 1 % carbo n is t h e

,
. .
,

s t ro nges t in e ve ry way as t h is pe rc e nt age is abo u t th e s at ura t io n

,

lim it .

2 78 Th e Ta ylor W hite Trea tm en t of Tool Stee ls

.
- Mr Tay lo r . .

s ays re fe rring to t h e ir inv e n t io n : B y far t h e m os t impo rt an t of

“
,

t h e d is c o v eries mad e by us and t ha t wh ich le d t o t h e m od e rn ,

h igh s pee d tools was t h e d is c o ve ry that whe n too ls made fro m

-
,

too l s tee l O ld in its ch e m ica l c o mpos it io n (c o n t a in ing n ot less

,

t han 5 % of chro m ium and not less t han 1 % o f t ungs t e n or its

.
,

e qu iva le n t ) w e re t rea te d in a n e w and c o mplete ly re v o lut io nary

,

manne r to an ext rao rd inarily h igh h eat a h eat s o h igh t hat it

”
would hav e utterly ruin ed o rd inary t ools t h is trea t m e n t im
p rt e d an e n t ire l y n e w p ro pe rt y o r qua lit y t o a cu t t ing t o o l ;

pz ,
t h e pro pe rt y ca lle d re d hardness
‘‘
A nd it is t h is ne w .

pro pe rt y wh ich e nables t hes e too ls to run a t th eir h igh cutt ing
s pee d s .

T h e t re at m e nt is d es cribe d as fo llo ws : T h e firs t o r h igh h ea t

t reat m e nt c o ns is ts of he a t ing t h e t oo l ,

( )
a S lo w ly t o 1 5 0 0 F °
.

( )
b R ap id ly fr o m t ha t t e m p e ra t ur e t o ju s t be lo w t h e m e l t ing
po int .

( )
0 C o o ling fa s t t o b e lo w t h e bre ak ing d o wn p o in t ; i s -
. .

°
1 5 50 F
d
( ) Co o ling e it h e r fas t o r s lo w fro m t h is po in t t o th e tempe ra
t ure of th e a ir .

Th e c nd o r lo w h e at t re a tme n t c o n s is ts o f h ea t in g t h e to o l
se o -
,

( )
a T o a t e mp e ra t ur e b e low pr e f e rab ly t o 1 1 50 f or
°

a pe rio d o f abo u t fi ve m inutes and

( )
b Co o ling t o t h e t e m p e ra t ure o f t h e a ir e it h e r rap id ly o r ,

s lo w ly .

A LLO Y S , B R O N z E s , B RA SS E S ,
ET C .

2 81 . Properties a nd Ch ara cteris tics . A llo ys m a y b e made o f

vario us me t a ls t hat have an a flin it y fo r o ne ano t h e r and th e
,
44 ENGINEE RI NG AN D S HO P P RAC TICE
e ach of t h ese s id es re prese nts 1 00 of each ele me n t res pec tive ly .

O n p o in t s in a t riang le o f w oo d re pres e n t ing d iff e re nt a llo ys ,

tes te d w ires we re e re c t e d of le ngt hs pro po rtio na l to t h e te ns ile

,

s t re ngt h and t h e t riang le t he n bu ilt up of p las te r t o t h e h e igh t

,

O f t h e wires Th e s u rfac e t hus fo rmed h as a charac te ris t ic

.

to po graphy re pres e n t ing t h e varia t io ns o f s t re ngt h w it h varia

,

t io ns of c o mpos it io n T h e h igh es t p o in t o b t a ine d was a c o mpo

.

s it io u o f 55 c o ppe r z inc 4 3 and t in 2 w it h a te ns ile s t rengt h of

, ,

po unds T he fo rmu la for t h e s tro nges t of t hese alloys

.

Z inc 3
( x Tin ) 55 .

I llus t ra ting t h e fo rmu la by cho os ing 7 fo r th e Z inc ,

we
have
7 + 3 T 55
3 T = 55
T = IG

and o ur c o mpos it io n be c o mes

7 Z inc ,
1 6 T in and 77 Co pper
i . e . 7 + 16 77 = 1 00 %

The fo rmula Z inc 4 T in 50 gives a s e ries of a llo ys hav ing

gre ate r duc t ilit y toge t he r w it h c o ns id e rable s t re ngt h wh ich may ,

b e m o re ea s ily w o rk e d by mach in e to o ls ; t h e o t h e r se rie s be ing

ge ne rally too hard fo r o rd inary mach ine ry .

2 86 Lea d U se in Alloys L e ad t h o ugh having b ut little

.
,
.
,

a fli n ity fo r e it h e r c o pp e r or z inc is add e d t o as s is t in g iv ing to ,

t h e cas tings a s m o o t h s urfac e ; it is a ls o us e d o n acc o un t of its

che apness S h o uld t h e le ad in c o ppe r and z inc alloys exc ee d 3 %
.

of t h e m ix t ure t h e res ult will pro v e un s a t is fac t o ry

,
Le ad .

allo ye d w it h ars e n ic is us ed for m ak ing s h o t w it h b is mu t h fo r ,

fus ible allo ys and w it h an tim o ny fo r t ype m etal

,
.

2 87 . Com position 6 Ordina ry Com m ercia l Alloys of 2 In .

t h e tab le be lo w (F ig 2 8 7 a ) is g iv e n t h e ch e m ical c o mpos it io n

.

o f t h e o rd inary a llo y s in e v e ry day us e in bra s s fo undries

-
T he .

t able is t ak e n fro m t h e A m erica n M ac h inis t .

 MAT E RI ALS 45

Na m e of M e ta l Use of Meta l

Adm i ra lt y Me ta l Fo r pa rts o f e ngines o n b oa r d

na va l ves se ls .

B e ll M e ta l B e lls hip nd f t i
fo r s s a a c o r es .

B ra ss (Y e llo w ) Fo r plum be h ip ndh us e rs , s a o

b ss w k
ra or .

Bu h M s e ta l Fo r b a ing bus hes f s ha ft

e r or

ing .

G un M e ta l Fo r pum ps nd th b y a o er

dra uli pu p s esc r o .

S te a m M e ta l 1 } 1 C tings ubj ct d to te m
as s e e s a

p u re ss re .

H dG u M
ar n e ta l F or h vy bea rings
ea .

Munt M t l z e a Me ta l f m wh ich b lt nd
ro o s a

n ut s f ged v lv
a re or , a e

pindl t
s es , e c .

Ph ph Bron
os or ze . 8 ph os . t in F or va lv pum p nd g n
es , s a e

e ra l wo rk .

Ph ph os or B ro n ze .
10 ph os . t in F o r co g an d wo rm whee ls ,
bus h es , a x le bea rin gs s lide ,

va lve s , e t c .

B ra z in g M e ta l F la nges fo r co pp pipe er s .

B ra z ing S o lde r . So lde r fo r t h e b v fl nge

a o e a s .

Fm . 2 8 70 .

I n t h is
Table (F ig 2 8 7 b ) is g ive n th e c o mpo s it io n of vario us
.

o t h e r us e fu l a llo y s Th is table is fro m K e n t and is gle ane d fro m

.
,

vario us s o urc e s :

Co pper T in Zinc Lea d Re m arks

U . y D pt J u n l Bo
S Na v
. e .
,
o r a x es

n d G uid G ibs
a e-

T bin B r n
o o ze

N v l B
a a rass

Co m pos iti n U S N vy o ,
. . a

B rass B e a rin gs (J Ros e ) .

G un M e ta l

P a rts
46 ENG INEE RING A ND S HO P PRACTICE
F ro 2 876 .
(contin ued) .

Co pper T in Zin c L ea d m o ny
Rem arks

T o ug h Bras s Engines fo r Pe r Ce nt .

Bro e f R d Box es (L f
nz or o a ond )
S ligh tly Ma llea ble
Bron e fo r Pieces Subje t
z c to
S ho ck 15
1 l l

B ro n ze fo r Pum p Cas ings (La

88 10
B ro n ze fo r Ecc e nt ric S t ra ps L
( a
84
B ro n ze fo r S h Whist l s
rill e 80
B ro n ze fo r Low tonedW hi tl
- s es 81

Fm . 2 87 6 .

2 Teleph one a nd Telegra ph Wire Alloys Silic o n bronze

88 . .
,

mad e of 9 7 parts of c o ppe r and 3 parts s ilic o n h as a ten s ile ,

s t re ngt h wh e n in a c as t ing o f abo u t po unds to t h e s quare

inch wit h an e lo nga t io n of fro m 50 % to
,

Th is table giv es a c o mpariso n of c o ppe r s ilic o n bro nze and ,

-

phos ph o r bro nze drawn w ires and is t ak e n fro m E ngineering

-
.

D es cription o f Wire T e ns ile S tren gt h Rela tive Co nductivity

Pu C pp
re o er L b s pe r sq in
. . . 1 00 pe r ce n t .

S ili n B n
co (te leg ph )ro ze ra 96
S ilico n B e (t l ph o )
ro n z e e ne 34
Ph ph B onze (te l ph n
os or r e o e ) . 26

F ro 2 88
. .

A LLO Y S ; SO LD ER S , B E A R I N G MET A L A ND OT H E R W E LL K N O W N
A LL O YS

9 2 1 . Solders . d
Com m on Solder e r is an a llo y o f . Co mm o n s ol

e qua l parts o f t in and le a d F in e s o lde r c o n t a ins 2 part s o f t in .

t o 1 of le ad wh ile ch e ap s o ld e r c o n t a in s 2 part s o f le ad to 1 of
,

t in . Thes e s o ld e rs fus e a t a te m pe rature o f abou t 370 F °

.
 MAT E RI ALS 47

Com m on Pewter . Co mm o n pe w te r c o nta ins 4 parts of lead

to 1 of t in .

G old Solder . G o ld s ol e d r c o nta ins 14 parts of gold , 6 parts

v r and
of s il e ,
c o ppe r 4 of .

Silver So lder Silv e r s o ld e r c o n ta in s 70 parts of yello w bras s

.
,

1 1 ; part s of t in and 7 parts o f z inc .

G erm a n Silver Solder G e rman s ilve r s old e r c o nt ains 38 parts

.

of c o pp e r 5 4 of z inc and 8 of n ick e l

,
.

2 92 Bea ring Meta l Alloys

. Ba bb itt Meta l T h e well kn o wn .
-

B abb it t met a l c o n t a ins appro x ima te ly 50 parts of t in 2 parts o f ,

c oppe r and 4 parts of antimo ny A n e xc elle n t wh ite metal allo y .

c o nt ains 55 part s of t in 1 8 of an t imo ny 2 3 } o f le ad and 3 } of , ,

c o ppe r The princ ipa l c on s t itue n ts of m os t bearing meta ls a re

.

c o ppe r t in lead z inc ant im o ny iro n and alum inum

, , , , , .

2 93 Com position of 2 4 Bearin g Meta l Alloys

. T h e t able o n .

page 49 (F ig 2 9 3 ) g ives th e c o ns t it ue n ts of 2 4 of th e m o s t im
.

po rtan t bearing me ta ls as analyz ed in th e Pe nns ylvan ia Ra ilroad

labo rato ry a t Altoo na :
G urle y s bro nz e is us e d fo r t h e frame
’
2 94 G urley s Bron ze
.
’
.

wo rk of eng inee r s t rans its et c and is c o mpos ed acc o rd ing to

’
,
.
, ,

W J Kee p of 1 6 parts of c o ppe r 1 of t in l of z inc k of lead

. .
, , , , ,

and h as a te ns ile s t re ngt h of po unds .

2 95 G e rm an Silver
. G e rman s ilv e r is an a llo y c o nt a ining
.

abo ut c o ppe r n ick e l t in and ,

z inc , .

2 96 Alum in um Bronz e
. A lum inum bro nz e an a llo y o f 9 0 % .
,

c o ppe r and 1 0 % alum inum pro duc es a re markably te nac ious ,

me t al w it h a te ns ile s t re ngt h varying fro m

, to
p o und s pe r s quare inch w it h fro m 4 % to 1 4 % elo ngatio n ,
.

2 97 Ma nga nese Bronze Manganes e bronze is in re ality a

. .

manganes e bras s fo r z inc ins tead o f t in is th e ch ief ele me nt

, , ,

adde d to th e c o ppe r .

T h e mangan es e e x is t ing in t h es e a lloys e x te nds fro m a t rac e

up t o mangan es e may b e m ix ed wit h c o ppe r to g ive a m eta l
t ha t may b e fo rged I t s ch ie f us e o n acc o un t of its s t re ngt h
.
,

and duc t ilit y is fo r pro pe lle r blad e cas tings alt h ough s h ee ts of
, ,

manganes e bro nze a re us e d to a large e x te nt fo r m in ing s cree ns , ,

on acc o un t of t h e ir n o n c o rro s iv e qua lit ies - .

Manganese bro nz e h a s a te n s ile s t re ng t h of abo ut

po und s pe r s quare inch ; whe n ro lled h o we v e r its ten s ile s t re ngt h , ,

reaches fro m to po unds pe r s qua re inch Many .

48 ENG INEERI NG A ND S HO P P RACTI CE
of manganes e bro nzes
th e on the mark et c o n tain no manganes e
wha teve r .

2 9 8 . Pewter a nd Type Meta l . Pe w te r is

an allo y c o n t ain
ing c oppe r t in and ,
an tim o ny A
hard pe wte r is c o mp os e d of
.

2 parts of c o pp e r 9 6 of t in and 8 of an timo ny ; s h o u ld t h e

, ,

c o ppe r b e incre as ed a so f te r pe wte r wo uld res ult Co mmo n .

pe wte r c o nta ins 4 parts of le ad to 1 part of t in .

Type metal is an a lloy c o nta in ing from 4 to 5 parts of le ad

t o 1 of an t imo ny .

2 99 F us ib le Alloys
. Bis mu t h is th e ch ie f ele m e n t wh ich
.

g ives t h e fus ible alloys t he ir lo w m elting po in t F us ible a llo ys -

.

can b e made by various c o mpos it io ns of le ad t in b is mut h and , ,

so m et im es cadm ium w it h a m e lt ing po int o f f ro m 1 4 9

° °
,
-
to 4 7 5 F .

A n a lloy o f 1 part le ad 3 part s t in and 5 part s b is mu t h m elts

, ,

at 2 1 2 F°
A llo ys o f b is mu t h hav e bee n u s e d fo r mak ing fus ib le
.

plugs for bo ile rs b ut acc o rd ing to Ke nt it is fo und t hat t he y

, ,

a re a lte re d by t h e c o n t inu e d ac t io n of h e a t s o t ha t one cann ot

re ly up o n t h e m t o m e lt a t t h e pro p e r te mp e rat ure .

Pu re B anca t in is us e d by t h e U n ite d St a tes G o vernme n t fo r

fus ible plugs .
 MAT ERI ALS

A N LY S I S
A or B EA RI NG M ET A L AL LO YS
Co pper Zinc A n t im on y I ro n

Ca bon B on e
r r z

a C rnis h Br n
o o ze

T bin B n
o ro ze

G n y B ron e
ra e z

Da m ascus B n ro ze

M n g nes e B ron
a a ze

H i gton Bron
a rr n ze

Ph ph B n
os or ro ze

Ca m li Me ta l
r e a

W h it M ta l
e e

D lt M t l
e a e a

M gn lia M t l
a o e a t ra ce
Aj M t l
ax e a .

C b
a r- o x M ta l e t ra ce
E x B Mtl
. . e a

Anti f i t i n M t l (N
- rc o e a o . 1) t ra ce
A ti f i ct ion M t l (N
n - r e a o . 2)
S lg e A n ti f i ti n
a e -
rc o

Am ica n Ant i f i t i
er -
r c on .

Ca r-B as Liningr s .

G a ph it B a ing M t
r e e r e al .

A ntim o ia l Lea d n .

Ha d L ad
r e

Ot h Co ns t itu
er e n ts
1 No gra p h ite .
“ No m a n grm e s e .

Poss ib le t ra ce o f ca rb o n 0 Ph o s h o rus o r a rse n ic

. p .

a T ra ce o f h o s h o rus 7 P h o s h o rus
p p . p .

8 P h o s h o rus
(Torre y sa ys th is m e ta l a lwa y s co n ta in s t in .
) p .

P os s ib le t ra ce o f b is m uth .

F ro . 2 93 .
 CH APTER III
F RI CT I O N, L UB RI CA NTS A ND LUB RI CAT IO N

F R I CT I O N A ND LO S T W O R K

31 1 . F riction . urfac e O f e ve ry solid n o m atte r h ow

T he s ,

h igh ly p o lis hed o n b e ing o bs e rv ed t hro ugh a m icros c o p e h a s in

, ,

it litt le e le va t io ns and d e pres s io ns W he n t wo s urfac es a re

.

p lac ed toget h e r t h e e le vatio ns O f o ne te nd to fill t h e de pres s io ns

of t he o t h e r and t hu s O ff e r res is t anc e t o m o v e m e n t ; it is t h is

res is tanc e t hat is te rmed fric t ion T h e wo rk O f s m oo th ing o r

.

break ing O ff th e inte rlock ing po ints produc es h eat .

F ric t io n is d e t rim e n tal fo r th e re as o ns : (1 t hat it t ak e s po we r ,

( )
2 pr o duc es h e a t 3
( )
,
pro duc es w e ar and ( )
4 is t
,
h e cau se O f
much t ro uble the t roub le aris ing in m os t cas es fro m t h e incre ase
,

in te mpe rat ure and e n s u ing e xpans io n T h e o n ly d iff e re nc e t h e n

.
, ,

t hat m a y e x is t be t w ee n a be aring t hat g iv e s t ro ub le and o ne t hat

d oes not may b e in its c o nduc t io n rat h e r t han its produc t io n o f
, ,

hea t T he amoun t Of p owe r c o ns um ed in o ve rc o m ing fric t io n is

.

as ton is h ing to o n e unfam iliar w it h t he s ubj e c t and is es t imat e d

by various au tho rit ies to be fro m 40 % to 80 % O f t h e fuel co n
s um e d .

3 1 2 . F rict io n R ed u ction I f w e .in t e rpo s e b e t w ee n tw o s ur

fac es a fi lm O f o il we d is c o ve r t hat t h o ugh th e y S lid e mo re e as ily

,

t h ey s t ill O ffe r s o m e res is t anc e to m o v e m e n t Th is t h in fi lm of

.

o il h o lds t h e s u rfac e s apart lift ing th e irregularitie s of t h e o ne

,

free fro m t h ose o f t he o th e r t he rema in ing fric tio n be ing that in

,

t h e O il its e lf t h e re be ing n o fr ic tio n h e re O f m e t a l o n m e t a l

, ,

becaus e t h ey a re no t in c o n tac t E xam in ing t he c o nd ition s wh ich

.

O b t a in in t h e o rd inary b e aring in o pe ra t io n we find t ha t t h e O il ,

n e xt t h e S haft m o ves w it h it wh ile t hat on t h e be aring m o ve s

v ery s low ly T he s lo we r m ov ing po rt io n of t h e fi lm h a s a re
.

t ard ing e ff e c t o n t h e fa s te r m o v ing p o rt io n and t hus pro duc es

-

fric t io n in t h e O il its elf G ros s man d is cus s ing t h es e c o nd itio n s

.

s t a tes t ha t : D iff e re n t part s of t h e s am e lubrica t ing laye r m o v ing ,

50
 52 ENG I NEE RI NG AND S HO P PRACT I CE
I f we repres ent ve rt ica lly ac t ing fo rc e O f grav ity by t he
th e
lin e a b (F ig . its e ff e c t in h o ld ing t h e bo dy aga ins t t h e p lane
w ill b e pro po rt io na l t o t h e line be and its effe c t in S lid ing t h e
,

bo dy d o wn t h e plane will b e pro po rt io nal to th e line ac e ach ,

O f t h ese lin es b e ing drawn in t h e d ire c tio n in wh ich its re pre

s e n t a t ive fo rc e ac ts .

T h e qu o t ie n t O f t h e fo rc e te nd ing t o s lid e t h e b o dy by t h e
pres s ure be t wee n t he s lid ing s urf ac es wo u ld b e re pres e nte d by
ac
No w ac is t h e n
s i e Of th e angle at b, and be is its c os in e and ,
be
t he quo t ie nt O f th e S in e d iv id e d by th e c os in e is t h e t ange n t .

Sinc e t h e ang le a t a is c o mm o n t o bo t h tr iang les ab c and a bd , ,

F IG . 31 4 .

and bo t h have a righ t angle t h e re ma in ing angles a t b and d

, ,

res pe c t iv e ly mus t b e s im ilar and what is t rue O f t h e angle a t b

, ,

is t ru e O f t hat a t d o r t hat O f t h e p lane .

3 5
1. . So lid F riction W it h un lubr ica te d s o lid s s lid ing o n o n e
.

ano t h e r f is prac tically a c o n s t an t d e pe nd e nt upo n th e na t ure of

,

t h es e s urfac e s b ut ind e pe nd e n t o f t h e are a O f c o n t ac t O f t h e

,

pres s ure be t wee n t h e s urfac e s and t h e ve lo c ity O f rubb ing

, .

3 1 6 F luid F riction
. Thu rs to n g ives t h e fo llo w ing laws o f
.

flu id fric t io n : F o r a ll flu id s whet h e r liqu id o r gas eo us th e re

, ,

s is t a n ce is : (1 ) ind e pe nd e n t O f th e pre ss ure be t w ee n t h e mas s es

in c o n tac t ; (2 ) dire c t ly pro po rt io na l t o t he are a O f ru bbin g

s u rfac e ; (3 ) pro po rt io n a l t o t h e s quare of th e re lat ive v e lo c it y
a t mo d e ra te and h igh s pe e d s and to t h e v e lo c it y n e arly a t lo w

s pee ds ; (4 ) ind e pe nd e n t O f t h e na t ure O f t h e s u rfac es o f t h e s o lid

aga ins t wh ich t h e s t ream may flo w b ut d e pe nd e n t to s o m e e xte n t

,
 FRI CT I ON LUB RICAN TS
, AND LUB RICAT I O N 53

upo n t he ir d egree O f roughnes s ; (5 ) pro po rtiona l to th e de ns ity

of t h e flu id and re la te d in s o m e way t o its v is c o s it y .

A s h a s bee n pre v io us ly s t at e d it is s o m e wh e re be t wee n t h e

t wo e x t re m es t h e s o lid and liqu id fr ic t io n t ha t we m us t loo k
, ,

for our c o e ffic ie n t fo r any g iv e n b e ar ing .

LU B R I CA N T S IN G E N ER AL
3 2 1 . Th e F un ction of Lubrica n ts use d pri
. L ubricants a re

marily to re duc e fric tio n ; h o we ve r in th e mach in e s ho p when , ,

us ed in c o nne c t io n w it h cutt ing t oo ls t hey pe rfo rm anot h e r ,

impo rt an t fun c t io n t hat of d iss ipat ing t he h e a t g e ne ra te d in

,

mak ing t h e c ut W he n us e d in t h is la tte r c o nne c t io n it is true

.

t ha t wh ile he at d is s ipa t io n is t h e ma in func t io n t h e advan t age

, ,

a s a lubrican t mus t n o t b e o v e rlo o k e d and it is f o r t h is re as o n ,

t hat lard o il is o n e of t h e bes t cu tt ing O ils .

3 2 2 Th
. e Se le cti on o f L u b rica n ts S O imp o rt an t is
. t h e s ele c

t io n of a lubrican t for a g iv e n purpos e t ha t t h e pro fit o r loss in a

g ive n ma nufac turing plant may d e pe nd upon it A change of .

lubrican t in o n e o f t h e gre a t c o t to n m ills of Ma ss achus e t ts eff e c t e d

a s av ing o f O f t h e c o a l w it h an incre as e in t h e o ut put o f
,

I t is fo r t h is re as o n t ha t s c ie n t ific inv es t iga t io n and labo

ra t o ry tes ts s h o uld pre c ed e t h e se le c t io n O f a lubrican t f o r a g iv e n

c o nd itio n An y O f the great O il re fin e ries now glad ly furn is h

.
-

ce rtificates guarantee ing t he phys ica l qualities of t he ir vario us

brands of O ils s o t hat th e labo rato ry e xam ina tio n O f O ils fro m
,

re pu table c onc e rns may b e d is pe ns ed w it h unles s adu lte rat io n is

s us pe c te d le av ing o n ly t h e t ria l O f t h e var io us O ils t o t he pur
,
.

chas e r Thes e me rchan ts and fo r t hat mat te r t h e manufac ture rs

.
,

of s o lid lubrican ts a s w ell g lad ly as s is t in a id ing t h e ir c lie n ts in

,

s uch inv es t iga t io n by furn is h in g t e chn ica l e xpe rts to s up e rv is e

t h e t e s ts .

O I L CO M PO U N D S A ND A D U LT E R A T I O N S

33 1 . Com position bee n found by expe rim e nt

of Oils . I t h as
t ha t t h e be s t O il fo r lubricat ing be arings and o t h e r rubb in g
s u rfac es is invar iab ly a pure m in e ra l O il d e v o id of any v e ge tab le

o r a nima l fa t T h e vario us fac t o rs h o we ve r s uch a s c o nd it io ns

.
, ,

O f e xc ess ive press u re s pe ed m o is t ure

, he at c old and c os t have
, , ,

led to t h e num e ro us b rands wh ich a re u s ually m in e ra l O ils co m

54 ENG INEE RI NG AN D S H O P P RAC TICE
po und e d w it h an imal veget able and o t he r ingred ie nts t o meet
,

t h e vario us t es t re qu ire m e n ts .

33 2 . V e g e t a b le O il s V e g e t ab le O.ils p o ss ess fe w o r n o lu b ri

ea t ing qualit ie s O f prac tica l va lu e o x id iz e a t c o mpara t ively lo w ,

t e mp e rat ures and hav e a d is po s it io n t o b e c o m e t h ick and

gummy .

333 . A n i m a l Oils A n ima l .O ils o r carb o hydra t es li k

,
e w is e ,

t e nd t o t h ick e n and be c o m e gummy und e r t h e influe nc e O f h ea t

and we ar and d evelop an O bj e c tionable ac id which is s ure to
,

attack th e m etals w it h d is as t rous res ults .

33 4 . P ara fi n e P ara ffi

. n e p o sses se s fe w or n o l ubr i ca t ing
qualities a n d as id e fro m th e produc t io n of a s moot h s urfac e it
, ,

is a res is t an t and ret ards t h e v is c o us ac tio n O f an O il I t is us e d .

ch ie fly be caus e it do es n ot o x id iz e or e vap orate read ily .

33 5 . W o o l F a t W o o l f.a t (d e gra s ) a c o mm o n adu l t e ra t io n ,

in che ap cy lind e r O ils is us e d t o c ut t h e gummy ingre d ie n ts and

,

to s e cure a bet te r c old tes t I ts pres e nc e in an o il g e n e ra lly

.

caus es a t h ick d e po s it a t t h e b o ttom O f t he barre l and res u lts in

t h e s ame charre d d e p os it in t h e cy lind e r t ha t o ccurs fro m t h e
us e O f lump t a llo w .

33 6 . Ob j e c tio n a b le F e a tu re s Th e pres e nc e o.f v eg e t ab l e o r

an ima l O ils para ffine res in etc te nd s to make an O il s t icky

, , ,
.
,

and gummy no t o nly incre as ing t he fric t ion b ut also re nd e ring

, ,

it e ffi c ie n t in t h e c o lle c t io n and accumu la t io n o f dirt I f it b e .

neces s ary to c o mpo und an o il pure re fined a cidles s t allo w o il , , , ,

or pure s w ee t w in te r s t ra ine d lard O il s h o u ld a lways b e use d

, ,
-
.

L U B R I C A T I N G O I LS
34 1 .
Qua lifi ca tion s of a G ood Lub rica n t . Co n t inu e d inves t i
ga t io n and re c e n t res earch ind icate t hat t he qualificat io ns of a
goo d lubricant a re : (1 ) A m in imu m c o effic ie nt o f fric t io n t hat —
wh ich in bat h lubricat io n m os t ne arly appro x ima tes flu id fric tio n .

(2 ) S u ffic ie nt b o dy t o pre ve n t th e s urfac es t o wh ich it is app lie d

fro m c o m ing in c o n tac t w it h ea ch ot he r und e r max imum pres
s ure .
(3 ) A max imum flu id it y c o ns is te n t w it h t h e b o dy re qu ire d .

( )
4 A max imum c o nduc t io n of h eat (5 ) A h igh te mpe ra ture .

O f d e c o mpo s it io n t ha t is h igh flas h and burn ing p o in ts

, , ( )
6 A .

free do m fro m c o rros ive ac ids of e it he r m ine ral o r an imal o rig in .

(7 ) A freed o m fro m a ll ma te rials wh ich te nd to produc e ox idi

z a t io n o r gumm ing ( )
8 I t s va lu e d e
. t e rm in e d fr o m t h e c o s t O f ,
 F RICT I O N LUB RICANTS
, A ND LUB RICATI O N 55

c o ns umpt io n c os t O f c o al s pe n t to o ve rc o me fric t io n and c os t

, ,

due to m et a llic we ar .

34 2 O. il T e s ts . A n e xam ina t io n in t h e d
,
e t e rm ina t io n O f t h e

abo ve qua lifica t io ns Of t h e phys ica l and ch e m ica l qualities of an

o il s h o u ld pr o c e ed
, acc o rd ing to P rofes s o r Stillman in t h e fol
, ,

lo w ing o rd e r : (1 ) I d e n t ificat io n O f t h e O il wh e t h e r a s imp le ,

m ine ra l O il o r an ima l O il o r a m ixt ure ; (2 ) d e ns it y ; (3 ) vis c os it y ;

,

( )
4 fla s h p o in-
t ; ( )5 burn i ng p o i
-
n t fi re t es t ; ( ) 6 ac i d it y ; (7 )
c oe ffic ie nt O f frict io n and (8 ) c o ld tes t
, .

3 43 D. e n s it y o f G ra v it y T e s t T h e. d e n s it y o r grav it y t es t is

made by me ans of an hydro me te r and is an ind icat io n O f vis

cos it y ,
fo r t h e s pe c ific grav it y O f a part icu lar pe t role um o il
incre as es a s t h e v is c o s it y incre as es .

3 44 V. is c o s i ty o r F lu i d i ty T e s t T h e v.is c os it y o r flu id i t y o f
an O il is d ete rm ine d by a v is c o s ime te r and is us ually e xpress e d in
t h e s e c on d s of t ime in wh ich a g ive n quan t it y O f O il w ill flo w
t hro ugh an o rific e a t a s t at e d te mpe ra t ure
, I t is e v id e n t t ha t
.
,

w it h in t h e lim its t h e lo we r t h e v is cos it y of an O il (w ith o ut to o

,

ne ar an appro ach to m e t allic c o nt ac t O f t h e rubbing s urfac e s )

t h e lo we r w ill b e t h e c oe ffic ie n t of fric t io n F ro m t h is we n o t e
.

t hat e ach be aring wo u ld pro bab ly re qu ire an O il Of a d iff e re nt

v is c os it y o r t ha t a s ligh t chang e in a part icu lar be aring wo u ld
,

again change t h e re q uire me n ts .

34 5 F. la s h o r Fi r e T e s t Th. e O bj e c t O f t h e fla s h and fi re t es t

in m o s t ins tanc es is to ins ure t h e pre ve n t io n O f fi re t ha t m igh t

o ccur fro m t h e us e O f an O il g iv ing O ff inflammab le vapo rs ; t h e

h ighe r t h e te mpe ra t ure un d e r wh ich t h e O il m us t w o rk t he h ighe r ,

t h e fi re t es t s o t ha t it w ill n o t d e c o mpo s e o r v o la t iliz e ; t ho ugh

,

s t ill in t h e cas e O f a cy lind e r o il a t o m iz ing re ad ily

, ,
T OO h igh a
.

fi re t e s t g ives an O il t ha t d o es n o t a to m iz e re ad ily e n o ugh t o

reach a ll t h e parts Of the cy linde r w it h t h e s team T he lo wes t .

o rd inary fi re t e s t pe rm is s ib le is T h e fla s h ing and burn ing

po ints a re d e te rm ine d by h e at ing t he O il in an o pen vess el not ,

les s t han 1 2 pe r m inu te and app ly ing t h e tes t fl am e e v e ry fe w

°
,

d egrees .

34 6 A. c id it y T e s t T .h e O bj e c t O f t h e ac id it y t e s t a s it s nam,
e

in d ica tes is t h e d e te rm ina t io n O f t h e pres e nc e o f inj ur io us ac ids

,
.

3 47 C. o ld T e s t . T h e c o ld t e s t
,
is t h e d e t e rm ina t io n O f t h e

t e mpe ra t ure a t wh ich t h e o il will c o ng ea l and mus t a lway s b e ,

well be lo w t h e c o nd it io ns und e r wh ich t he O il o pe rate s I t is .

56 ENGINEE RIN G AND S HO P PRACTI CE
mad e by having an o unc e o f O il in a fo ur o unc e s ample bo tt le -

w it h a t he rm ometer s us pe nded in t h e O il and ex pos ing t h is t o a

,

free z ing m ixt ure of ice and s alt ; whe n t he o il h as be c o me hard

t h e bo tt le is re m o v ed fro m t he fre e z ing m ix t ure and t h e fro ze n
o il a llo w ed t o so ft e n, be ing s t irred and t ho ro ugh ly m ixed a t t he
s am e t ime by m e ans of t h e t h e rm o m e te r un t il th e mas s w ill run
,

fro m one e nd Of t h e bott le to t h e o t he r T he re ad ing O f t h e t he r

.

m o m ete r wh e n t h is is t h e c as e is regard e d as t h e c o ld tes t

, , Th is .

t es t is mad e fo r t h e purp ose o f d e te rm in ing wh et h e r o r no t t h e

O il will fee d free ly w it h o u t c logg ing t hro ugh t h e lubrica t ors .

34 8
. O il In s pe ction W
. h e n it is n e c ess ary o n acc o un t O f t h e

m o is t ure a s in t he case O f a cylinder O il to c ompo und th e s t raigh t

, ,

m ineral O il wit h a little an imal O il n o ne b ut re fined a cidles s

, ,

t allo w O il s h ou ld b e use d .

T h e pres e nc e of paraffin e always h igh ly O bj e c tio nable

may b e d isco vered by plac ing a bottle of O il o n ice fo r fiftee n
m inutes ; if th e O il be c o mes c lo udy it is an ind icatio n of paraffine
,

and s h ould b e rej e c ted wit h o ut furt h er inves tigatio n .

T h e o pa les c e n t g ree n t ing e o n e ngine O ils is due to t h e ir

adulte ratio n w it h eit h er k e ros e ne or s o me ligh te r hydro carbo n
wh ich is n ot a lubricant and wh ich is eas ily vo lat ilized All .

lubrica t ing o ils S h ou ld b e e n tire ly free fro m grit th e pres e nc e of ,

wh ich may be d is c o ve re d by t he us e O f a m agn ifying gla s s .

3 49. Vola tile Oils Co al O il o th erwis e kn o wn a s k e rose ne

.
, ,

re fined pe t roleum O il and m ine ral s pe rm O il a re amo ng t h e m os t

,

fluid oils and a re exce lle nt for c leaning bearings T h e vapors .

fro m s uch vo latile O ils a s be nz ine naph t ha and t urpe ntine whe n
, ,

m ixed w it h a ir fo rm a dange ro us explos ive Co n s id e rab le care

, .
,

t h e refo re s h o uld b e e x e rc is e d in t h e ir us e wh ich in th e mach ine

, ,

S h o p is g e n e ra lly for c le a ning purp o s es .

 F RICTI ON, LU BRICANTS AND L UB RI CATI ON 57

O I L S P E CI F I CA T I O NS

35 1 Ta b le of Ch emical and Ph ysical Properties of 1 2 Ordi

na ry Lubrica ting Oils .

Kind of O il Use an dAda pta tion G ra vity

T es t T es t T es t at 70
°

Fo r s te a m c ylinde rs 25
0
600 °
645 °
1 75
H igh Press ure Cyl us ing dry stea m at
to 30 0
to to to
inde r O il p ress ures from 1 10 o
61 0
°
660
°
2 05
to 2 1 0 lb s .

Fo r s tea m c ylinde rs
us ing dry s tea m at

75 to 1 00 lbs .

Fo r a ir com pres s o r

Gen e ra l (b linde r O il c y l i n de rs w h n e

m a d fro m s te m
e a

r e fi n e d m in e a l r

s toc k a n dwh n vis e

co s it y is 2 00 .

F o r use w e re th e h
s t e a m is m o is t
W et Cylinde r Oil ,

pecially
.

es in com
Rema rk 1
p o un d a nd t ri le p
ex pa ns ion engines .

Fo r ga s e ngine cy l

inde rs .

G as E n gine Cy lin de r Ne ut ra l m ine ra l o il

26 5 c

po unded with
.

O il com

Rema rk 3 an ins luble s oa p

o

t giv body
o e .

A uto m o b ile G a s En For a uto m o bile gas

e n gines a nd s im ila r
gin e O il
Rem a rk 3 wo rk .

Fo r hea vy d
s li e s a nd

Hea vy Engine an d bea rings , s ha fting

M hine y Oils
ac r .
a nd horizonta l s u r

fa ces .

Gen ra l Eng ne
e r an d to
M hine Oils
ac
30 °
58 ENGI NEERING A ND S HO P PRACT ICE

35 1 . Ta b le of Ch e m ica l Propertie s (con tin u ed) .

Kindof Oil G ra vity

$3,
0
$23} {3

p rin t in g p es s es t
r o

s e w in g m hin
ac es

an dty pe write r O ils

F ne M3
.

a nd I l gh t
i
f With a co ld t es t O f 30 °
400
°
44 0
°

ch i ne O ils
.

a nd a
° °
25 to 2 8
vis co s it y of 1 40
°

h
t is m a kes an ex

ce llen t s pin dl e O il .

Cut t in g an d Di ss i F O r c ut t i n g to o ls . 27
°
41 0
°
4 75
°
1 75
pa t ing O ils s cre w cut t in g a n d to 30 °
to to to
° °
Rema rk 4 s im ila r wo rk . 23 42 0 4 80
°
210

Re f rige ra t in g O ils F o r ice m a c ine r h y . 0

°
2 00
°
225
°
1 65

Fo r m a rine s e rvice o r
W e t Se rvice a nd Ma
w h e re a grea t dea l
rine O ils 28
°
30
°
4 30
°
47 5
°
2 30
Of m o is t ure m us t
Rema rk 5
be h an dled .

T hy e a re us ed in
sp e c ia l wo rk a nd

G re as e s fo r h ea v y p res s

u re s m o v in g a t
s lo w ve lo c it ies .

Rem a rk 1 . Ma y co n ta in no t o ve r 2 % t o 6% of re fi ne d a c idle s s ta llo w

O il in t h e high p - res s ure O ils , an d n o t o ve r 6% to 1 2 % in t h e lo w- p ress ure

O ils .

Rem a rk 2 . Th e re as o n fo r us in g an inso lu le b so a p uh sl t f c as O ea e O

a lum in um is t h at it is im p oss i bl e to de co m pos e th e s oa p with high h t a ea

th e so a p , a lt h hi l f
o ugh n o t a lu b rica n t , is a ve c e o r ca rryin g m il so e O .

R m k3 O wi g t
e arla k f b dy t h i
.
il will n o a c o o s O n t in t
o f with th e r e re e

sp king by d p it i g b n th pl t inum p int

ar e os n ca r o n o e a o .

R m k 4 S m t im
e ar n ta in . m uch s 40
o f l d il
e A pu es co s as a % o ar o . re

st in d l d il t h ugh m
ra e ar p n iv i pro ba bly up i t ny m i
O ,
o o re ex e s e, s s e r or o a x

tu f t h i pu p
re or s r o se .

R m k 5 M y co nt in 30 % t 40 % f p u
e ar . t in d l d il
a a o o re s ra e ar o .

F IG . 35 1 .
60 ENGI NEE RI NG AN D S HOP P RACTI CE
d ress ed and a ir floa ted F urt he rmo re graph ite is e ntirely ine rt
-
.

and no t affected by he at co ld s te am ac id or any kn o wn ch e m ical;

, , ,

it large ly increa s e s t h e lubricat ing value s o f any o il or g rea s e

a n d may b e m ix e d in wate r o il o r gre ase o r us e d dry acc o rd ing
, ,

to t h e re qu ire m e n ts o f t he c o nd it io ns .

6
3 3 T
. a lc . Ta lc s o m e t
,
im es c alle d s o ap s t o n e i n t h e fo r m of ,

p o wd e r and m ix e d w it h a h e avy o il gr ea s e or s o ap , is o cca ,

s io na lly us e d o n s urfac es o f w oo d w o rk ing aga ins t e it h e r w oo d

,

o r i ro n .

H E A T D I S S I PA T I N G L U B R I CA N T S

37 x . Twofold Action of H ea t diss ipa ting Lubrican ts T h e .

ac t io n of cutting o r h eat d is s ipa ting lubricants is ge ne rally t wo

-

fo ld ; no t o n ly do t he y re duce t h e fric t io n bet wee n th e ch ip and

t h e too l b ut wh e n us e d in s uffic ie n t quan t it ies t h e y s ucc ess fu lly
,

d iss ipate t h e he at ge nera ted th us increas ing th e o u tput and th e

,

life of t h e cutt ing edge in s o m e ins t anc es as much a s

37 2 . H ea t-
diss ipa t in g M ix tu re s L ard o r s.p e rm o il is t h e

bes t lubricant for cutt ing wro ugh t iro n and s tee l t h o ugh many ,

o f t h e cu tt ing o ils o n t h e mark e t g ive e ffi c ie n t se rv ic e .

S oda wate r a m ixt ure of o n e part s a l s o da (s od iu m carbo nate )

,

w ith t we nt y parts of wate r fo r m s an e xce lle nt lubrican t fo r t h is

,

sa me purpo s e and o n e t ha t w ill no t ru s t

, .

”
So ft s o ap m ix ed wit h e n o ugh wate r to make it flo w free ly is
-

s o m e t im es us e d w h ile wa te r a lo n e g ives th e pe culiarly brigh t

,

s urfac e wh ich is kno wn as a wate r cut “

.

3 73 . D ry Cu ts C a
.s t iro n c o pp e r and br
, as s a re g e n e ra lly
cut dry B abb itt m e t a l is us ua lly cut dry t h o ugh a c o p io us
.
,

s upp ly of k e ros e n e will pro duc e e xc e lle n t res ults .

 CH APT ER IV
CUTT I NG T OO LS

D I S CU S S I O N

4 x l . G overning Conditions . gene ral a ll m etal cutting

In ,
-

too ls a re m od ifica t io ns of th e wedg e bo t h in d es ign and o pe ra

,

t io n
. The y s h o uld always be as s harp as th e c ond it ions will
allo w I n d is cuss ing th e metal work ing to ols us ed in mach ines
.
-

t h e re a re fo ur go ve rn ing c o nd it io ns to b e c o ns id e re d : (1 ) T h e
k ee nnes s of th e too l; (2 ) th e s t re ngt h and d urab ility of th e
cutt ing edge ; (3 ) th e re lative pos itio n of t h e to ol and th e wo rk ,

and (4 ) th e s hape of t h e too l and th e material to be cut .

4 1 2 Th
. e K ee nn e ss of th e T oo l S inc e
. t h e ac t io n o f t h e t o ol

is t hat o f a w edge t h e m o re acu te t h e ang le of k ee nn ess

,
k in
t h e figu res ign o r ing a ll ot h e r c o nd it io n s th e less th e res is ta nc e
,

o ffe red t o t h e re m o va l of t h e ch ip .

4 13 . Th e Strength an d Dura b ility of th e Cutting Edge T he .

s tre ng t hand durab ility of th e cutting edg e is as impo rt an t a

fac to r as tha t of kee nnes s Upon it depe nds t h e am ount of

.

s to ck t ha t can b e re m o v e d a t a cut t h e feed and th e in te rval

,

be twee n grind ings T o o bt a in gre ate r durab ilit y and s t re ngt h

.
,

we g iv e add itio na l s uppo rt to t h e cu tt ing edge by dec re as ing

bo t h th e c lea ranc e c and th e top rak e tr; t h es e angles de pe nd ing
, , ,

upo n th e mate ria l to be cut and th e pos ition of th e tool .

4 1 4 . Th e Rela tive Pos ition of th e Tool an d W ork . I t is

e v id e nt t ha t wh e n t h e cutting e dge is tangen t to t h e work t he ,

le as t poss ible res is t anc e is off e red in re m o ving t h e ch ip and t ha t

t h is is its id ea l pos it io n (F ig 4 1 4a ). O w ing t o t h e fact t hat t h e
.

po int of tange ncy changes wit h e ve ry ch ip it is ne c es sa ry to se t ,

t he tool s o m e what lo we r t han t h is p os it io n Co ns ide ring t h e .

to o l alo ne w it h o u t any refere nc e to its re lat io n t o t h e wo rk we

, ,

will draw A B parallel to th e bas e of t h e tool and D pe rpend icular

to A B bo t h t hro ugh t h e cu tt ing e dg e 0 o f t h e to o l (F ig 4 1 4b )
,
.

Th e a ngle tr is ca lled to p rak e ; t he angle 0 c learanc e ; wh ile k ee n

61
62 ENG INEE RI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE
ness refe rs to t h e angle k By an ins pe c tio n of F ig 4 l 4c it w ill
. .

b e fo und t hat t h e angles o f c learanc e and t o p rak e change w it h

e v e ry p o s it io n of t h e too l .

F IG 4 I 4 b
. F lG 4 l 4 c
.

F IG . 4 l 4a , b , c .

45 Th e Sh a pe of th e Tool an d th e Ma teri a l to b e Cut

1 . T he .

mate ria l to b e cut d eterm ines t he s hape of th e to ol and its e ffec tive
angles of c learanc e k ee nn ess and to p rak e T he c ond itio ns
, .

g o ve rn ing th es e ang les in t urn d e pe nd upo n (a ) th e k ind o f

, ,

me tal to b e c ut ; (b ) t he hardn es s of t he met al ; (0 ) the charac t er

o f t h e cut ro ugh ing o r fin is h ing and (d) t h e manne r of pre
,

s e nt ing t h e too l t o t h e w o rk A s a g e ne ral s t ate me n t t h e angle

.
,

of k ee nn es s is m o re acu t e fo r t h e s o ft m e t a ls s uch a s wro ugh t ,

iro n and m ild s tee l e xc e p t wh e re t h e m e ta ls have a te nd e ncy

t o draw in th e too l t han fo r t h e hard e r o nes s uch a s ch illed

cas t iro n and tool s te e l Co ppe r and its vario us allo ys s uch a s
.

brass bronz e etc have a te nd e ncy to draw in th e to o l and for

, ,
.
, ,

wo rk ing thes e a lloys th e angles o f th e to ol a re made v e ry blunt ;

in fac t nega t ive rake is o fte n g iv en
, .

I n t h e dee p c o ars e -fed ro ugh ing cu ts t h e cutt ing edge is a t c , ,

F
( g i . 4 1 4b ) and t h e
, k e e nn ess is o b t a in ed fro m t h e s ide rake ,

s r; wh ile in t h e ligh t fine r fed fin is h ing cu ts charac te r is t ic in

, , ,

s ma ll w o rk t h e cu t ting edge is a t o and k ee nn e s s is o bt a in ed

, ,

fro m th e top rake Th is s t ate men t a ls o h a s refe re nc e to th e

.

manne r of pres en ting th e tool to t h e wo rk .

F E EDS A ND SPE E DS

4 2 1 Th e Surfa ces of Meta ls a nd th e Ch a ra cter of th e Chip .

Th e urface of m os t met a ls and es pec ially t hat of cas tings is

s , ,

us ua lly much hard e r than th e inte rio r I n wrough t m eta ls s uch .

,

a s mach in e ry s tee l e t c t h is hardn e s s o f tt im es n eg lig ib le is due

, .
, , ,

t o t h e d ire c t ac t io n of t h e ro lls o n th e s u rfac e ; in cas t ings t h is

hardnes s is due to th e ch illing ac tion of t he s u rfac e of th e m old .

F o r t h is re as o n th e fi rs t ro ugh ing out s h o u ld go e n t ire ly be lo w

 C UT TI NG TOO LS 63

or be neat h t h is hard s urfac e film ; o t h e rw is e th e to o l h eats and is

ra pid ly du lled .

Th e pro pe r adjus t m e nt o f t h e to o l is had wh en it pro duc es a

c le an s mo o th ra t h e r t igh tly curled ch ip a s c o n t ras te d wit h o n e
, , ,

t hat is ro ugh and crum b ling A cc o rd ing to c ond it io n 3 t h is

.

brings th e cu tt ing edge of a prope rly gro und too l s ligh tly abo ve
t h e line of c e n te rs .

4 2 2 G
. ene ra l R ul es R e la tive t o F e ed s a n d Spee d s P rac t i c e .

h a s s h o wn t hat m et a l can b e re m o ved m o re rap id ly by t ak ing

h e avy cuts a t re la t ive ly lo w s pee ds ; t h e gre ate r t h e reduc t io n in
d iam ete r th e fine r t h e fee d I n ge n e ra l th is rule applies to
.
,

ro ugh ing cuts ; to produce s m ooth fin is hed s urfac es h owe ve r a

, , ,

ligh t out a t a fas t s p ee d and fi n e fee d is us e d T h e fee d and .

s p ee d u s ed in any cas e a re go ve rn e d by t h e fo llo w ing lim it a t io ns :

(1 ) T h e s t re ngt h of th e t ool w t h re fe re nc e t bre akage

i o — to
avo id bre akage s ee t hat t h e to o l is pro pe rly adj us te d and ne ve r
s t art t h e mach in e backward ( )
2 T. h e w e ar ing o f t h e cu t t in g
e dg e. T o av o id e xc es s ive we ar s harpe n and s et t h e too l s o a s
t o c le ave t h e ch ip o ff ra t h e r t han t o pu lve r ize it ( )
3 T h e h e a
. t in g
and c on se q uen t loss of te m pe r of t h e cutt ing edge T o o bv iate .

t h is d ifficu lt y th e t o o l s h o u ld b e k e p t s harp ; t h e t ry ing t o pus h

o ff t h e s t o ck w it h a du ll edge c o n s um es m o re t im e and too l t han

t h e grind ing n e c e ss a ry t o k ee p it s harp (4 ) A we ak m ach in e

.

drive Se e t hat t h e driv ing belt is t ight not loos e e n o ugh to

.

s lip and on th e pro pe r pulle y L ack o f s tab ilit y in th e

.

wo rk A we ak p ie c e of wo rk s o we ak a s to s pring mus t b e
.
, ,

e it h e r hum o re d or s upp o rte d .

T h e d ifficu lty of re c o mm e nd ing a d e fin ite fee d and S p eed pe r

m inu te in any cas e w ill b e s ee n upo n refe rring to t h e d is cuss io n
in t h e ab s t rac ts o f t h e pape rs o n t h is s ubj e c t wh ich appear in
Se c t io ns 42 4 42 5 42 6 and 42 7
, ,
.

P reca ution s The cu tt ing edge of t h e to o l s h o uld b e as n ear

.

to t h e t o ol po s t as is p os s ib le wit h o ut in te rfe re nc e be t w ee n t h e
dog and t h e carriage .

I n o rd e r t o reduc e t h e fric t io n o n th e d e ad c e n te r a lways ,

fee d to ward th e liv e c e n te r .

Ne ve r re v e rs e t h e fe e d or t hro w in t h e back ge ars wh ile t h e

mach ine is runn ing .

42 3 . Rem a rks Conce rning th e Auth or ’

s Inves tiga tions . I n t he
mo re re c e nt expe rime nts , es pe c ially in t h os e pe rt a in ing to h igh
64 ENG IN EE RIN G AND S HO P PRAC TICE
s pee d too l s tee ls a gre at numbe r of valuable da ta have bee n
,

”
c o mp iled and prac tic e long c ons id ered exc elle n t be co mes o bs o lete
in t h e ligh t of t h es e inves t iga tio ns T h e fo llo w ing ma tte r .

abs trac ted from an artic le on F eeds and Spee ds publis hed “
,

by t h e aut ho r in th e A m erica n M achinist De c 2 5 1 9 0 2 t hough , .

, ,

in m in o r res pects s upe rs ed ed by m ore re c en t dat a is g ive n , ,

h owe ve r a s be ing t h e bes t available fo r a gene ral pres e nta tio n of

,

t h e s ubj e c t to t h e s tud e n t Th e artic le writte n be fo re th e g e n e ra l

.
,

use o f h igh s peed to o l s tee ls

-
d eals necess arily w it h ord inary
t oo l s t ee ls i e t h o s e vary ing fro m 70 to 9 0 —
,

, . . po in t carbo n and
t e m pe red in th e o rd inary manne r

”
.

F or da t a relat ive to t h e s iz e of ch ip s pee d fee d and t h e , ,

horse po we r re qu ire d to re mo ve it th e s t ud e nt is re fe rred to

-
,

Chapte r 2 0 Moto r D rives etc Se c tio n 2 0 54

,
“
, .
, .

42 4 . Auth or s ’
Research . Ordina ry Low-speed Too l Stee ls .

F ro m t h e pages uch
chn ical and trad e pe riod icals as t he
of s te
A m erica n M ac hin is t M achin ery et c , and from t hos e of th e
,
.
,

e xc e lle n t c at a logs wh ich it is t h e hab it of our mach in e bu ild e rs

t o pro duc e dat a relat ive ge ne ra lly to th e max imum fee d s and
, , ,

s pe ed s we re se pa ra te d and t abu la te d Th is wa s do ne with s pe c ial .

re fe re nc e t o t h e d ete rm in ing of t h e bes t fee d and s peed to b e

us ed in the re m o val of a max imu m amo un t of s to ck s c re w ,

mach ine prac t ice be ing used as one of th e gu id e po s ts in o ur

j o urne y of d is c o ve ry .

To d is c o v e r and as c e rt a in th e n a ture o f any e x is t ing la w was

t h e n e x t s te p Th e dat a rela t ive to e ach mach in ing pro c ess fo r
.

a g iven mate rial we re t ran s fe rred to s quared pape r whe re th e ,

curve was p lo tted ; th e o rd inates re pres e n t ing s peed s th e abs c is s as ,

t h e fee d s . B ras s be ing t h e softes t mat e r ia l was fi rs t p lott e d ; its

, ,

values fo r turn ing o pe rat io ns we re plotted for th e four follo wing

re duc t io ns : (1 ) 1 1 , re duc t io n in t h e d iamete r o rd inary prac t ic e ,

a nd s ma ll re duc tio n s be ing h e re inc lud ed ; ( ) i

2 r e duc t io n o f
d ia mete r ; (3 ) reduc tion of d iamete r ; (4 ) reduc tio n in d iam
e te r
. T h e av e rage fee d us e d fo r s ma ll reduc t ion s and rap id
cutt ing was fo und to be abo ut 2 0 per inch ; wh ile t hat for i and
s im ilar la rge reduc t io ns wa s abo ut 1 00 pe r inch T h e fee ds us ed .

fo r i and i reduc t io ns w e re fo und to b e gro uped n e ar wha t wo u ld

b e t h e s e c o nd and t h ird te rm s of a geo m et rica l p ro gres s io n be t wee n
t h ese t wo va lues .

I n p lo tt ing o ur fina l d iagram t h e fee d s c o rres po nd ing to ,

 C UT TI NG T OO S L 65

re duc t io ns 1 5 i iofand i1 w e re, mad e 2 0

, and 1 00 ,

res pe c tive ly ; i a t hey we re arranged in geo met rical prog ress ion
. . .

To t h es e s pe c ia l o rd ina tes w e re t ran s fe rred t h e dat a fo r s uch

m illing dr illing and p lan ing o pe rat io ns as were mad e wit h what
,

m ight b e te rmed c o rres po nd ingly he avy cuts ; th e wo rd reduc tio n ,

in re fe re nc e to any o t he r o pe ra t io n s ave t hat of t urn ing be ing ,

o f c o u rse a m is n o m e r A fte r p lo tt ing t h e curv es fo r brass t h e

.
,

tas k o f p lot t ing t h e cur ves fo r cas t iro n wro ugh t iro n mach ine ry , ,

s tee l and too l s tee l pro ved c o mpara t ive ly e as y .

A care fu l e xam ina t io n of t hes e se ve ra l p lo ttings see ms to

re v ea l t h e impo rtan t fac t t ha t no t o n ly did t h e lin es fo r t h e
,

se ve ra l o pe ra tio ns o n t h e s am e ma te r ia l rad ia t e fro m an appar

e n tly c o mm o n o r ig in b ut t hat t h e lin es fo r t h es e o pe ra t io ns for

,

a ll t h e ma te rials did lik e w is e ; t hat is t h e y jus t ifi ed o n e in ,

as s um ing t hat t hey had a c o mmo n o rigin Th is b e ing th e cas e .

,

a s ing le p lot ting was mad e th e lines being t rans fe rre d fro m th e ,

fo ur s hee ts and t h e va lues p lotted fro m a c o mm o n o rig in Th e

, .

e qua t io ns fo r t h es e cu rv es fo rm ed a s te p d e e m e d n e c e ss a ry fo r

t h e c o mp ila tio n of an accura te t ab le o f maximum fee d s and s peeds

for t h es e mate ria ls Thes e equat ions we re c o rre c ted and s implifi ed
.

w it h o ut mate rially a lte ring t he ir va lues .

Co a n -
s c rE D EQ U AT IO N S

g aa
“ l “
am ; Ca st I ron T ool sud
,

T a m ing . .
S = —aF + l w 8 —i F + 53 S a — z F + 33
g
s

D rilling s F + 64 S = F + 39 S= F + 32 S = F +20

A careful e xam inat io n of t hese c o rrec ted equat io ns w it h due ,

co ns id e ra t io n as to t h e manne r in wh ich t h e y we re o bta ined w ill ,

jus t ify us in s tating t hat an o th e r impo rt ant fac t is re vea led ,

n am e ly t ha t t h e var io us o p e ra t io ns p o s s e s s va lu es and re la t io n s
,

irres pe c tive of t h e ma te ria ls o n wh ich t h e y we re pe rfo rm ed To .

b e m o re s pe c ific ass ign ing a va lue of un it y t o turn ing o pe ra t ion s

, ,

we may s a y t ha t th e value for m illing o pe ra t io ns is 2 drilling g , ,

and plan ing H e re a re da ta t ha t c o rro bo rate wha t we a lready

kno w namely t hat th e lat he is m o re e ffi c ie nt t han any o f our
, ,
66 ENGINEERIN G AND S HO P PRACTI CE
ot her mach ine tools ; h ow much is of c o urs e des irable info rma ,

t io n .We m igh t s a y too t hat it be h oo ves th e int ellige nt d es igne r

, ,

or fo re man to p lan t h e great e r part of h is wo rk for t h e lat h e ,

leav ing a m in o r part to b e acc o mp lis h ed by t h e p lane r .

O ne m o re important fact wh ich may b e de duc e d fro m th e ,

e qu at io ns is th e re la tio n wh ich we find to ex is t be t wee n what

,

we m igh t call th e wo rk ing te x ture of th e a ve rag e mate ria ls use d

in our s h op s H e wh o h a s t o do w it h t h e pro ble m s of c os t
.

re duc tio n will welc ome t h is and k indred dat a in re fere nce to h is
s to ck ma te ria ls I t was d is c o ve red t hat wh e n t h e value o f 1 6
.

was ass ign ed to brass cas t iro n h a d a value o f 1 0 wro ugh t iron
, ,

and mach ine ry s teel 8 and to ol s teel a value of 5 .

Turn ing o ur a tte n tion no w to th e d ia gra m s of wh ich we have ,

t h ree one c o n t a in ing t h e dat a fo r brass and t oo l s tee l (F ig 4 2 4a )

,
.

one fo r ca s t iro n (F ig 42 4 b) and o ne fo r wro ught iro n and

”
.

mach ine ry s teel (F ig 42 4c) we find t he m to be to a large ex

.
, ,

”
te n t s elf e xplana to ry ; h o w e ve r a few wo rd s of e xplanatio n may
,
-
,

pro ve of s o me as s istanc e Th e lines marked Turn ing Mill “

”
,
.

in g ,
D rillin g and Plan ing res pe c tively give th e bes t s pee d
“

and feed values fo r a predete rm ined reduc t io n By th e te rm .

“
bes t s peed and feed values th e aut h or wis hes to c o nv e y t h e
id e a t hat t h is is t he s pee d and fee d t ha t will re m o ve a max imum
amo unt of mate rial wh e n due c o ns id e ratio n is give n to e c o no my
and t he time required for changin g and grinding th e to ols .

Th es e values it mus t b e re me mbe red a re for mate rials of ave r

, ,

a ge tex t ure and c ompos it io n s pe c ial mate rials requ iring of

”
, ,

c ou rs e s pe c ial fee ds and s peeds Ass um ing t hat we have a p ie c e

, .

"
of cas t iro n 2 in d iam et e r wh ich we w is h to t urn d o wn to
1 2 in d iam e te r t hat is a 5 re duc t io n ; hav ing d et e rm ine d up o n
, ,

t h e re duc t io n 5 we follo w t h e lin e mark ed

, , t urn ing in t h e cha rt
for cas t iro n t o its int e rse c t io n w it h our t reduc tio n lin es ; dro pp ing
v e rtically on th is line we re ad our feed , P a ss ing h o riz o n
,

t ally fro m t h e in te rs e c t io n t o t h e righ t we re ad t h e s pee d 5 2 , .

H aving n o w d ete rm ine d th e s pee d in fee t pe r m inute it is o nly ,

ne c ess ary to de te rm ine t h e numb e r of re vo lut io ns t h at w ill g ive

to th e p ie c e t h is s pee d Co n s ult ing t h e
. Table of Rev olut io ns “

for G ive n D iam et e rs and Cu tt ing S pee ds (S e c t io n F

( g i

”
.

we find t hat our p ie c e mu s t mak e abo u t 9 5 re v o lut io ns

p e r m inu t e Th .e t ab le o f Cu tt ing S pee ds fo r Co mmo n Reduc
“

tio ns F
( gi 42 4 d
.
) g iv es t h e fo rmulas and t abulate d s pe eds as
70 ENGI N EE RI N G AN D S H O P PRA CTI CE

T AB L E or C U TT I N G S P E E D S FO R C O MM O N R E DU CT IO N S . Lo w-S P E E D S T E E LS
S peeds in F eet P er M in ute

O pera tio n Fo rm ula F 20 F F F 1 00

{ a re duct io n a nd b redue re due 5 redue

a vera ge p ra c tice t io n t io n t io n

on lig t h c uts

B ra s s

—g F + 1 06
S= F + 80
F + 64
. . S= F + 53

Cas t I ron

s = 50
} F + 39
33

W rought I ro n a nd M ac hi nery S tee l

. S= F + 53
S = F + 40
. . S= F + 32
F+ 27

T oo l S te cl

S —2 ; F + 33
b = F + 25
S = F + 20
S —,i, F+ 17

FI G . 42 4 d .

42 5 . Ab s tra ct of Profe ss or Nich ols on ’

s In ves tiga tions . Dr .

J T Nich o ls o n in a valuable pape r re ad be fo re th e Ame rican

. .
,

So c ie t y Me chan ica l E ng ine e rs Jun e 1 9 0 4 re c o rd ing e xhau s t iv e

, , ,

e xpe rim e n ts w it h a la t h e t oo l dynam o m e t e r arrives a t t h e f o llo w ,

ing c o nc lus io n s : I n o u t lin ing t h e s e r ie s of tes ts h e s ays : F or ,

“
 CUT TI NG L 71

”””
T OO S

”
”””
bot h cas t iro n and s teel it was th e in te nt io n to mak e trials w it h
e ach o f fo ur difi e re n t t rav e rs es (f ee d s ) , i i and , i w it h
fo ur de pt hs of cut for e ach t rave rs e i i i and i , , ,
Th is .

s ch e m e was carrie d o ut in t h e c as e of cas t iro n s o far a s was

pos s ible w it h t h e means ava ilab le for e ach of t h e fo ur cutt ing

,

angles of 45 60 75 and , ,

S pe ak ing in re fe re nc e to h is Tab le 2 re c ord ing th e s t resses

o bt a ine d in acc o rdanc e w it h t h e abo ve s ch e du le o n cas t iro n
, ,

w ith a s peed of 2 5 fee t per m inute h e s ays ,

( )
1 Th is p la t e ind ica t es a s o m e wha t lo w e r s t res s (t o ns p e r

s quare inch ) fo r w id e t han for fi n e t rav e rs es ( f ee d s ) a lt h o ugh

,

t h is c o nc lus io n d oes n ot appe ar t o h o ld in its e nt iret y es pe c ia lly ,

fo r t h e k ee n es t cutt ing ang le use d ,

( )
2 F o r a g iv e n t rav e r s e t h e cu t t ing f o rc e is s imp ly p r o

p o rt io nal to th e d e pt h of t he cut [fo r a c o n trary find ing see Sec

tio ns 4 2 6 and 42 7] or t ha t t h e cut t ing s t ress is c o ns t ant for a
g ive n w id t h of t rave rs e and a g ive n tool angle .

3
( ) Th e var i a t io n o f t h e cu t t ing s t res s w i t h t h e cu t t ing
angle is ve ry mark ed I t varies by n early 1 00 % of its s malles t
.

value wh ich t ak es plac e in e ve ry cas e for a cutting ang le of abo ut

,

H o we ve r t h is angle o f m in imum cut t ing fo rc e is by no

,

me ans t hat of gre ates t durab ilit y A cutt ing angle o f 80 is.
°

t hat ind ica ted a s be ing bes t fo r s h o p us e and t h e cut t ing s t res s

”
,

for t h is ang le is ab o u t 75 to ns pe r s quare inch .

N ote I n a dura t io n t es t of t h e d iff e re nt c utt ing angles o n

”
.

cas t iro n w it h a cutt ing s pee d of 44 fee t pe r m inute a cut 1 35

, ,

in de pt h and a t rav e rs e o f P ro fes so r Nich o ls o n fo und t ha t h is

e xpe rim e n t s ve rifi edt h e Manch es te r Re po rt wh ich rec o mme nd s
,

a t rue cutt ing angle of H e sa ys (4 ) To o ls s h o uld t h e refo re

“

b e gro und for a max imum e nduranc e in t h e cutt ing of cas t iro n
in o rd inary s h o p prac t ic es s o t ha t t h e ir t ru e cutt ing ang les a re
,

abo ut o r if t h e y a re allo w ed 6 c le aranc e for w o rk ing o n t h e

°

le v el of la t h e c e n te rs t h e y s h o uld have an inc lud ed ang le (angle

,

of k ee nn es s ) of

( )
5 T h e var ia t io n o f t h e cu t t ing s t res s w it h t h e t ravers e
s pee d 50 fee t pe r m inu te in t h e c as e o f s o ft s t ee l is s o me wha t
c o mp licated F or k ee n cu tt ing angles (be lo w
. fi n e t rav e rses
re qu ire les s cutt ing fo rce t hat) wide on es ; wh ile for blun t no s ed -

t oo ls (i e cu tt ing ang les gre a te r t han

. . t h e re v erse is t h e
case and t h e fi ne t ravers e cut re quires t h e greate r e ff o rt to
,
 ENGINEERI NG HO P PRACTI CE

””
72 AN D S

re move A t a cutt ing ang le of 7 5 t h e s t res s is th e s ame wh et her

.
°

th e t ravers e b e 1 3 o r t and h a s t h e va lue of abo u t 1 00 to ns

1

p e r s quar e inch I t . is curio us t o re mark t ha t t h is ang le of 7 5

°

is als o abo u t t h e be s t ang le for s h o p us e as s h o wn by th e du

ra b ilit y t ria ls .

(6 ) W it h m e d ium fl u i d pr e ss e d s t ee l t w o s e r ies o f e nduranc e

”
t es ts we re mad e o ne a t 7 4 fee t pe r m inute and o ne a t 7 3 fee t
,

p e r m inu te cu t t ing s p e e d ; t h e c u t in b o t h ca s e s b e ing d ee p

and 3 w ide Tak e n altoge t h e r t h es e t es ts s ee m to s h o w t hat a
.

cutt ing angle of abo ut 70 (angle of kee nnes s °

is t hat wh ich
w ill las t t h e lo nges t in rap id cutt ing ; th e plan angle of t h e cutt ing
edge wa s 45 t hro ugh o u t
°
.

4 2 6 .A b s tra c t o f P re s i de n t T a yl o r s I n v
’
e s tig a tio n s (H igh .

s pee d St ee ls ) . T h e d is c o ve ries o f P res F W Taylo r and h is . . .

ass o c iates a re of s uch a charac te r and magn it ude a s to re nd e r

imp oss ible any b ut an inad e quate ré s um é These inves tigat io ns
.

we re pres ente d be fo re th e A me rican So c ie ty o f Me chan ical E ng i

n ee rs in De c e mb e r 1 9 0 6 and fo rm a part of v olum e 2 8 of t h e
, ,

P ro c eed ings of t hat Soc iet y .

T h e pape r de als w it h t h e pro b le m und e r t h e follo w ing h ead s :

(1 ) A ction f o d ts W
th e Tool
I ea r i n C
anutting M eta ls .

( )
2 H o w M ode rn H igh s peed T ools Wea r
- .

3
( ) H ow to M a ke a nd Record E x perim ents .

( )
4 L ip a nd Clea ra nce A ngles of Tools Th e impo rt ant .

c o nc lus io n s und e r t h is h ead ing a re

()
a F o r s t andard s h o p t o o ls t o b e gro und by a t ra in e d

grind e r o r o n an auto mat ic grind ing mach in e a c le aranc e angle ,

s h o u ld b e us e d fo r a ll c las s es o f ro ugh ing w o rk

°
of 6 .

b
() I n s h o p s in wh i ch e ach mach in is t gr ind s h is o w n t oo ls a
c learanc e angle o f fro m 9 to 1 2 s h o uld be us ed
° °
.

F o r s t andard t o o ls t o b e us e d in a mach in e s h O p fo r cu t t ing

m eta ls of ave rage quality : Too ls fo r cutt ing cas t iro n a n d th e
harde r s teels beginn ing w it h a lo w lim it of hardn es s of abo u t ,

carbon sa y w it h , po und s te n s ile s t re ngt h a nd

1 8 % s t re t ch s h o u ld b e gro und w it h a c le aranc e ang le o f
,

back s lo pe 8 and s ide s lo pe

°
g iv ing a lip angle of
F o r cutt ing s tee ls s o fte r s a y t han carbo n , ,
having
abo ut p o unds te ns ile s t re ngt h and 1 8 % s tret ch to ols ,

s h o u ld b e gro und w it h a c le aranc e ang le o f back s lope of

s id e S lo pe o f v ng a ang °
g i i lip le o f 6 1
 CUTT I NG T OO S L 73

F or h o ps in wh ich ch illed iro n is cut a lip angle of fro m

s

86 t o 9 0 s h o uld b e use d
° °
.

I n s h o ps wh e re w o rk is ma in ly upo n s tee l as hard o r hard e r

t han t ire s tee l to o ls s h o uld b e gro und w it h a c le aranc e ang le o f
,

back s lo pe s id e s lo p e g iving a lip ang le of 74 °

I n s h o ps w o rk ing ma in ly upo n e x t re m e ly s oft s tee ls sa y ,

carbo n to it is pro bab ly e c o no m ica l to us e t o o ls

wit h lip ang les k ee ne r t han
T h e m os t impo rt an t c o n s ide ra tio n in ch oo s ing t h e lip ang le
is to mak e it s uffic ie n t ly b lun t t o av o id t h e dang er of c rumb ling
o r s p e lling a t t h e cu tt ing e dg e .

Too ls gro und w it h a lip angle of abo u t 5 4 d egrees c ut s o fte r

qualit ies of st eel and als o cas t iro n w it h t h e le as t pres s ure of
, ,

t h e ch ip up o n t h e too l Th e pres s ure up o n t h e t o o l h o w e ve r

.
, ,

is n o t t h e m o s t impo rtant c o ns id e ra t io n in s e le c t in g t h e lip ang le .

I n ch oos ing bet w ee n s id e s lo pe and back s lo pe in o rd e r t o

grind a s uffi c ie n tly acute lip angle th e follo w ing c o ns ide ra tio ns
, ,

give n in th e o rde r of t h e ir impo rtanc e call fo r a s tee p s ide s lo pe

,

and a re o ppose d to a s tee p back s lo pe

( )
a W it h s id e s lo p e t h e t oo l can b e gr o und many m o re t im es

w it h ou t weak e n ing it .

b
( ) Th e ch ip ru n s o ff s id e way s and d oes n o t s t ri k e th e t oo l
pos ts o r c lamps .

( )
c T h e pr es s ur e o f t h e ch ip t ends to d e fl e c t th e tool to one
s id e and a s t ee p s id e s lo pe t e nd s t o c o rre c t t h is by bring ing t h e

res u lt an t lin e of pre ss ure w it h in t h e bas e of t h e t o o l .

E as ie r t o feed .

T h e fo llo w ing c o n s ide ra t io n ca lls fo r a t le as t a c e rt a in am o unt

of back s lo p e . An abse nc e o f back s lo pe t e nds t o pus h t h e too l
and t h e wo rk apart and t he refo re to ca us e a s ligh tly irregular
,

fin is h and a s ligh t variat io n in t h e s ize of th e w o rk .

( )
5 F o r in
g g a nd G r i n d i n g T oo ls T h e .imp o r t an t c o nc lus io n s

un de r t h is he ad in g a re :
Th e s hapes in to wh ich t o o ls a re dress ed and t h e o rd inary
me tho ds of dres s ing t h e m a re h igh ly un e c o n o m ica l ma in ly ,

be caus e th ey can b e gro und o n ly a fe w t imes be fo re re qu iring

redress ing .

T h e t o ol s tee l fro m wh ich t h e t o o l is t o b e fo rged s h o uld b e

o n e and o n e ha lf t im es as d ee p as it is w id e .

To av o id t h e te nde ncy o f t h e to o l t o up se t in t h e to o l p o s t
74 ENG I NEERING AND S HO P PRACTICE
u nde r press ure of th e cut th e cutt ing edge and t h e n ose of th e
,

too l s h o uld b e se t we ll o ve r t o on e s ide of t h e tool .

Tool build ers s h o uld des ign la t h es bo ring m ills et c w it h , , .

,

t h e ir tool p os ts s e t d o wn lo we r t han is cus to mary belo w t h e

c e nte r of th e w o rk .

I n ch oos ing t h e S hape for d res s ing a to o l t hat s hape s ho u ld ,

b e g ive n t h e prefe re nce in wh ich t h e larges t am o un t of w o rk can

b e d o ne fo r th e s malles t c o mb ined c os t o f fo rg ing and grind ing .

F o rging is much m o re e xpe ns ive t han grind ing t h e re fore th e ,

too l s h o u ld b e d es ign ed so t hat it can b e gro und ,

( )
a t h e gr e a t es t numb e r o f t im e s w it h a s ing le d res s ing ; and

(b ) w it h t h e s ma lles t c os t e ach t im e it is gro und .

T h e bes t me t h o d of d ress ing a too l is to t urn its end up h igh

abo ve th e bo dy of t he too l Tools can b e e ntirely dres s ed by
.

t h is m ean s in t wo h eat s .

T h e impo rtanc e of carefully h e a t ing t h e t o o l fo r d ress ing .

F ire or h e a t cracks in to o ls a re due t o t h e follo wing ca us es

( ) Se ams or in te rnal crac ks in bar of too l s tee l
a .

b
( ) N ick ing o r br e ak ing t h e bar o f t oo l s t ee l wh ile it is c o ld .

(c ) F a i ling t o t urn t h e t oo l o v e r and o v e r wh ile h e a t ing it

for fo rg ing .

d
( ) T oo rap id h e a t ing par t,icu l ar ly a t t h e s t ar t ,
in a h o t fi re .

I t is of gre a t impo rtanc e t o pro p e rly adjus t t h e am o un t o f

wo rk to b e d o ne in t h e s m it h s ho p and on t h e grind ing mach ine ,

in mak ing t h e too l .

( )
a T o o much w o rk is g e n e r a lly d o n e in dr es s ing t oo ls t o

e xac t s hap e in t h e s m it h s h o p part icu larly wh e n aut omat ic

,

grind ing mach ines a re us ed .

(b ) A lim it gage s h o u ld be use d by t h e s m it h to pro pe rly

regula te th e pro po rt io n of s m ith wo rk and grind ing wo rk in
mak ing th e too ] .

Mo re too ls a re ru in ed in e v ery mach in e s h op through overh ea ting

in grinding t han fro m any o t h e r caus e .

Th e m o s t imp o rt ant c o ns id e ra t io n is h o w t o grind t oo ls rap id ly

w ith out o ve rh e at ing th e m .

To avo id o v e rh e at ing a s t re am o f wa te r am o un t ing t o fi ve

,

ga llo ns pe r m inute s h o uld b e t hro wn pre fe rably a t a s lo w ve lo c it y

, ,

d ire c t ly o n th e no se of th e to ol wh e re it is in c on tac t w it h t h e
e me ry wh ee l .

T o av o id o ve rh e a t ing wh e re t o o ls a re gro un d by hand or w it h

76 G EERING
EN IN AND S HO P PRAC TI CE
"
De pt h of Cut g x F d
T otal Pre ss ure pe r Sq I n Se c

”
e e . .

t iona l Are a of Ch ip ,

po unds ;
De p t h of Cut H x F e ed T ot al P ress ure per Sq I n Sec . .

tiona l Area of Ch ip ,

po unds .

T he sa m e fac t ma t h e matically e xpres se d is t hat in cu tting th e

s am e p ie c e of cas t iro n t h e press ure of th e ch ip o n t h e t oo l per

s q uare inch se c t io nal are a of ch ip gro w s gre a te r as t h e t h ic kness

o f t h e ch ip gro ws less in pro p o rt io n t o (t h ickn ess of t h e fee d )

or F i .

following fo rmula e xpress es t h e ge n e ral re lat io n e x is ting

Th e
be twee n th e de pt h o f cut and th e fee d and t he pres s ure o n the
,

tool f or a ll t h e grad es of ca s t iro n e x pe rime nte d upo n :

P If
CD F !
in wh ich
P pres s ure o n t h e t oo l ;
The
D De pt h o f Cut in I nch es ;
F F ee d in I nch es .

C A c o ns tan t d e p e nd ing upo n th e s oft n ess o r t h e hardness

o f t h e ca s t iro n and wh ich varies bet wee n t h e limits of
,

for s o f t and fo r hard c a s t iro n .

Th e pres s ure of ch ip per s quare inch of s e c t io n a lso gro ws

gre ate r as t h e de pt h of t h e c ut gro ws less in propo rtion t o (dep t h
f' o r D “
c ut ) .

Th e ff e c t upo n t he press ure of t h e ch ip o n th e to o l of a change

e

in t h e t h ickne s s of t h e fee d and t h e d e p t h of th e cut is t h e s ame

fo r hard and s o ft cas t iro n a n d is re pres e n te d by t h e s am e ge n
,

e ra l fo rmu la w it h a chang e m e re ly o f t h e c o ns t an t .

I n t ak ing cuts having t h e s am e de p t h and t h e s am e fee d t h e ,

press ure of th e ch ip on th e t ool be c o mes s ligh tly gre ate r t he

large r t h e cutt ing to ol t ha t is u se d Th is incre as e in t h e pres s ure
.

fo llo ws fro m th e fact t hat t h e large r th e curve of t h e cutting e dge

o f t h e t oo l t h e t h inn e r t h e s having be c o mes
,
.

T h e m os t imp o rt an t c o nc lus io ns arrive d a t regard ing th e

pres s ure o f th e ch ip o n t h e to ol in cutting s teel a re
T h e t o t a l pres s ure o f t h e ch ip o n t h e t o o l in cutt ing s teel of
t h e d iffe re nt qua lit ies e x pe rim e n te d upo n by us varie s be t ween

t h e lo w lim it o f 9 2 to ns (2 000 po und s ) pe r s quare inch o f s e c t io na l

 CUT TIN G TOO L S

area of ch ip and t h e h igh lim it of 1 68 to ns (2 000 p o un ds )

th e ,

p e r s qu a re in c h s e c t io na l a re a o f t h e ch ip .

I n cutt ing t h e sa me p ie c e of s tee l t h e pres s ure of th e ch ip o n ,

t h e too l pe r s qua re inch o f se c t io nal area of t h e ch ip gro ws ve ry

s ligh tly g re at e r as t he ch ip be c o m es t h inn e r and is prac t ica lly ,

t h e sa m e wh et he r t h e cut is d ee p or s hallo w T h e fo llo wing .

fo rmula illus t rates the relative press u re of a t h in fee d o n th e

one hand a n d a c o a rse fee d on t h e ot h e r .

De p t h of Cut x F eed T o tal P ress u re pe r Sq . I n Se c

.

t io n a l Are a of Ch ip ,

De pt h of Out 3 "
1 3 x F ee d To tal Pres s ure per Sq . I n Se c
.

t io na l A rea of Ch ip ,

Th e ame fac t mat he ma tically e xpres s ed is that in cutt ing

s

th e sa me p ie c e o f s t ee l t h e press ure of t h e ch ip o n t h e t oo l pe r
,

s quare inch of s e c t io na l area o f t h e ch ip gro ws gre at e r as t h e ,

t h ickn e s s o f t h e ch ip gro ws le s s in pro p o rt io n t o (t h ickn ess o f

t e fee d )
h 9 or F "“
Th e p ress ure o f t h e ch ip is in d ire c t pro
.

po rtio n to th e de pt h of t h e cut .

W it h in t h e lim its of cutting s pee d in c o mmo n us e t he pres ,

s u re o f t h e ch ip up o n th e tool is t h e sa m e wh e t h e r fas t o r s lo w

cutt ing s pee ds a re us ed .

Th e press ure o f th e ch ip upon t h e too l d e pe nd s b ut litt le upo n

t he hardn e ss or soft n es s of t h e s tee l be ing c ut b ut incre a s es a s ,

t he qua lit y o f t h e s tee l gro ws fin e r I n o t he r wo rds h igh grad es

.
,

of s tee l wh et h e r s o ft o r hard g ive g re ate r press ure s o n t h e t oo l

, ,

t han a re g ive n by infe rio r qua lities o f s teel .

T he press ure o f t h e ch ip o n th e t ool pe r s quare in ch of s e c t io nal

a rea of t h e ch ip de pe nd s upo n bo t h t h e te ns ile s t re ngth o f t he
s teel and its pe rc e n t ag e of s t re t ch and increas es bo th a s t h e
,

te n s ile s t re ngt h and s t re t ch inc re a s e ; a lt h o ugh a h igh e r te ns ile

s tre ng t h h a s m o re e ff e c t t han a larg e pe rc e n t ag e of s t re t ch in

”
incre as ing t h e pres s ure .

Las tly by far t he mos t impo rt an t c o nclus io n arrive d a t

,

by us in t he fie ld of P ress ure o f t he Ch ip o n th e Too l is t hat

t he g earing d es ign e d in lat h es bo ring m ills et c for fee d ing t h e
, ,
.
,

too l s h o u ld b e s u ffi c ie n t ly s tro ng t o d eliv e r a t t h e n ose o f t h e

to o l a feeding press ure equa l to the ent ire driving pres s ure of th e
ch ip u on
p th e li p f
s ur ace o f th e tool . Th is fac t wa s d e velo pe d by
us in an e xpe rime n t mad e in t he ye ar 1 8 8 3 in th e wo rk s of t h e
78 ENG INEERING A ND S H O P PRACTICE
Midvale St ee l Co m pany and had s uch an impo rt ant be aring o n
,

t h e c os t o f t urn ing o ut t h e pro duc t in t h e mach in e s h o p o f t h ose

wo rks that t he res u lt s of t h is one s imple inves tigat io n mo re t han
pa id for a ll t h e e xpe rimen ts in t he e n t ire fie ld o f cut ting m etals
und e rt ak en in t he Midvale Stee l Wo rks .

7
( ) C oo li ng th e T ool w ith a H ea vy S trea m of Wa ter Ch ie f .

among t h e c o nc lus io ns de rive d a lo ng t hese lines a re :

Wit h h igh s pee d t oo ls a ga in of 40 % can b e mad e in cutting
-

s tee l o r wro ugh t iro n by t hro w ing ,in t he m os t advan ta geo us

manne r a he avy s t ream of watel upo n t he too l
,
'
.

I n d es ig ning s lid e rules o r t ab les et c , fo r as s ign ing da ily

.
,

t as ks t o mach in is t s a 33 % incre a se in cu tt ing s t ee l o r wro ugh t

,

iro n s ho uld b e allo we d fo r ins te ad o f o w ing t o t h e fac t

”
t hat w o rkme n a re m o re or les s care le ss in d ire c t ing t h e s t re a m
of wa t e r t o t h e pro p e r s p o t upo n t h e t oo l .

A h e avy s t ream of wate r (3 ga llo ns pe r m inu te ) for a 2 x

t o ol and a s ma lle r quan t ity a s t h e t ool gro ws s ma lle r s h o uld b e
, ,

t hro wn d ire c t ly upo n t h e ch ip a t t h e po int wh e re it is be ing

re mo ve d fro m t h e fo rging by t h e too l Wate r thro wn upo n any
.

o t h e r pa rt O f t h e too l o r t h e fo rg ing is much les s e ffi c ie n t .

T h e ga in in cu tt ing s peed t hro ugh t h e us e o f wa te r o n t h e

t oo l is prac tica lly t h e s ame fo r a ll qualit ies o f s teel f ro m t h e
so ft es t t o t h e hard e s t .

T he pe rce n t age of gain in cut t ing s pee d t hro ugh t h e us e of

wate r o n t he tool is prac t ically t he s ame whet h e r t hin o r t h ick
ch ips a re being re m o ved by t h e to o l .

Wit h m od e rn h igh s pee d t o o ls a gain of 1 6% can b e mad e by

-

t hro w ing a h e avy s t re am of wat e r o n t h e ch ip in cu tt ing cas t iro n .

To get t h e p ro pe r e c o n o my fro m t h e us e of wat e r in c o o ling

t h e t oo l t h e mach ine s h o p s h o u ld b e es pe c ia lly d es ign ed and th e
,

mach ine to o ls es pe c ia lly se t w it h a vie w t o t he pro pe r and co n

v en ie n t use of wa t e r .

I n cu tt ing s t ee l t h e be t t e r th e qualit y of too l s t ee l t h e gre a te r

,

t h e pe rc e n t age o f ga in t hro ugh t h e use of a h e avy s t re am o f

wa te r thrown d ire ct ly upo n the ch ip a t t he po in t whe re it is
be ing re mo ve d fro m t h e fo rging by t h e too l The gain for t h e .

diffe re nt t ypes of tools in cutting s tee l is :

(a ) Mod e rn h igh s pee d t o o ls
-

(b) O ld s t yle se lf harde n ing t oo ls

- -

()
0 C arb o n t e mp e re d t o o ls
 CUT TING T OO LS 79

Th is fact s ta ted in d iff e re nt form is t hat : Th e h o tte r th e n ose

of t h e t o o l be c o mes t hro ugh t h e frict io n o f t h e ch ip t h e grea te r
,

is t h e pe rc e n tage of ga in t hro ugh t h e us e of wa te r o n t h e too l .

()
8 C h att er o f T oo l
.s T h e fo llo w ing a re t h e g e n e ra l c o nc lu
s io ns arrive d a t und e r t h is h e ad ing

Ch atte r is t h e m os t o bs cure and d elicate of a ll pro b le ms

fac ing t h e m ach inis t and in th e cas e of cas tings and fo rgings of
,

mis c ellaneo us s hapes probably no rules o r formula can b e d e vised

,

wh ich will accurate ly guide t he mach in is t in ta king th e max imum

cuts a nd s peeds pos s ible w it h out produc ing chatte r .

I t is e c o n o m ical t o use a s te ady res t in t urn ing any p ie ce o f

cylind rical wo rk wh ose le ngt h is mo re t han t welve t imes its
diame te r .

T oo s ma ll lat h e dogs o r c lamps o r an impe rfe c t b e aring a t

-

t h e po in ts a t which t h e c lamps a re drive n by fac e p la tes p ro duc e

vibra t io n .

T o av oid chatte r too ls s h o uld hav e cu tt ing e dges w it h curved

,

o ut lin e s and t h e rad ius of curva t u re o f t h e cu t t ing e dge s h o uld

b e s ma ll in pro po rt io n a s th e wo rk to b e o pe ra te d o n is s mall .

Th e re as o n for t h is is t ha t t h e te nd e ncy o f chatt e r is much gre a te r

whe n t he ch ip is un ifo rm in t h icknes s t hro ugh ou t and t hat tools
,

w it h curve d cutting edges produc e ch ips wh ich vary in t h ickn ess ,

wh ile t hose wit h s t ra ight cutting e dg es p roduce ch ips un iform in

t h ickness .

Cha tte r can b e av o id ed e ve n in to ols w it h s t raigh t cu tt ing

,

edges by us ing t wo o r m o re to o ls a t t h e s am e t ime in t h e s am e

,

machine .

Th e botto m o f t h e to ol s h o uld have a t rue s o lid be aring o n

,

th e t o o l s uppo rt wh ich s ho uld e x te nd forward alm ost d ire c tly

,

be neat h t h e cutt ing edge .

Th e bo dy o f t h e t ool s h ould b e g reate r in d e pt h t han its

widt h .

Cha tte r caused by m od ificatio ns in t he mach ine may b e

c lass ified as follows
( ) I t is so m etim es caus ed by badly made or fi tted ge a rs
a .

(b) Shafts may b e t oo s ma ll in d iamete r or t oo gre at in lengt h .

(c) Loose fi ts in t h e be arings and s lid es may o ccas io n chatte r .

d
() I n o rd e r t o abs orb vibrations caus e d by h igh s pee ds ,

mach ine parts s ho uld b e mas s ive far be yon d t h e met al required
for s t re ngt h .
80 ENG I NEERING AND S HO P PRACTICE
Chat te r of ne c ess it ates cutt ing s pee ds fro m 1 0 % to
t h e too l
1 5 % s lo we r t han t h os e t ak e n wit h o ut chatte r wh e t h er t ools a re
,

run wit h or wit ho ut water .

H igh e r cutting s pee d can b e use d w it h an int e rm it te n t out

t han w it h a s t eady out .

O f a ll t h e d ifficu lt ies m e t w it h by a mach in is t in cut t ing

meta ls th e causes fo r t h e chatte r o f t he t ool a re pe rhaps t he
,

mos t o bs cure and d ifficult to as c ert a in and in many cas es t h e

,

re medy is o nly to b e fo und afte r t rying (almos t a t rand o m ) half

a d o ze n e x pedie n ts
—
.

()9 H ow L ong S ho uld a T ool R u n B ef ore Re gr i nding f Th e

m os t impo rt ant c o nc lus io ns unde r t h is h ead ing a re :
I t was n ly afte r fo urt ee n ye ars wo rk t hat we fo und t hat t h e
o
’

bes t meas ure fo r t h e value of a t ool la y in t h e e xac t c ut ting

s pee d a t wh ich it wa s c o mp le te ly ru in ed a t t h e e n d of 2 0 m inut es .

I f we n ote t h e pro pe r cu t t ing s pee d fo r a t o ol wh ich is t o

las t 2 0 m inu te s and w is h to find t h e cut t ing s p ee d for a t ool to
,

las t 40 m inu tes mu lt ip ly t h e 2 0 m inute c ut by

,
-

I f we have t h e pro pe r cut t ing s pee d for a t oo l t o las t 2 0

minutes and w is h to find th e pro per cut ting s pee d fo r a t oo l to
las t 80 m inute s mult ip ly th e 2 0 m inu te cut by
,
-

T h e curve appro x ima t ing t hes e v a lues is re p rese n te d by t h e

follo wing fo rmula :

V spee d of th e too l in feet pe r m inute ;

T le ngt h of t im e t o o l mus t las t w it h o ut gri n ding .

We have bee n u n able accurately d ete rm ine the relat io n

to
bet wee n t h e durat io n of th e cut and t h e cutt ing s pee d fo r t ools
use d in cut ting cas t iro n Such laws a re bad ly nee de d
. .

Mod e rn h igh s pee d to ols do a ve ry much large r a m o unt of

-

wo rk w it h o u t re grind ing t han carbo n te mpe re d too ls

- - Th e e ff e c t
.

upo n th e c utt ing s pee d of t he dura tion of t h e cut is s h o wn by a

co mparis o n of mo d e rn h igh s pee d too ls wit h carbo n to ols wh ere
-

it wa s fo und t hat t h e h igh s pee d to ols fa ll o ff les s in t h e ir cutt ing

-

s pe e d t han t h e carbo n t o o ls wh e re t h e y a re run fo r a lo ng t im e

,
.

We ca ll at te nt io n t o t h e fac t t ha t a s a m ea s ure o f th e value

 CU TTING T OO S L 81

of a to ol th e lengt h of t ime wh ich it can b e run w it ho ut be ing

,

re gro und is a fa lse a n d w o rth less s t andard

- I t is a ls o we ll to .

note t h e rad ically diffe re n t k ind of we ar wh ich o ccurs w it h tools

t hat las t o n ly a s h o rt wh ile und e r c ut and t h os e wh ich las t for
a lo nge r t ime .

(1 0 ) E fiect of F eed a nd D epth of Cut on Cutting S peed Th e

.

fo llo w ing princ ipal c o nc lus ion s we re re ache d unde r th is h eading :

W it h a n y g ive n d e pt h of c ut met a l can b e re mo ved fas te r i e
, ,
. .

mo re wo rk can be d o ne by us ing t h e c o m b inat io n of a c o ars e feed

,

w it h its acc o mpanying s lo we r s pee d t han by us ing a fine fee d,

w ith its acc o mpanying h igh e r s pee d .

Th e cutting s pe e d is a ff e c te d m o re by t h e t h ickn ess of t he

s hav ing t han by t h e d e p t h of t h e out A change in t h e t h icknes s
.

of th e s hav ing h as abo u t t hre e t im es a s much e ff e c t o n t h e cu t t ing

s pee d as a s im ilar pro po rt io na l change in t h e d e p t h of t h e c ut

h a s upo n t h e cutt ing s pee d . D iv id ing t h e t h ickne ss of th e s having

by 3 incre ase s t h e cutting s pee d t im e s ; wh ile d iv id ing t h e
le ngt h t hat t h e s hav ing be a rs o n t h e cut ting edge by 3 incre as es
t h e cu tt ing s pee d t imes .

E xpress e d in ma t he ma t ica l t e rms t h e cu tt ing s pee d varies,

w it h o ur s t andard ro und n ose d to o l appro x imate ly in inve rs e

-

pro po rt ion to t h e s qua re roo t of t h e t h ickness of th e s having or

o f t h e fee d ; i e S varies w it h V F appro x ima te ly
. . .

W it h t h e bes t mo d e rn h igh s pee d too ls varying t h e fee d and

-
,

t h e de pt h o f t h e c ut caus es t h e cu t t ing s pee d t o vary in pra ct i

cally th e sa me ratio whet h e r s oft o r hard me tals a re be ing cut
,
.

( )
1 1 T o ol S tee l a n d I ts .
T r ea t m e n t Th. e impr o v e m e n t s in t h e

lates t h igh s pee d tools o ve r t h e o rig ina ls c o ns is t in

-

( )
a F a r gr e a t e r un if o rm it y o,w i ng t o le s s dang e r i n b e ing
inj ure d in grind ing and in da ily us e .

(b) 50 % incre as e in cutt ing s pee d .

()
0 T h e a t t a inm e n t o f a lm os t its max imum cut t ing s pe e d

w it h o ut t h e ne c es s it y o f th e s e c o nd o r lo w he at t rea t me n t -
.

d
() T h e c o mb ina t io n in t h e s am e t oo l of t h e h igh es t d e g ree

o f re d hardn ess w it h a h igh d egre e o f hardn e ss t hus re qu iring

,

o n ly o ne s tanda rd h igh s pee d t o o l s te e l in t h e s h o p

- .

()
e T h e ab ili t y ,
o w i ng t o incr e a s e d hardn e s s c o u p le
,
d w it h t h e

n e c es s ary re d hardn es s to m a ke th e s ame pro po rt io nate gain

,

whe n cutt ing w it h fine fee ds upo n hard m e ta ls as upo n s o ft .

(i) G re a te r s t re ng t h in t h e b o dy .
82 ENGI NEE RI NG AN D S H O P PRACTICE

(g) Th e o n ly poin t of infe rio rit y is increase d diffic ult y in

fo rg ing a t a cherry red,
- b lacks m it hs a re taught
an d if to fo rge
t he ir to ols a t a lig ht ye llo w h e at t h ese t ools a re eas ie r , to fo rge
t han t h e o rig inal h igh s pee d t o o ls -
.

( )
1 2 T h eo ry f o H a rden ing S teel .

(1 3 ) Q ua lity f
o M eta l he ad ing we have
B eing Cut . U nde r t h is
as a bro ad ge n e ral gu id e t o t h e cut t ing s peed s t o b e us e d for

cas t iro n wit h t h e s ca le o n t h e cas t ings jus t as t he y co me fro m

th e fo undry t hat as t h e ave rage o f s e ve ra l mach in e s h o ps in

”
, ,

t h is c o un t ry it is o ur o bs e rvat io n t ha t me d ium cas t iro n may

,

b e s a id to b elo ng to Cla ss 1 8 t o 1 9 in o ur s ca le o f hardn es s and

”
,

t ha t wh e n cu tt ing w it h a s t anda rd 5 to o l of t h e qua lit y o f s t eel

too l of No 1 w it h a s t andard 2 0 m inu te cut a 1 3 de p t h o f cut
3 " -
.
, ,

and 1 3 fee d the y have a cu tt ing s pe ed of 60 feet pe r m inute

1
, .

On th e who le what may b e calle d t h e hardes t cas t ings fre que nt ly

,

m e t wit h in mach ine s h o ps a re n o t hard e r t han Clas s No 2 4 .

,

giving a s t andard cutt ing s pee d o f 35 fee t pe r minute ; wh ile

so ft e r cas t in gs qu ite fre qu e n tly m e t w it h a re as so ft as Class

No 1 1 and have a s t a ndard cut t ing s pee d of 1 2 0 fee t pe r m inu te

.
, .

L
( ) in e
1 4 or Curve of C utting E dge .

(1 5 ) S lide Rules . I t may s ee m s t range t o

hat a s lid e sa y t
rule e nab les a g oo d m e chan ic t o d o ub le t h e o u t put o f a mach in e

wh ich h a s bee n run fo r e xample fo r te n ye ars by a fi rs t c la ss

, ,
-

mach in is t having e xce pt io nal kno w le dge of and e x pe rie nce w it h

,

h is mach in e and wh o h a s bee n us ing h is be s t judgm e n t

,
Ye t . .

o ur o bse rva t io n s h o ws t ha t o n t h e ave rage t h is und e rs t at es t he

, ,

fac t .

4 72 T e
. s ts of H ig h -s pe e d T o o l St ee ls on Ca s t I ron A b s t rac t .

fro m pamph let iss ue d by th e I llin o is E ng in ee ring E xpe rimen t

S t a t io n a t t h e U n ive r it y of I llin o is s .

T h e s hape of th e to o l u s e d in t h e te s ts is s h o wn in F ig 42 7a . .

T h e fro n t c le aranc e wa s t h e t o p rak e wa s 1 0 and t he s id e

°

rake wa s a ls o E x pe rim e n ts re la t ing to t h e pro pe r s hape o f

to o ls have bee n mad e by P ro f J T Nich o ls o n and t h e writ e rs . . .
,

we re gu ide d in s e le c ting pro pe r t oo l angles by th e re c o m m e ndat io ns

of h is pa pe r .

Va ria t io n of C utting F orce with A rea of Cut T h e e ff o rt e x e rte d .

by t h e too l in cu tting wa s d ete rm ined a s e xpla ine d b efo re T h e .

h o rs e po we r los t in driv ing t h e la t he a nd c o un te rs haft wa s

-

de d uc te d fro m t he to tal h o rs e po we r used during t h e t rial t h e -

,
84 ENG IN EERI NG AND S H O P PRACTICE
Va riation of Cu tti n S
g peed w ith th e H a rdnes s of Ca s t I ron . T he
curve S h o wn in F ig 42 7d re pre s e n ts t h e advis able cu tt ing
. s pee d

on cas t iro n of var yi ng hardness Th is curve repres e nts t he

.

res ult of a ll th e tes ts of t h e d iff e re n t s tee ls tes ted Th is c urve .

A rea of Cut in S qua ne l nc h

F IG . C u ve Sh wing Rela ti n b tw
r s o o e ee n C utting F
o rc e o n P o in t of

Too l a n d Area f Cut f

o C t I ro n
or as o f Va ying H
r d
a r ness .

s h o ws : (a ) t hat any of th e s tee ls tes te d can re mo ve ve ry hard

cas t iron a t a rate o f 2 5 fee t pe r m inute ; (b) t hat a ll o f t h e s tee ls
t es te d b e g in t o w e ar rap id ly a t s p ee d s a litt le abo ve 1 2 5 fee t per
 C UTT ING TOO LS 85

n
m i ute . Be t wee n t hese two
po ints th e rela tion bet wee n a sa fe
cu tting s peed and t he hardnes s of th e cas t iro n s ee ms to be
de finitely express ed by t h e curve I t w ould see m t hat cas t iro n
.

Cutting S peed in F ee t per Min ute

F IG . 42 7c. Curv S h wing V
es o D u a bility of Tool with Cutting
a ria tio n o f r

S peed f Cas t I
or ron o f V ying Ha dness
ar r .

of med ium hardne ss 1 00 to 1 2 0 co uld b e cut a t 1 2 5 fee t pe r

, ,

m inute jus t a s re ad ily as a t 70 feet per minute s o far a s any ,

injury to t h e too l is c onc e rn e d I t mus t b e re m e mb e re d t ha t

.
86 ENG I NEERI NG AN D S HO P PRACTI CE
h curve does n ot t ak e into acco u nt t he effe c t o n t h e cutting
t is ,

s pe e d o f t h e varia tio n in th e area o f c ut ; t h e e xpe rime n ts fro m

,

wh ich t he curve wa s p lotted we re in a ll cas es t h os e in wh ich th e

Cut t in g S pee d in F ee t pe r Min ute

”
F IG . 42 7d
. Cu rv es ho wing Cutting Speed B t Ada p ted to
S s es h
U s e wit
a V ia tion in th H a rdn e f C t I n
ar e ss o as ro .

c ut wa s ve ry ne arly 5 d e pt h of cut by feed s o t hat t here ,

is b ut a s ligh t varia t io n in t h e are a of cut in a ll o f t h e expe rim e n ts .

F ro m t h e curve of F ig 42 7 d we find t h e cu t t ing s pee d g ive n in

.

t h e t ab le b elo w t o b e app licable t o t h e grad es o f iro n m a n ufa c

 ENGI NEE RING AND S HO P P RACTICE

8 R evolution s f o r G iven Diam ete r a n d Cuttin g Spe e ds

42 . .

Cutting S peeds in F eet Per Minute

Re vo lutio ns Per Minute of Piec e

5 3 1 72
2 2 1 3 7 1 5 3 1 68 1 84
02 1 1 4 1 2 7 1 4 0 1 52

87 98 2 0 1 30
7 6 86 05 1 1 4
61 67 84 92
57 70 i
49
43

3 15 7 19 2 l 22 26
1 13 4 16 18
| 18 22
1

9 | 2
1
1
1
14
12 14
s
16
; 22
18
5
5 6 6 s 10 12 12 14

F o r gre a te r c ut t in g s pee ds m ul t ip ly b y 2 .

F IG . 42 8
 C UT TI NG T OO LS 89

42 9 . Ex am ple s of Re c en t Pra ctic e with H igh -

s pe e d Tool
St e e ls . Turn ing , Milling , D rilling and Plan ing .

T U RN I N G

Ca s t I ron . 47 1
1 ; 1 2 1 9 06 G M C mp
. . a

58 1
1 6
3
1 3 1 9 06 b ll t P nn
e a e .

1
1 08 [6 1 5 8 1 9 06

So t f C . Ir .

A v H a rdn
. .

1 32
A v H a rdn
. .

1 18 1 6
'
H i g h S ee No te 1 9 0 6 I llin ois .

Do . 63 S p e e d , 1 9 06
Do . 60 P tt 6 ra 1 1 9 06
Do . 48 Whit n y e . 190
Fe rro -S t ee l
1
1 6

W ro t I ro n . 54 g
8
1 3 1 9 06 C
am pb e ll a t P .

& L . E .

”
F o r g e d 32 i 1} 60 A rm s t ron g A r m -
A m st o ng
1 9 06 r r

S te el 38 i 5 HP 6: W hit s t ro n g 1 9 06 W h it w o rt h
42 1 1 Mo wo rt h Co .
& Wh it - 1 9 06 by J . M G led
.

1 00 g to r S p e c ia l w thor . 1 9 06 hill .

1 60 g, a, 1 9 136

Ci r Wh ee l

f
So t S tee l ‘
1 s 1 L a th e , A r m - 1 9 06 G M C mp a

”
. . .

A x 1 6 s t ro n g b ll t P
e a .

43 1
1 , L a t h e , & W h it - 1 9 06 L E rie S h o ps
. .

94 32 G is w thor . 1 9 06
holt .

M hin y
ac er
3
5
1 3 Mus h e t . 1 9 04 A W . a te rm a n ,

S t ee l W o rce s te r .

Ha rd S t ee l 13 2 g a 12 72
'
Whee l . 1 906 G M C mp
. . a

b ll t P
e a .

L Ei . re .
90 ENG IN EE RING AN D S HO P PRAC TI CE
T U RN I N G (contin ued) .

. é ?
a
2 gi

a . 5 . 5

i if It
2 0 Pt Ca r
.

b on S te el 2 0 5
80 b
1
D S
G
.

” .

ra ce , 2
d
z

4
Ta y
Wh it
l o r- 1 9 0 4
e .
D ea n ,

G ra c e
S m it
.
h

”
S ie m ens

M a r t in Sa m Os b o rn Co .

S te el . 65 t 32 S p ec ia l Mus h e t . 1 906 E n gla nd .

” ” ”
F IG . 42 9 a .

”
NOT E .
—Gene ra lly s pea kin g , a ll s t e e ls te s t ed p ro ved e q ual ly e ff e ct ive .

Bh
o le r Ra id, p J es s u p ’
s
“
A rk , Mc I nn es ses ’
E t x ra ,
“
Air No vo ,
Re x ,o ldi P an d A rm s t ro ng an d Wh it wo rt h we re us ed .

M I LLI N G
CUTT E R

Cin NO 4
. . Co lco rd
3
3 2 7: 8} 3} 9 Pl a in U s o ns 1 9 06 M h ac .

Co .

3
3
1 5 x 11 5 to G a ng

s
27 fi x I} 4 I} G in NO 3
. .

Pla in

i x 1 i 1 } Cin N o 2
. . N o vo

T 31 Pla in

G in NO 3
. .
92 ENG INEE RI NG AND S H O P PRACTI CE

D RI LL I NG

2
” G r a

Cas t l ro n
y
Go d A &W 1 9 0 6
A rm
W hit
. 31

”
129 630 1 8 35 400 o . . .

by J M . .

G l dh ill
e

3 G r a y S a m Os .

Ca s t I ron 1 1 40 72 5 1 7 42 Mus h e t 1 9 0 6 b o r n

. 2 20 9 37 a,

74 5 2 2 8 gr 35 . 52 lb s .

—
Max . Ailizw .

of E nd H igh
D ill
r 46 28 h o les Bro ke Sp d 1ee

49 7
4 8 8 49 7 46
65 49 7 1 0 8 46
8 1 3 4 9 7 1 0 8 46
9 7 6 49 7 1 0 8 46
1 49 7 1 0 8 46

”
S ie m e ns

8 t 0 c l
. 3OC, 3
Mus h e t 1

FI G . 42 9 c .
 C UT TING T OO S L 93

PLA NI NG

i t i
5
8 3
3 F
“
.

Q a:
2
I: 3 £ 3 a
g
. .

;
ii 3 a
a
‘

?
“
i a 2

fi; 18 3 1 G . M Ca m pb e ll
. at P .

& L a ke E rie S ho ps

W ro t I ro n . .

M h
ac . S teel . L P E x pos iti
. . on , St .

L ui Moo s, .

FIG

H A ND T O O LS ,
G RI N D I NG A ND US E

43 1Chi s e ls
. .

Th e F la t or Cold Ch is el Th is is th e m os t c o mm on of a ll
.

mach in is t s ch ise ls and is ofte n

’
re fe rre d to as s imply a c old c h ise l .

I t is ge n e rally us ed wh e n e ve r any b a nd ch ipp ing o r cu tt ing is t o

b e d o ne T he cu tting e dge s h o uld b e s ligh t ly c o nv e x wit h its
.

faces gro und and whetted a t an angle o f 60 with e ach oth e r °

.

F IG . 43 1 a . Fla t or G old Ch isel .

The Ca pe Chisel Th is ch is el is s im ilar in its us e and act io n

.

to t h e fla t ch ise l and is m os t fre q uen t ly e mp lo ye d in ch ipp ing

ke yways ,
s quare groo ves and wh e re large , fla t s urfaces are to b e
94 ENGI NEE RING AN D S HO P PRACT I CE
ch ippe d ,
fo r driv in g a numbe r of groo ves acros s it be fo re us ing
t h e fla t ch ise l .

F IG . 43 1 b . C pe Ch is
a el .

The Ro nd n os e
u -
Th is ch ise l is us e d princ ipally fo r
Chis el .

gro o ving o ilways s im ilar wo rk and in drilling to cut o ut a ne w

, , ,

pat h fo r t h e drill wh e n th e h ole is impro pe rly c e nte re d .

F IG . 43 l o . Ro und-nos e Ch i se l .

43 2 . G ra ve rs . Me t a l t urn ing
pe e d lat he is a e c o m
in t h e s

p lis h e d by m e an s o f grav e rs A lt h o ugh a s p ee d.la t h e is u s e d t o

o b t a in a h igh e r s pee d fo r t h e w o rk t h e cu t t ing ac t io n o f grav e rs

,

de pe nds upo n t h e laws of rak e and c le a ra n c e Th e y a re us e d .

ch ie fly fo r fin is h ing p ie c e s o f irregular o u t line curves and fo r ,

t urn ing v e ry s ma ll p ins A s c o mpare d w it h o t h e r t o o ls t h e ir

.
,

cutt ing po we r is s mall G rave rs a re c o mm o n ly mad e fro m worn

.

o ut fi les prefe rab ly t h ose o f s quare s e c t io n and t h e ir cutt ing

, ,

e dges gro und to t hat particu lar s hape bes t adapte d to t h e

wo rk .

T he D ia m ond poin t G ra ver

-
Th is t oo l is princ ipally us e d o n
.

c o nve x s urfac e s a n d fo r round ing c o m e rs o n s uch wo rk a s t h e

e nd o f a bo lt o r s cre w T h e pro pe r ang les o f rak e and c le aranc e
.
96 ENG IN EE RI NG A ND S HO P PRAC TI CE
degree T he end is gro und s ligh tly c o nve x lik e th e end of the
.
,

fla t ch ise l wh ile th e s id es a re gro und fla t

, T h e e nd of a s craper .

F IG . 43 3a . Fla t Sc ra per .

s h o uld b e gro und on a wh eel of a s ma ll d iame te r in s uch a manne r

a s t o pro d uc e t wo cu tt ing e dge s 6 and e (F ig 4 33a ) I n wh et
’
. .
,

t ing t h e fac es f and f t h e s to n e s h o uld be ar o n t h e m ; in wh e t

,
’
,

ting t h e cut t ing e dg es t he too l is h e ld in a v e rt ica l pos itio n s o

,

F I G 433b
. .
—T h ree —
corne re d Sc ra per .

t ha t th e dges 6 and e res t upo n th e s to ne ;

e
'
in th is pos itio n th e
tool is mo ved back and fo rt h un t il s harp .

T he Three-cornered S cra per . See F ig 433 b . .

 CUT TI N G TOO S L 97

L A T H E T O O LS
44 1 . Th is is th e m os t c o mm o n O f
Th e Diam on d poin t Tool - .

a ll la th e too ls O n acc o unt o f its s hape and o wing to its b e ing

.

gro und w it h both top and s id e rak e it eas ily re mo ves t h e ch ip ,

and may be use d o n e it he r ro ugh ing or finis h ing cuts I n adj us t .

F IG . 441 . Di
a m on d
p oin t T oo l .

ing t h e too l, it h o uld b e se t w it h j us t e n o ugh c le aranc e to avo id

s

frict io n and a s much to p rake as t h e c o nd it io n w ill allo w .

44 2 Th e Roun d n o s e Roughing Tool

.
- Th is too l is gen e ra lly .

use d for ro ugh ing cu ts o n cas t iron and so me t imes o n acc o un t o f , ,

its s ma ll amo un t o f t o p rak e o n t h e s o f te r m e t a ls I t is a lso

,
.

us ed for t urn ing groo ves ro und ing o ut c o rne rs and in many
, ,

p lac es t hat a re inacc ess ible w it h th e d iam o nd po int too l -

.

F IG . 442 . Ro und
n ose Ro ug ing T oo lh .

44 3 . Th e Side Tool Th is t o.o l is u s e d f or pr o duc in g t h e fl a t

s u rfac es in la t h e w o rk s uch as fac ing and e n d t urn ing
,
To .

o b ta in t h e be s t res u lt s t h e cu t t ing e dg e s h o u ld b e s ligh t ly c o n ve x

,

t o ward t h e w o rk and wh e t te d k ee n and s m o ot h See F ig 443 . . .

N ote A righ t hand too l is de s ign e d to c ut fro m r igh t t o le f t

.
-

and a left hand too l vice versa W ate r s ho uld b e use d for grind ing
-
, .

a ll carb o n s t ee l t o o ls Cu tte rs of s e lf hard e n ing o r t ungs t e n s tee l

.
-

may b e gro un d dry .

444 .Th e P a r tin g o r C utt in g O E To o l As it s nam e- imp lie s .

,
98 EN GI NEERIN G AND S H O P P RACTICE
h
t is to ol is us e d for pa rt ings fo r cut ting off s mall pie ce s of ro und
,

s to ck f o r s quare gro o v ing and wh e re s quare c o rn e rs a re d e s ired

, .

To wo rk we ll t h is t oo ] s h o u ld be t h ickes t o n th e cu tt ing e dge

F IG . 444 . Pa rt ing or

F IG . 443 . S ide T oo l . C ut t g o ff T oo l
in - .

and have amp le c learanc e o n a ll s i es d . I t is genera lly se t on a

lin e w it h t h e c e n te rs .

44 5 . Th e Bo rin g Tool u s
. e d fo r t urn Th is
ing t h e t oo l is
ins id e o f cylind e rs bo r ing I ts s hape and grind ing de pe nd .

la rge ly upo n t he m e tal to b e out ; h o we ve r wha t h a s bee n s a id ,

in ge ne ra l ab o u t to o ls w ill app ly T h e t h e o re t ica l h e igh t o f t h is

.

to o l is be lo w t h e c e n te r fo r t h e s ame re a s o n t ha t for o u t s ide

t o o ls it is ab o ve t h e c e n te r ; for o t h e r re as o n s it is ge n e rally p lac ed
o n t h e c e n te r line and gro u n d fo r s can t c le ara n c e in t h is pos it io n .

F IG . 445 . Bo ring T oo l .

44 6 . Th e B ull Th is too l is s im ilar in us e a ndac tion

-n o s e To ol .

t o t h e d iam o nd po in t ; o n acc o un t o f its s hape and ro und e d cu tt ing

e dge it part ak es in a way o f t h e pro p e rt ie s of b o t h t h e d iam o nd

point a n d t h e ro und n os e I t is als o us e d for ro ugh ing a fac ing

.

c ut . S ee F ig 4 46 . .

44 7 Th e Th rea din g Tool

. . U S Sta n da rd
. . . Th is too l is us e d
fo r o rd inary s cre w cutt ing . T h e 60 °
angle of th e cu t t ing edge s
 ENG I NEERI NG A ND S HO P PRACTICE

P LA N E R
T O O LS
45 1
. D is cu s s io n a n d Th e o ry I n g e
. n e ra l t h e t h e o ry u
,
n d e r
lying a ll me t a l cut ting t o o ls is t h e s am e ; and t he p lane r t ool
fo rms n o e xc e pt io n to t h e rule Th e s t ud e nt is advis ed t o re view
.

what h a s been s a id in t h e d is cuss io n of th e g o ve rn ing c o nd itions

o f cu t t ing t oo ls in t h e e arlie r part of t h is chap te r .

T h e m o s t n o t ic e able d iffe re nc e be t we e n t h e grind ing of p lan e r

”
and lat h e too ls aris es fro m th e fac t t ha t th e to ol b ox o n plan ing -

mach ines is rig id and pro vides no adj us t m e nt fo r a lte ring t h e

angles of to p rak e and c learanc e as d oes th e res t o f a lat h e
,
“
.

Wit h plane r too ls t h e s hank o f th e too l is always pe rpe nd icular

,

t o t h e plat e n and w h at e ve r a ng les a re d e te rm in e d upo n m us t b e

O b t a in e d by grin d ing ; t h e k ee nn ess d e pe nd ing up o n t h e ang les

o f to p rak e s id e rak e and c le aranc e wh ile t h e s t re ngt h d e pe nd s

, ,

upo n t h e angles o f to p rake and c le arance T h e ang le of c le ar .

anc e fo r plan e r tools is s mall varying fro m abo ut 3 t o

,
T ools °

for s tee l and wro ugh t iro n hav e us ua lly a m o re acute ang le of
k ee nnes s t han t h os e for c as t iro n I n s o m e ins t anc es ro ugh ing
.

t o ols for ca s t iro n hav e n o to p rak e wha te ve r k ee nn e ss be ing ,

o b t a in e d by s id e rak e A s was th e cas e in t urn ing t h e wo rk is

.
,

finis h ed by t h e ro ugh ing cuts and a finis h ing cut ; t h e ro ughing

cuts be ing a s h e avy a s th e too l a n d th e w ork w ill pe rm it ; us ually
d ee p with fi ne fee d F or fin is h ing c as t iron th e fin is h in g cut is
.
,

ge ne rally ve ry ligh t and mad e w it h a bro ad s quare n o s e d too l ,

-
,

t h e f e e d be ing a lm o s t e qua l t o t h e w id t h of t h e t o o l ; h o w e ve r ,

fo r plan ing s u rfac es t ha t a re s ub s e que n tly to b e s crape d t h e ,

ave rage fee d is about

F o r fin is h ing s te el o r wro ugh t iro n t h e p o int of t h e t oo l is
,

fla t b ut much narro we r t han fo r cas t iro n

, .

45 2
. Th e R o u ghi n g P la n e r To ol Th is t oo l.i s s im ilar i n s hap e

t o t h e ro und n o s e ro ugh ing la t h e t o o l and is us e d for t h e s ame

-

c las s of cu ts ; its ge ne ral us e be ing fo r ro ugh ing cut s o n cas t iro n

and s o me tim es o n acc o unt of its s mall amo un t of t o p rak e it
, ,

is a ls o u s e d o n t h e s o ft e r m et a ls Tho ugh t h e ge ne ral s hape of

.

t h is too l re ma in s t h e s ame th e c o n t o ur of t h e cu tt ing edge and

,

t h e angles of rak e and c le aranc e a re varie d s ligh t ly in c o nfo rm it y

wit h t h e nat ure and d e pt h of t he cut and t h e te xt ure of th e
mate rial By be nd ing t h e s hank of t h is t o ol e it he r to th e righ t
.

o r to t h e le f t and grind ing a s tra igh t po rt io n o n th e cu tt ing

,
 CUT TIN G TOO LS 101

have a t o ol t hat is o fte n us e d ins t e ad of d

si e

F IG . 45 2 . Ro ug ing h Pla n er T oo l .

4 53 . Th e Diam - T
on d po in t
oo l Th is t o ol
Pla ner is b e ing .

rapid ly s upe rs ed e d by t he various ro ugh ing too ls be ca use o f t h e ,

e ase w it h wh ich t h e y a re fo rge d ; h o we v e r t h e d iam o nd p o in t , ,

o n acc o un t o f it s s hape and o w ing t o it s be ing gro und w it h b o t h

t o p and s id e rak e e as ily re m o ves t h e ch ip and is us e d e it h e r f or

,

ro ugh ing or finis h ing cuts .

F IG . 453 . Di a m on d
po in t Pla n er T oo l .

4 54 . Th e Stra igh t e
- dge Side Tool (Pla n e r) . Th is to o l is us e d
for fac ing and is m ilar
si in s hape t o t h e s id e t o o l use d in la t h e
1 02 ENG INEERING AND S HO P PRACTICE
wo rk ,w it h th e exc ept io n t hat th e cutting edge ins te ad of be ing ,

parallel wit h the s hank of t h e tool is fo rged so t hat it in clines ,

to ward th e back This les s e ns t h e s ho ck whe n s t arting t h e cut

.
,

F IG . 4 54 .

S ide Tool, Pla ner .

wh ich inc re ases gradua lly a s t h e tool advanc es produc ing so m e ,

w hat of a s h e aring ac t io n and d o wnwa rd pre s s ure wh ich te nds t o ,

ho ld t h e wo rk to th e p late n .

4 55 . Slotter Tools .

F IG . 45 5 . S lo tter Too ls .

45 6 Sh a
.
pe s a n d G rin din g of 2 5 St raig h t fa -
c e d Pla n e r Too ls .

T h e t ab les S h o w t h e vario us s hape s o f t h e c o mm o n p lan e r

F i
( g 56)
4 . and S lot te r too ls (F ig and t he ir ang les o f rake
.
,

kee nness and c le aranc e ; t h e angles h e re in a re t ake n in th e ,

m a in fro m t h e grind ing charts furn is h e d by W m Se lle rs

, Co . .
,

and th e G is h olt Mach ine Co w it h t h e ir un ive rs al t ool grind e rs

.
, ,

and a re fairly ind ica t ive of mo d e rn prac tic e in t h is d irec tio n .

 G EE RI NG
E N IN AN D S HOP PRACTICE

F IG . 461 . L h a t e Tool- olderh .

4 62 . Pla n er Tools . Lik e s im ilar a he t h is s t yle

t oo ls for th e l t ,

o f t oo l is s upe rs e d ing t h e hand fo rged t ools for o rd inary wo r k fo r

-

t h e s am e re as o n s . See Se c tio n 46 1 I t is es s e nt ia l t ha t t h e
.

cutte r b e h eld rigid and w ith th e Arms tro ng h o ld e rs th e cutte r

,

may b e place d a t vario us angles adapting itse lf e as ily to a ,

F IG . 462 . Pl a ne r T ool h older

- .

varie t y of wo rk Wit h t h is c las s of h old e r re ve rs ing it

.
, ,

plac ing th e cutter in th e re ar ins tead of in advance of th e

S hank — ofte n pre v e n ts g o ug in g and cha t te ring Late r variet ies .

of h olde rs pro v id e s e ve ra l cu tt e rs e ach o f wh ich t ak es its o wn

,

ch ip thus multiplying th e o ut put by the numbe r of cutte rs

,

use d.
 C H APT ER V .

MEA S U RI NG A ND S MALL TOO L S

ST A N D A R D S OF ME A S U R E M E N T
5 1 1 . His to rica l Sta tem e n t m eas uring too l is an ins tru
. A
m e nt o r d e vic e t hat is us e d to c o mpare or meas ure line ar or ot he r
d imen s io ns w it h s o me s t andard un it .

Th e fo llo w ing b it of h is to rica l info rmat io n is t ake n fro m t h e

Bro w n Sharpe ca t a log : T h e St andard Yard was fi rs t lega liz ed
“

in E ngland in 1 82 4 Th is s tandard ho we ve r wa s d es t royed in

.
, ,

T h e Standard I mp e rial Yard B ro nz e No was t he n

‘
1 83 4 .
, .

pre pare d and legaliz ed in 1 85 5 F o rt y c o p ies we re mad e ; and

.

o n e of t h e s e , Bro n z e No wa s pres e n te d t o t h e U n ite d S t at es

.

by th e B rit is h G o ve rnm e n t in 1 856 At t h e s ame tim e ano the r .

c o py kn o wn a s Lo w Mo o r I ro n No
,
‘
wa s s e n t Th ese were. .

accurate ly c o mpare d be fo re be ing s en t w ith th e Standard

, ,

I mpe ria l Yard and t h e re c o rd o f t h e variat io n s se nt w it h t he m

, .

Alt h o ugh t h e Co n s t it u tio n of t h e U n ited St a tes e mp o we re d

“

Co ngress t o fix t h e s tandard s o f w e igh t s a n d m e as ure s n o lega l ,

s t andar d of le n g t h was ad o p te d un t il 1 866 whe n a la w wa s ,

pas s ed mak ing t h e mete r le gal th e firs t and o n ly m eas ure of

,

le ngt h lega lize d by t h e U n it e d St at es G o ve rnm e n t .

We pre pare d s tandards fo r us e in o ur o wn s h o ps and afte r , ,

t h e ir c o mp le t io n t h e y we re c o mpare d by t h e G o ve rn m e n t o ffic ials

,

w it h t h e s ta n dard s in W as h ingto n The m e an e rrors w e re fo und

.

to b e : fo r t h e yard , and fo r t h e m ete r 000 0 06M bo t h .

,

be ing too lo ng .

D I R E CT ME A S U R I N G
T O O LS
5 2 1 .R u le s T h.e c o mm o n e r mach in is t s m e a s ur ing t oo ls a re
’

t h e fo llo w ing : t h e s tee l ru le t h e t ry s quare t h e m icro m ete r

, ,

calipe r t h e m icro me te r calipe r s quare th e be vel prot rac t o r t h e

, , ,

c e nte r s quare and vario us m in o r s t andard s ca lle d gage s .

The S ta nda rdS teel Rule T h e m o s t c o mm o n o f a ll mach in is t s

.
’

1 05
1 06 ENG INEERI N G AND S HO P P RACTI CE
meas uring t ools is th e s tandard s tee l rule Thes e rules can b e .

co nven ie ntly int roduc ed in to groo ves and c o un te rs inks of vario us

k inds and a re adapte d fo r t h is c lass of meas u re me nt as well a s
,

fo r o rdinary use O w ing to t h e s implic it y o f t h e s tee l rule a

.

des criptio n is hard ly ne ces s ary I t may b e purchase d wit h a .

F IG . 52 1 . S te e l R ule .

variet y of gra d uatio ns ; ho we ve r t hat graduat io n see m ingly bes t ,

adapted fo r o rd inary wo rk is th e o ne hav ing t he inch es o n e ach

of t h e fo ur e dg es d ivid e d res pe c t iv ely in t o 1 6t h s 32 ds 64 t h s , ,

and 1 00 t h s I n d ire c t me as ure m ent t h e lin es o n t h e rule a re

.

made to c o inc ide w it h th e d is tanc es me as ured wh ile fo r ind ire c t ,

meas ure me nt calipe rs o r d ivide rs

, wh os e po ints a re mad e to
c o inc ide w it h t h e graduat io n lines a re us ed G rea t care s h o uld .

be e xe rc ise d in th e t ak ing o f t h e fine r m e as ure me n ts a s care le ss ,

ness may le ad to th e m is t ak ing of one d iv is io n for an ot h e r and

t h us ru in ing t h e w o rk .

5 2 2 Th .e T r S
y q ua re Try s quar e s a re use d by
. mach in is ts t o

tes t t h e t ru t h and accuracy o f s urfac es a t r igh t angles to e ach

F IG . 52 2 . G ra dua tedH a rde nedStee l Sq ua re .

ot he r . mach in is t s s mall s h o p to ol re qu ires m o re accuracy

No
’

in its c o ns t ruc t io n t han do es t h e t ry s quare T h e s t o cks and .

e dg es of t h e b lad es a re s o m e t im e s hard e n e d and in m os t ca s e s

a re accura te ly gro und fo r para lle lis m a n d fo r s t ra igh t n es s .

5 3
2 Th e. M i c rom e te r Ca lipe r Th e m icr o m e t e r ca lip e r f o rms .
1 08 EN G I N EE RI NG A ND S HOP PRACTICE

gra dua ted ba rrel an a nvil B o n wh ich the work is

or s leeve D
p lac e d for me as ure me nt ; and a fra m e A carrying th ese parts .

T h e follo w in g princ ip le is t h e on e o n wh ich t h e m icro m ete r

calipe r is bas ed : I f a s cre w of kno wn p it ch b e turn ed o n e re vo lu
t io n t hro ugh t s n ut it w ill have m o ved a d is t anc e e qua l to t h e
'

pit ch of th e t re ad ; if th e s cre w be rotate d t hro ugh a frac t io n of

a re v o lut io n its lin ear m ot io n w ill b e a s im ilar frac tio n o f its
,

p it ch Micro me te r s cre ws a re gen e ra lly mad e w it h fo rt y (40 )

.

t hre ad s to t h e inch and h a ve t h e c irc umfe re nc e of t h e be ve le d

,

”
e dge of t h e t h imb le d iv id e d in t o t we n t y fi ve (2 5 ) e qual part s ; if -

n o w t h e t h imb le b e t urn e d a d is tanc e e qua l to o ne of t h e s e grad

ua t io ns h
t e ,
lin e ar mot o n of th e S cre w will b e 9 , o f 1 6 or
i 1 1

“
1 inch T h e. barre l i n wh ich t h e s cre w o
,
pe ra t e s and o v e r

F IG . 52 3b . M ic ro m e te r No m e nc la ture .

wh ich th e t i h mblegradua te d pe rpe nd icularly to t h e ax is

fi ts , is ,

o f t h e s cre w in t o 40 t h s o f an inch t h e se d iv is io n s b e ing mark e d

, ,

0 1 2 e t c e ve ry fo urt h d iv is io n
, , , .
,
As t h es e graduat io n s c o nfo rm .

t o t h e p it ch o f t h e s cre w e ach d iv is io n e q ua ls t h e line ar d is t anc e

,

t rav e rs e d by t h e s cre w in o ne c o mp le te re vo lu t io n ind ica t ing a ,

m o ve me n t o f 3 5 inch T h e re ad ing is mad e by mu ltiply ing th e

1
.

numbe r of d iv is io ns v is ib le o n th e s cale on th e barrel by 2 5 ,

add ing to t h is pro duc t th e numbe r of d ivis io ns on th e s cale o n .

t h e t h imble fro m t h e z e ro gradua t io n to t h e lin e c o inc id e n t w it h

,

t h e lin e of gradua t io n s o n t h e barrel Th es e calculations m a y b e .

made m e n t a lly : fo r e xample s uppo se t hat t h e numbe r of vis ible

,

graduatio ns of t h e barre l is 5 and th e num be r o f d iv is io ns reg is ,

t e ring o n t h e t h imb le s ca le is 7 The n 5 X 2 5 1 2 5; 1 2 5 . 7

1 32 wh ich is t h e numbe r o f t h o us and t h s b et wee n t h e anv il
,

and t h e e nd o f t h e s cre w .
 MEAS U RIN G AND S MALL TOO LS 1 09

F IG . 52 30 . I ns ide M ic
ro m e te rs .

T he m et h od of us ing t h e m icro me te r calipe r is as follo ws

Turn th e t h imble un t il th e m icro me te r s cre w (s p ind le ) t o uch es
t h e anvil and n ot e t h e fo rc e re qu ire d to bring t h e z e ro lin e o f
,

t h e t h imb le in lin e w it h t h e z e ro lin e o f t h e barre l (s lee ve ) ; in t h e

t ak ing of fa irly c o rre c t m e as ure m e n t s it w ill b e n e c e s s ar y fo r
t h e s t ude n t to bring t h e m icro met e r s cre w aga ins t t h e w o rk w it h
t h is s am e amo un t o f fo rc e T h e t h imb le is n o w t urn e d un t il t h e
.

sc re w re c e d e s a s o m e wha t gre a t e r d is t anc e fro m t h e anv il t han

1 10 ENG INEERIN G AND S HO P PRACTI CE
the t i h cknes s of t h e p ie c e to b e m e as ure d Plac ing t h e p ie c e .

bet wee n t h e anvil and t h e e n d of t h e s cre w t h e t h imb le is s lo wly

,

re volve d unt il by t h e s e ns e of to uch t h e o pe rato r n otes t hat t h e

, ,

m icro mete r s cre w (s pind le ) is in co nt ac t wit h th e w o rk ; th e read ing

is t h e n t ake n Many m icro me te rs a re fit te d w it h s o me s o rt of a
.

lo ck ing d e vic e wh ich pre ve n ts t h e acc ide n t al ro ta tio n of t h e s cre w .

I n add itio n to t h e lo cking d e vic e s o m e m icro m ete rs have a ra tchet

s to p wh e re by if m o re t han a c e rt a in d e gree o f pres s ure is e x e rte d
, ,

t h e ra t ch e t s lip s by t h e pawl and pre ve n ts t h e t urn ing of t h e

s cre w ; t h is is c o nve n ie n t fo r t h e rap id m e as ure m e n t o f a numb e r

o f s im ilar p ie c e s as t h e y a re a ll s ubj e c te d t o t h e s am e d e gree of

pres s ure F ig 52 3c s h o ws a s e t o f ins id e micro mete rs Such

. . .

m icro m ete rs a re de s igne d fo r mak ing int e rnal me as ure me nts and
may be us e d for m e as urin g rings cylind e r d iamete rs s etting
, ,

calipe rs c o mparing gages me as uring parallel s urfaces and wo rk

, ,

o f a s im ilar charac te r I n s id e m icro m e te rs ge n e ra lly c o n s is t o f a

.

m icro me te r h e ad carrying t h e m icro mete r s cre w t h imble

, ,

graduate d t o rea d t h o us an d t hs and fo ur o r mo re e xte n s io n

rod s Th e rod s a re pro v ide d w it h a harde ne d s t eel adj us table
.

anv il in t h e e nds wh ich pe rm its adjus ting fo r wear A s mall

,
.

bind ing s cre w lo cks t he rod whe n s e t t o any o ne o f t h e s e r ies o f

, ,

lines , t h e ro d s b e ing mark e d in ha lf inch o r inch d iv is io ns and

-

s e t t o a s im ilar lin e o n a pro j e c t io n of t h e barre l .

5 4
2 Th
. e M ic ro m e te r C a lipe r Squ a r e B y t h
. e u s e o f t h is

t o ol t h e o pe ra t o r is e nable d t o e n large o r d e cre ase w o rk o ne o r

m o re t ho us and t h s o f an inch fro m t hat ca lipe re d ; t h is t o ol e m
bod ies s o me O f t h e m o re impo rt a n t fe at ures o f bo t h t h e fi rs t c las s -

calipe r s q uare and t h e m icro mete r calipe r I t may b e us e d a s .

”
a ca lipe r s quare o r a m icro me te r of large s c o pe and qu ick adj us t
me nt o r bo t h As a too l it is les s accurate than t h e m icro me te r
,
.

ca lipe r o n acc o un t of th e fac t t hat t h e pe rs o nal e quat io n ente rs

“

in to m o s t o f it s adjus t m e n t s a s t h e s e tt ings d e pe nd large ly upo n

,

t h e ab ilit y o f t h e o pe rat o r t o s e e acc ura te ly W h e n s et t o s tand

.

ard ga ges t h is inaccuracy o f c o urs e d is appe a rs T h e jaws a re

, ,
.

hard e ned a n d gro und and o pe n th e le ngt h of t h e graduat io ns o n

t h e be am (ge n e ra lly t h o ugh mad e in any le ng t h ) o n e s ide of ,

wh ich is graduate d in 40 t h s and t h e o t h e r in 64th s o f an inch .

I n us ing t h is in s t rum e nt t h e firs t s e tt ing is mad e by mak ing t h e

graduat io n mark o n th e mo vable jaw c oinc id e w it h t ha t d ivis io n
neares t t h e s ize d es ired ; it is t he n c lamped in pos it io n T h e .
1 12 ENG INEERI NG AN D S HO P P RACTICE
inch I f th e d ing j a w of th e calipe r is p us h ed U p to
S li

t h e o t h e r s o t hat t h e line marked ze ro (0 ) o n th e ve rn ie r c o r

,

res po nd s w it h t ha t mark e d ze ro o n t h e bar t h e n th e n e x t t wo ,

lines to th e righ t d iff e r fro m e ach o t h e r by on e t h o us an d t h part -

of an in ch and s o t he d iffe rence w ill c o n tinue to incre as e

o ne t h o us and t h of an inch fo r e ach d iv is io n un t il t h e y aga in
-
,

c o rres po nd a t th e lin e marked 2 5 o n th e ve rn ie r T o re ad th e .

d is tanc e th e calipe r may b e o pe n : c omme n c e by n ot ing h o w

m any inches t e n t h s and part s o f te n t h s t h e z e ro po in t o n t h e
,

ve rn ie r h as bee n m o ved fro m th e ze ro po in t o n t h e b a r No w .

c o unt upo n t he ve rn ier th e numbe r of d iv is io ns un t il one is fo und

wh ich c o inc id es wit h o ne o n t he bar wh ich w ill b e t h e numbe r
,

of t h o us and t h s t o b e add ed t o t h e d is tanc e re ad o ff o n th e bar .

T he bes t way O f e xpres s ing t h e va lu e o f th e d iv is io n s on t h e bar

'

is to call t h e t e nt h s o ne h un dre d t h o us an d t h s
u
and t h e
fo urths of te n ths or fo rt iet hs twenty fi ve t h o us and t hs
, ,
-

Re fe rring t o t h e cut (F ig 5 2 5 ) it w ill b e s ee n t ha t t h e jaw

.

is o pe n t wo te n th s and t hree-quarte rs wh ich is e qual t o t wo

-
,

hundred and s e ve nt y fi ve t ho us and th s

- No w s uppo s e t h e
ve rn ie r was m o ved to th e righ t so t hat th e te n t h d ivis ion
s h o uld c o inc id e w it h th e n e x t o ne o n t h e s ca le — wh ich w ill
make ten t h o us and ths
-
m o re to be adde d to t wo hun dre d
and s e ve nt y fi ve t h o us and t h s
-
mak ing t he jaws o pe n t wo
hundred and e igh t y fi ve t h o us and t hs
-

5 2 6 . Th e V e rni er Ca li pe rs T h e v e rn
. ie r ca lipe r is s o ca lle d
becaus e its re ad ings a re tak e n by me ans o f a ve rn ie r in s te ad O f

F IG . 52 6 . Ve rn ier Ca lip e rs .
 MEAS U RIN G AND S MALL TOOLS 113

by m eans of a m icro me te r n ut I t is s imilar in alm os t e ve ry .

res pe c t (exc ept in th e me t hod of re ad ing its adj us t me nt ) to th e

”
m icro mete r calipe r s q uare Wh e n e it he r of t h es e t oo ls h as its
.

firs t se tting mad e by t h e use of a s tandard g age th e pe rs o nal ,

“

e qua tio n be c o mes almos t n il and t h e accuracy t he n e q ua ls t hat

,

o f t h e m icro m e te r ca lipe r T h e jaws o n b o t h t h e m icro me te r

”
.

calipe r s quare and th e ve rn ie r ca lipe r a re s o mad e t hat in te rnal

a s we ll a s e x te rnal m ea s ure me n t s may b e t ak e n Ve rn ie r calipers .

may b e purchas e d w it h beams 2 4 lo ng if s o d es ired .

5 7
2 . Th e S tra igh t e dg e T h
- e s t ra igh t.e dg e may b e t e rm e d -

a to o l fo r angu lar m e as ure me nt as it is use d for me as uring angles

o f 1 8 0 d egree s ; i e
. fo r tes t ing t h e t rut h and accuracy o f an e dge
.

F IG . 52 7c . Pla in S t a igh t e dge

r - .

F IG . 52 7b . Be v ele d S tra igh t-e dge .

F IG . 52 7c . K nif e -e dge t i
S ra ght -edges .
1 14 ENG I NEERING AND S HO P P RACTI CE
or plane s urfac e Th is is d o ne by plac ing th e tool o n t h e s urfac e
.

and no t ic ing that th e light c o mes t hro ugh t h e lo w places Stra igh t .

edges a re mad e in t hree d iff e re n t cr os s s e c t io n s and e dg e s ; nam e ly

-
,

t h e s qua re e dge t h e be ve l e dge and t h e kn ife e dge t h e la t te r

, ,

be ing t h e mo s t accurate St ra igh t edges a re ge ne ra lly carefully

.
-

harde ne d on th e e dges a n d accurately gro und by s pe c ia l machines

fo r s t ra igh tn ess and paralle lis m .

5 2 8 Th
. e B e ve l P rotra c to r Th e b e v e l.pr o t rac t o r is us e d by
m ach in is ts for mak ing angu lar me as ure m e n ts As mos t of t h ese
.

me as ure me nts a re made bet wee n s urfac es t h is pro trac to r is

d es igned to o bt ain t h e des ired res ult by a co mbinatio n of line

U niversa l Be v l Pe ro tra c tor .

and e ndm e as ure me n ts I ts es s e nt ial fe at ures a re : a gra duated

.

circle o r p o rt io n of a c irc le in s o m e c o mb ina tio n w it h t wo s tra igh t

ed g es and
, a cla m i
p g n d e v ic e fo r re t a in ing t h e r e la t iv e p o s it io n o f
th e s t ra igh t e dges aft e r a s e tt ing h as bee n mad e
-
Be ve l pro
.

t rac t o rs m a y b e purcha s e d in a var ie t y o f s t y les and s hape s ,

acco rd ing to t h e id e as o f t he m a n ufac t ure rs A c o mm o n fo rm .

o f be ve l pro t rac t o r h as a gradua te d d is c att ach e d t o o n e s t ra igh t

””
e dge wh ile t h e o t h e r s t ra igh t e dge carries t h e indica t o r or z e ro
,
-
,

”
.

lin e a n d t h e clamp ing d e v ic e

, O n e s t ra igh t e d ge is calle d t h e
.
-

s t o ck a n d t h e o t h e r t h e blad e T h e b lad e is fro m 7 t o 1 2 lo ng

.
,

wh ile t h e s t o ck is 4 lo ng and bo t h a re mad e fro m s h ee t s teel

,
.

T h e d is c is graduate d in d egre es fro m 0 t o 9 0 e ach way and ro ta tes ,

t h e e nt ire c irc le o n a c e n t ral s t ud ins id e t h e cas e T h e blad e

.

( c lamp e d by an e cc e n t r ic s t ud aga i n s t t h e e dg e o f t h e d is c ) may

1 16 ENGI NEERI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE

592 . Ta b le s . Ta b le of Ta pe rs an d An gle s , Ta b le of An gle s

of G e om e tri ca l Figure s .

T A P E RS PE R FO O T A ND CO RRE S PO N DI NG AN G L ES

A with
n gle
Ce n ter ine L

FI G 5 2 9 0 .

T AB LE no n D re I NG C I RCL ES OR LA Y N G I OU T G EO MET RI C AL F IGU RE S

S ee FIG . 52 9 c

818e
11 h
fikgt
l d
A gln es a t Cen ter of Circles Angle s for Sides of Figures

° °
18 54
°
45
° ° ° ° ° °
64 38 12 12 38 64 17 '

° ° ° °
67 45 1 1 33 45
'

° °
10 70
° °
54 45
° ° ° °
45 7 22 30 , 37 30 ’

F IG . 52 9 b .
 MEAS U RI NG AND S M L A L TOOLS 1 17

F IG . 52 9 c . Dia g a m r b
I llus tra ting Ta le , F ig 52 9 b
. .

G AG E S
53 1 . Cla s s ifi ca tion ages for line ar d ime ns ions may b e
. G
d ivid ed into d ime ns io n al and n umbe red g a ges acc ord ing to ,

whet he r t he y meas ure a po rt io n o f t he unit le ngt h or e xpress a

s iz e by so m e arb it rary le tt e r or numbe r .

D I M E N S I O N A L G AG E S

54 1 . T e s t a n d R ef e ren ce G a ge s T e s t Or re fe r e nc
. e g a g s
e a re

ch ie fly to tes t th e accuracy of ot he r ins t rume nts and gages ,

F IG . 54 1 . E nd M ea s ure Test Pieces .

1 18 ENG INEERING AND S HO P PRAC TICE
and vary in fo rm in acc o rdance wit h the make r s ideas Standa rd ’
.

e n d m e as ure s a re mad e e it h e r c irc ular or re c t angular in s e c tio n ,

w it h th e e nd s urfaces parallel and s tandard w it h in a lim it of

”
accuracy of r e i ns of an inch The y a re accurate s ubd ivis io ns of
.

t h e I mpe rial Yard a n d a re valuab le for d ete rm in ing t h e accu racy

of m icro m e te rs s lid e o r be am g a ges and s nap gages Re fe r“
.
,

e nc e d is cs a re s hape d lik e a s ilve r d ollar t h e ir c ircular fo rm ,

making t he m ve ry c o nve nie nt for se tting calipe rs Ve ry accurate .

me as ure m e nts may b e made w it h t h is fo rm of g age a s a ve ry

delica te c o nt ac t is o b ta ined s inc e the gage and p ie c e are only
,

in line c o n t ac t wit h e ach o t h e r .

54 2 .S tan d a rd C y lin dri cal G a ge s Th is c las s o f w

. o rk ing gage s

is re c o mme nd ed fo r t h e m os t accurate w o rk and pos sess es large ,

F IG . 542 . Cylind ica l C age a nd Plug

r .

w e aring s urfac es wh ich a re harde ned gro und and lapped accu ,

ra te ly to s iz e ; and o n acc o un t o f t h e warran te d accuracy to

“ in“ ,
of an inch th e gages a re in t e rcha n ge ab le They a re made for
.

bo t h inte rnal and ex te rnal me as ure me nts .

543 Sta n da rd Ca lipe r G a ge s

. I n t h e s malle r s iz es of t h is
.

gage t h e e xte rnal gage is a t o ne e nd and t h e in te rnal gage a t t h e

ot h e r
. I n c o n s t ruc t io n t h e y a re ligh t rig id and a re in t e nd e d for
,

ge ne ral s ho p wo rk Prat t . W h it ne y s t ate t hat it h as bee n

c le arly d e mo ns t ra ted and pro ve d c o nc lus ive ly t hat th e limit of
d elic a cy o f to uch in re gard to calipe ring or dup licat ing parts

”
req uire d to b e in te rchange able is abo ut “ 56 5 of an inch and in ,

no o t h e r gage is t h is m inu te d iff e re nc e s o p e rc e pt ib le a s w it h a

”
s nap (calipe r) gage hav ing para llel jaws harde n e d gro und
“
, ,

and po lis h e d t hus mak ing t h is an ava ilable prac t ical in s trum e nt
,
“

o f pre c is io n
, n e c ess ary in e ve ry mach ine s h o p wh e re in te rchange
able w o rk is d e mand ed .
120 ENGIN EE RI NG AND S HO P PRACTICE
e xac t s ize
” ”
kno wledge is had a s to t he e xac t amoun t t h e pie c e
no

”
,
“
is o ut A lim it gag e is in fac t t wo gages ; t hus in t h e e xte rnal
.

fo rm o ne t he go o n is inte nd ed to s lip o ve r th e p ie c e ; t h e
,
“

other t he ,
n o t go o n o ne n o t t o s lip o ve r it t h e lim it o r d iff e r
, , ,

e nc e in s iz e be t wee n t h e t wo vary ing acc o rd ing to t h e na t ure of

t h e wo rk S uch gages a re w id e ly us e d wh e re t h e accura te and

.

e c o n o m ica l pro duct io n of dup lica te parts is e s se n tia l ; fo r by t h eir

us e t h e time c o ns um e d in tes t ing and gag ing is reduc ed to a

m inimum wh ile t h e parts a re s till fin is he d accurately e no ugh to

,

have t he m go together s uffic ien tly well to o bviate t h e ne c ess it y

F IG . 544b . Adj u ta ble L im it Gage

s s.

”
of furt he r fi tt ing F or t h e lim its a llo we d and t h e s tandard lim its
.

”
fo r lim it gage s t h e re ad e r is re fe rred to t he t ables and dat a o n
“
L im its fo r L im it G ages Se c t io n 788 Chap te r 7 Be n ch and
, , ,

V is e Work .

N U M B E R E D G AG E S

55 1 . Criti cis m . A cc o rd ing t o t h e

be s t aut h o ritie s a pro pe rly ,

des igned arbit rary (numbe red o r le t te red ) gage S h o uld have th e
,

d ivis io ns increas e by a regular geo met ric progres s io n ; h o we ve r ,

t h is is not t h e cas e w it h t h e gages n o w in use F o r s e ve ral .

re as o ns inte llige n t m e n loo k fo rward to t h e t ime whe n a ll arbi

t ra ry gages w ill b e abo lis h e d and wh e n a ll d im e ns io n s w ill b e

g iv e n in frac t io n s o f t h e un it le n gt h T ra ut w in e mak e s t h e .
 MEAS URI NG A ND S M ALL TOO S L
following pe rt inent re marks rela tive to t h is s ubj e ct : No t rade
s t up id it y is m o re t h o ro ugh ly se ns e les s t han th e adh e re nc e to t h e

vario us Birm ingham Lanc a s h ire et c gages ins tea d o f a t o nce

, ,
.
,

d en ot ing th e t h ickness and d iamete r o f s hee ts wire etc by th e , , .

,

parts of an inch a s h a s bee n lo ng s ugges ted T o avo id m is t ak es .

t hat a re ve ry a pt to o cc ur fro m t h e numbe r of g a g es in us e and ,

fro m t he abs urd prac t ic e of applying t h e s ame g age numbe r to

”
d iffe re nt met a ls in d iffe re n t to wns it is bes t to igno re t he m a ll ,

and in g iving o rd e rs t o de fine t h e d iame te r of wire and t h e t h ick

ness o f s hee t me t al by part s of an inch .

Thes e arb it rary gages a re us e d t o d es ignate th e s iz es of s heet

met al w ire drill ro ds s cre ws et c and a re mad e in two d iffe re nt
, , , , .
,

ways ; t h e n o t che d gage is inte nd ed to pus h o ve r t h e mate rial

m eas ured wh ile w it h t h e t r iangu lar s lo tt e d gage t h e ma te ria l
,

(u s ua lly o f c ircu lar cr os s s e c t io n ) s pus h e d into t he s lo t unt il it

i -

to uch es bo t h s id es wh e n t h e d ivis io n a t t h e po in t o f c o n t ac t g ives

,

t h e gage numbe r .

I n Se c t io n 55 8 will b e fo und t ab les g iv ing t h e de c ima l e qu iv

a leuts o f an inch c o rres po nd ing to t he vario us s hee t me ta l w ire
, , ,

drill and s cre w gages in c o mmo n us e .

55 2 Th
. e U ni t e d S ta t e s S t an d a r d G a g e T h e U n it e d S t a tes .

s tandard g a ge was e s tab lis h e d by a n A c t o f Co ngress in 1 8 9 3 ; it

is us e d by t h e G o ve rnm e nt in d ete rm in ing t h e t axes and dut ies

le v ie d o n s h ee t iro n pla te iro n and s tee l and by s o m e A me rican
, ,

ro lling m ills fo r t h e abo ve and Am e rican plan is he d iro n .

553 Th
. e A m e ri ca n o r B r o w n S h a rp e G a g e Th is gag e is .

us ed almos t e xc lus ive ly fo r s heet brass s h ee t alum inum s hee t , ,

G e rm an s ilve r bras s w ire braze d bras s t ub ing and G e rman s ilve r

, , ,

w ire of Ame rican man ufac ture .

554 Th
. e B i rm in g h am o r S tu b s W ir e G a ge
’
I n u s ing .

St ubs gage s it s h o u ld b e re m e mbe re d t ha t a d iffe re n c e e x is t s

’

be twee n St ubs iro n w ire gage and S tubs s t ee l w ire gage T h e

’ ’
.

Birm ingham t h e E ng lis h s t andard w ire and St ubs w ire a re t he

’
,

s am e and a re w id e ly u s e d fo r s h ee t iro n s h ee t s te e l s h ee t c o ppe r

, , ,

and s e amles s t ub ing of a ll k ind s St ubs s tee l wire gage is us e d in

.
’

m e as uring dra wn s t ee l w ire o r dr ill ro d s of S t ubs mak e

’
.

555 Th. e W a s h b u rn M o e n M f g C o s G a ge Th is .gag e is

’
.

us e d a lm o s t e nt ire ly fo r gag ing t h e pro d uc ts o f t h is c o mpany .

55 6 Th. e A m e r i ca n T w i s t D r ill G ag e Th is gag e i s u s e d by.

A me rican man ufac t ure rs for t h e s malle r s izes of t wis t drills .

122 ENG INEE RING A ND S HO P P RACTICE

55 7 Th . e A m e ri ca n S c re w G age , a n d Oth e rs Th is gage is .

us ed almo s t e xc lus ive ly for woo d and mach ine s cre ws of iro n ,
s t ee l o r brass and d es ignates t he s ize o f t he un t hre ad e d po rtio n
o f t h e s hank regard less o f t h e s t yle of t h e h e ad
,
.

A m o ng t h e nume ro us o t he r g a ges may b e m e nt io n e d : T h e

‘

s t ee l mus ic w ire gag e t h e I llin o is Z inc Co s z inc gag e t h e R us s ia

’
, ,

iro n gage and t h e d e c ima l ga ge .

558 . Com pa rison of W ire , Sh e e t Metal , a n d oth e r G a ge s .

Dm m s xo x s m D a c n uu P u . eri o ns o r A N I nc a

Bu ris h I m pe ria l S td
'
U 8 S td . .

L
.
.

N um ber W ire G a ge e ga l S td G a ge fo r Num be r

3 " Am “
E3?
“
3; l ?
“
ee t a n d
.

of in G r Br t n since
' '
S h of
1
G
.

(58 8 ° Stubs
’
Bro wn b um Co gs Ma r . 1 , 1 33 4 a ge

Iro n W ire S ha rpe Mocn W ire £29

’
s
Gg
a e Gg
a e G a ge
s ince
]
July
Inc h e s 1 , 1 89 3
124 ENG INEE RI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE

D E CI M AL EQ U IV A L E NT S o r TE E N U M B E RS or T W IS T DRI LL AND ST E E L
W I RE G A G E

. 09 35

F IG . 5586 .

S MA LL T O O LS VA RI O U S G AG E S
6
5 1 . Th e S cre w Pit ch G age A cre w pit ch gage is a tool
. s

s im ilar in s hap e t o a p o ck e t kn ife ; it s

-
blad es a re no t ch ed to co n
fo rm w it h t h e s e c t ions o f s t andard t hre ad s s o t hat t he y will fi t
s t andard s cre ws hav ing a c e rt a in numbe r o f t hre ad s pe r inch .

Th is to o l is us e d to m e as ure t he t hre ads o f nuts as we ll as t hat

o f s cre w s O n e ach b lad e is s t ampe d t h e numbe r o f n o t ch e s
.
,

t ha t is t hre ad s pe r inch and t w ic e t h e d e pt h o f t h e t hre ad ; t h is

,

la tte r am o un t s ubt rac te d fro m t h e o ut s id e d iam e te r O f t h e s cre w

gives t h e s ize fo r t h e ta p drill .

56 2. T h e Ce n t e r G a ge T h e c e
. n t e r gag e is g e n e ra lly a s h o rt
no t che d s tee l ru le s im ilar in s hape to t he c o nve n t io n al re pres e n
,

t a tio n o f t h e fe a t h e re d en d of an arro w I t is us e d in grind ing

.

and in s ett ing s cre w cutting o r t hre ad ing too ls T h e angles us e d .

 MEAS U RI N G A ND S M ALL TOO S L 25

on the an dard gage a re 60 d egrees fo r th e U n ite d St ates s tandard

st

t h re ad T h e fo ur gradua t io ns o n t h is gage have th e inch d iv id ed

.

int o 1 4 2 0 2 4 and 32 parts wh ich a re c o nvenie n t in m ea s uring

, , ,

F IG . 56 1 . Sc re w P itch Gag
e .

the numbe r of t hre ads pe r inch of o rd inary taps a nd s cre ws ;

”
h o we ver a ll ce nte r ga ges a re n o t graduate d and marked a like
, .

So m e gages have a t able wh ich is us e d to d et e rm ine t h e s ize o f

t a p drills fo r V t hre ad s giving in t h ous and t hs o f an in ch
“
,

F IG J

F IG . 562 . Ce nt Gage a nd M ethod

er of Us ing it .

”
twice t h e de pt h of th e t hre ad of th e c om m o n pit ch es Th is .

amo unt s ubt rac te d fro m t h e d iame te r of t h e s c re w givw the

d iamete r of t h e ta p drill for a V t hread Such a t ab le for “
.
126 ENGINEERI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE
U n ite d S tates st andard t hreads m a y be made by d ividing th e
c o ns t a n t t w ic e th e d e p t h of a t hre ad O f a s cre w t hat is
one pit ch by the numbe r o f t h read s for ea ch d es ired pit ch .

Th e us e o f th is ga g e is illus t rate d and t ak e n up a t le ngt h in

Sec tio n 8 7 6 .

6
5 3 Th
. e D e pth G a ge . de pt h gage is a s imple tool use d
A
for mea s uring t h e de p t h of holes ke yways and rec ess e d parts as
, ,

well as fo r meas u ring d is t anc es und er a s ho uld er or s mall pro

j e c t io n s o n a p lan e s urfac e T h
. e b lad e o r rod g e n e ra lly p as se s

t hro ugh t h e h ead a t righ t angles t o it and may b e c lamped wh e n

t h e se tt in g is mad e .

6 Th U n iv e rs a l Su rf a ce G age A s urfac e gage is a too l

5 4 . e .

use d by mach in is ts for me as uring O ff d is t a nc es us ually fro m a ,

give n plan e s urfac e I t is ch ie fly us ed in se tt ing wo rk pre pa ra

.

to ry to mach in in g it Th e princ ipa l parts of a un ive rs a l s urfac e

.

gage a re a s olid ba s e w it h c lamp ing a nd adjus t m e nt de v ic es a ,

p o s t w h ich may b e t ur n e d t hro ugh a n arc o f 2 70 d egrees a s wiveled

,

s leeve carry ing a scn ber cla s p wh ich may b e s wun g aro und t h e
'

po s t ; a s cribe r c las p fo r h o ld ing t h e s cribe r on t h e s wivele d s lee ve

and a scriber for mak ing t h e mark ings (F ig 56da ) . .
 ENGINEE RING A ND S HO P PRACTICE

F IG . 564b . M th e o ds of U s ing U nive rsa l S urface G age .

F IG . 57 1 a . H a rde n e d a nd G ro und S te e l M an dre l

.
 MEAS U RI NG AND S MALL T OO S L 1 29

e nds of s uch an arbo r a re t urned s ligh tly und e r s ize with a fla t

te n e d po rt io n t o re c e ive t h e do g T h e end s urfac es a re s ligh t ly
.

ro und ed s o t hat t h e bump ing and hamm ering wh ich t he y re c e ive

will not d es t ro y the t rut h of th e c o un te rs unk c ente rs ; t h is c lass
) f arbo r is d es ign e d t o h o ld w o rk re ame d by s t andard re am e rs .

F IG . 57 1 b .
—N icholso n E pa nding La the
x Ma ndre l .

E xpand ing arbo rs or mand re ls a re ge ne rally made w it h a

s lee ve and t ape r and a re d es ign e d t o h o ld any w o rk t h e bo re o f
, ,

wh ich is wit h in t h e ir capac ity An arbo r s h o uld b e drive n o r

.

pres s e d into th e bo re j us t tight e no ugh to pre ve n t s lipp ing ; any

furt h e r fo rc ing tend ing to d is to rt th e pie c e t hus pro duc ing inac ,

curate wo rk .

57 2
. R ea m e rs A re am e
. r is a t o o l d e s ign e d fo r t ru ing and
mak ing accurate drille d h o les wh ich a re rarely fo und to be ro und
and s t raigh t A s t andard t ype o f re am e r c o ns is ts of a ro und
.

pie c e of too l s teel a po rtio n of wh ich c o nt ains s t raigh t or s piral

,

flutes lengthwise pro duc ing cutting edges wh ich a re hard e ne d

, ,
.

and accurate ly gro und to s ize T h e e nds o f t h e c ut ting e dges

.

a re mad e s ligh t ly ro und e d o r t ape re d pro duc ing in t h e re am e r a,

t e nd e ncy to kee p t o ward t h e c e n te r o f th e h o le T h e t ape re d .

po rtio n o f th e cutting edge is so m et ime s thre ade d pro duc ing ,

what is calle d a s elf fe e d ing ream er T h e en d of t h e s hank is

-
.

F IG . 5 72 a . S el ff
- ee ding Re a m e r .

pro vid ed w it h a uare d po rtio n by m e a ns o f which th e re ame r

sq .

may b e t urn ed O t h e r varie ties o f reame rs t hat m ay b e m e n

'

. .

t io n ed a re flat chuck ing and s h e ll re am ers fo r us e in t urre t

, ,

mach ine ry ; ro ugh ing and fin is h ing tape r reame rs for re am ing
s t a n dard t ap e r h oles ; e x pand ing o r adjus t ab le re am e rs fo r o b t a in a
1 30 ENG IN EE RING A ND S H O P P R ACTICE

”
ing a m inu te varia t io n in t h e s ize o f t h e h o les ; and c e n te r reame rs
for re am ing c o un te rs unk c e n te rs

” ”
.

H o les und e r 1 in d iam e t e r t ha t a re s ub s e que n tly to b e re am ed

, ,

s h o u ld b e drille d or bo re d und e r s iz e ; for h o les o ve r 1 and

"

und e r 2 in d iam ete r 31 5 o f s t o ck is le ft fo r th e reame r to re m o ve ,

t h e h o les be ing mad e und e r s ize F o r ve ry accurate w o rk .

t h e re am e r s h o uld a lways b e O p e ra t e d by hand and t h e m e t h o d

of s e curing t h e a lignm e n t o f a t a may b ucc fu lly u d f
p e s ess s e o r

re am ing .A c e n t e r is ins e rt e d in t he drill s p ind le and t h is , ,

ins e rt ed in t h e c o un te rs ink in t h e e n d o f t h e re am e r is us e d t o ,

F IG . S h e ll Rea m e rs .

F IG . 5 72 0 . S h e ll Rea m e r A r b or .

se cure th e a lignme n t , the re a me r be ing turn e d by m e a n s of a

t a p wre nch a s u s ua l .

57 3
. Ca lipe rs .p a irAo f c a lip e rs is a t oo l w it h t wo a d ju s t a b le

leg s fo r t ak in g o r t ra n s fe rr ing m e a s ure m e n t s O u ts id e c a lipe rs .

a re mad e w it h curv e d le g s a n d a s t h e n a m e im p lie s a re u s e d fo r

, ,

” ”
t ak ing o u t s id e m e a s ure m e n t s wh ile in s id e ca lipe rs h a ve s t ra igh t
,

leg s and a re use d fo r in s id e m e a s ure me n ts Ca lipe rs a re s e t t o .

“
gage o r to s c a le ; t h e y a re h a rd ly t o b e c o n s id e re d as in s t ru
“

m e n ts o f pre c is io n a s t h e s e tt ing o r t h e t a k ing o f m e a s ure m e n ts

a re d e pe nd e n t up o n t h e s k ill and s e n s e o f t o uch o f t h e o pe ra t o r .

I n se tt ing ca lipe rs t o s c a le care s h o u ld b e t a k e n t o hav e o n e

,

leg flus h wit h t h e e n d o f t h e s c a le adju s t ing t h e o t h e r leg by ,

m e ans o f t he t humb n ut un t il it s plits t h e lin e ; a s t h e a ve rage

t h ickn e ss O f t h e lin e is an e rro r O f t h is a m o un t is O ft e n
s u ffi c ie nt t o s p o il accura t e w o rk I n t a k ing m e a s ure m e n ts t h e
.

calipe rs m us t b e pla ce d s quare ly acro s s t h e p ie ce a t r igh t a n gle s ,

1 32 ENG I NEE RING AN D S HO P P RAC TI CE
MEAS URING AN D S M ALL TOO S L 1 33

Fm . 5 74 . Sprin g D ividers .

F IG . 5 75 . S lee ve Scribe r.

F IG . 5 76 . Ce n ter P unches .
1 34 ENG IN EE RING AND S H O P P RAC TI CE
Th e lo ca t io n of any mark may b e s ligh tly change d by s lant ing
t he punch in t h e d ire c tio n t o ward s wh ich it is d es ire d to m o ve
th e mark .

577. W ren ch e s W.re nch es a re t o o ls u s e d by mach in is ts f o r

t urn ing va rio us nu ts and s cre w s ; t h e y a re mad e in a varie t y of

des ig ns and s izes Wre nches may be d iv id ed into t h e fo llo w ing
.

ge ne ral c lasses
Mo vable jaw wre nch es d es ign ed fo r t urn ing d iffe re nt s ize d
,

nuts ; th e c o mmo n mo nk e y wre nch be ing t he bes t e xamp le of

t h is c lass.

F ixe d jaw wre nch e s a re dro p fo rge d o r cas t wre nch e s t h e

-
,

d is tanc e be t wee n wh o se jaws is fixed .

So ck e t wrench e s a re T s hape d wre nch es d es ign e d fo r t urn ing

-
,

bo lts o r nu ts be lowt h e s u rfac e .

S pann e r wre nch es a re d es ign e d fo r t urn ing cy lindrica l nu ts .

P ipe wre nch es w it h hard e n e d jaw s a re us e d fo r gripp ing and

t urn ing vario us s ize d p ipe and cylindr ica l p ie c es .

Tap and reame r wre nch es a s t h e ir names ind icate a re us ed

, ,

fo r t urn ing taps and re am e rs ; t h e y a re mad e adjus t able and w it h

d ouble hand le s .
1 36 ENG INEERING AND S HO P PRAC TIC E

Hu m m us T u m As a Di e s

62 1 Sta nd
. a rdTa ps A ta p is a ha rde ned s tol e] s c re w, fluted
.

lo ngit udina lly to fo rm c ut t ing edge s , a nd ha ving a t t he e nd of

its s ha nk a s qua red p ort io n, o ve r wh ic h is fit te dt he ta p wre nc h
by whic h it is t urm s l . T he eo nuno n fo rm s of ta ps a ret h e ta pe r,
t he plug a nd t he lm t to m ing t a p ; t he ge ne ra l c h a ra c te ris t ics o f

mu h m a y he no te d f ro m l ig 62 h
c '
.

Fm . "a ndTa ps , Ta per, Plug an d lio tto m ing .

T he ta pe r ta p is us e d fo r t h re a ding ho le s wh ic h pa ss clea r
t h ro ugh t he m a te ria l . W h e re it is de s ire d to t h re a d a ho le tha t
do e s no t run t h ro ugh
t he pie c e , t he ta pe r ta p is us e d to s t a rt t h e
t h re a d , t he plug t a p t o e o m p le i o it t o n e a r t h e o t t o m , a nd b
d a full th re a d a ll t he wa y to t he bo t to m o f t h e
s ho ul h o le he
re quire d t he Im tto m ing ta p ni o s t h e us e d
, .

Ta ps a nddie s a re m a de to c ut t he s t a nda rd t h re a d da re“

an

nun ie in s iz i i h h l U S d d w l h ea d
’ ‘
e s g ve n n t e t a e S t a n a r S e ro - .r .

"
llo lt a nd Nut l ia i a l
( g .i Fo r‘
fo rm ula s ta p dr ills a nd
.
,

a ny o t he r d a ta re la t ive to U H s l a nd a rd t h re a d
.s t he re a de r is
. ,

re fe rre d to t h is ta b le .

62 2 Ma chine Scre w Ta ps Ma c hine s c re w t a ps a re m a de

. .

wit h V th re iuls a m i a re us e d fo r ta pping h o le s fo r m a c hine

“

Fm . "2 2 . Ma c hine S c re w Ta p .
sc re
S R C EW
ws wh ich a re ge ne rally less t han i in diamete r As yet n o
natio nal s tandard for mach ine s cre w s izes and t hre ads h as bee n
A ND P I N

”DATA
.
1 37

es t ab lis h e d ; s ee Se c 67 6 Mach ine s cre w taps lik e s t andard

. .
,

hand taps a re mad e t ape r plug and bo tto m ing w it h t h e s hanks

, , ,

e it h e r t h e s iz e of t h e bo tto m o f t h e t hre ad or fu ll t hre ad s iz e ,

.

A ro ugh and re ady met h o d of d ete rm in ing t h e s ize of ta p

drills fo r mach ine s cre w taps is to ins e rt th e p oin t of t h e ta p in
a drill gage and s e le c t a drill t ha t will make a hole a t rifle larger ,

sa y T h e t ables in Se c tio n 67 2 g ive th e d e c imal e qu iva le n ts

fo r t h e no m ina l s izes of ta p drills for machine s cre w t aps .

62 3 Die s o r S cre w Pla te s

. Dies or s cre w plat es a re hard e n ed
.
,

s tee l t hre ad ed nu t s flu ted across t h e t hre ad s o as to fo rm cu t ting

-
,

F IG . 62 3a . Adj usta ble D ies .

edges and having s uch a s hape as to be eas ily fas tene d

, in h olde rs
called s to cks by wh ich t he y a re t urned
, .

F IG . 62 3b . M hiac ne o r So lid B o lt D ies .

1 38 ENGI NEERI NG AND S HO P PRAC TI CE

”
62 4 . Ta ps an d Die s Pipe t aps a nd d ies a re
Sta n da rd Pipe .

mad e to c o nfo rm wit h th e B riggs s tandard O f t h re ads fo r wro ugh t

’

iro n w e ld e d t ubes and t ape r i to t h e foo t

,
I n Se c tio n 67 3 .

is g ive n a t ab le O f s tandard d ime ns io ns of wro ugh t iro n weld e d -

pipe acc o rd ing to th e Briggs s tandard wh ich is n o w in gen ,

e ra l use and wa s fo rma lly ad o pted by th e Man ufac t urers of

Wr o ugh t iro n P ipe a nd Bo ile r Tubes in th e U n ite d States a t
-
,

t h eir Pitts burg m ee t ing in 1 88 6 .

Ream er

F IG . 62 4 . P ipe Ta p, H o b an d Rea m e r .

S CR E W S

63 1 . S cre ws . Ma ch in e
cap and s e t s cre ws a re
, ,

mad e in a var ie t y of s izes and h e ad s Ma ch ine and w oo d s cre ws

.

a re made in s izes c o rre s po nd ing to t h e A me rican s cre w gage ;

t he d iff e re nc e betwee n c o ns e cu t ive s izes is s t a rt ing w it h
1 40 ENG I NEE RI NG AN D S HOP P RACTI CE
angle of t h e c o ne of fl at h ead (c o unters unk ) s cre ws is 76 old
- °

s t yle and 8 2
°
St andard t he s id es making ang les o f
,

52 o ld s t yle and 49 St andard w it h th e t o p

° °

”
.

T h e c o mmo ne r he ads o n mach in e s cre ws a re te rmed flat he a ds ,

ro und he ads fla t fi llis te r he ads and o val fi llis te r h e ad s Ma

, .

ch ine s cre ws a re made wit h V o r U S St andard t hre ads as

“
. .

d es ire d F o r fu rthe r informatio n c o ns ult t h e t ables and dat a in

.

Se c t io n 676.

63 2. Ca p Screws T h e d iame t e r o f cap s cre ws is ge n e rally

.

s t ate d in frac t io n s o f an inch Th ey lik e machine s c re ws a re

.
, ,

made with a varie t y o f he ad s s uch as s quare h e ad he xago n head , ,

o val fi llis t e r h e ad and fla t fi llis te r h e ad fl a t h e a d bu tt o n h e ad , ,

and o v a l c o unte rs unk or F re nch he ad Ca p s crews a re us ually .

F IG . 632 .
—C
ap Screw .

made w ith t he U S Standard t hre ad and o n all s c re ws o ne inch

. .
,

o r le s s in d iame t e r and les s t han fo ur inches lo ng t h e t hre ad s

, ,

a re ou t t hree quarte rs o f t h e le ngt h ; be y o nd fo ur inch es t hre ad s

a re c ut ha lf th e le ngt h F o r d ime ns io ns o f h e ads and o t he r data

.

c o ns ult t h e t ab le o f s t andard cap and s e t s cre ws Se c tio n 67 5 . .

633 Se t Scre ws . T h e d iame t er o f s et s cre ws like that o f

a ll ot h e r b olt s and s cre ws e xc e p t m achin e s cre ws is s t a te d in ,
 SCR EW A N D PI N DATA 1 41

frac tio ns o f an inch Set s cre ws may b e purchase d w it h th e .

U S s t andard or V t hre ads and a re always c as e hard e n ed if

“
-
. .
,

made o f iro n or te mpe red if mad e o f s tee l The y a re t hre ade d

, ,
.

c le ar up to th e he ad wh ich la tte r if t he re be one is always , , ,

s quare Th e fo llo w ing te rm s d e s ignat e t h e pe cu liar charac te r

.

is tics of th e c o mm o n e r s e t s cre w s : cup p o in t ro und p o in t fla t , ,

po int cup po int h ead les s ro und po int h ead les s c o ne po in t h e ad

, , ,

les s fla t p iv ot p o int ro und p ivo t po in t hang e r se t p o in t c o n e

, , , ,

No 1 0 .

No I I No 2 N o. 6
—
. .

F IG . 633 Se t Sc re ws
. N 1 Regula r Ro und P in t . o .
, o . No 2 , Cup o in t
. P .

N 3 F la t Po in t
0 . N 4 Cup P in t H ea dl
, N 5 . O .
,
o ess . O .
, Ro un d o in t P
ea d H
les s N 6 Co n P in t H a dl
. O .N 7 F la t Piv t P
, e o e ess . O .
, o o in t .N o 8 Ro und . .

Pi t P in t N 9 Ha n g Se t Poin t N 1 0 C
vo o o er O o ne P o in t NO 1 1 ,

”
. .
.
, .
,
. .

N o t Ne cked .

po in t and no t ne cke d . Cup po in t s e t s cre ws a re regular a ll o t h e r ,

k inds a re s pe c ial and ,

no s cre w wh ich h a s a h e ad m o re t han 1 1 6
1 42 ENGI NEE RI NG AN D S H O P PRAC TICE
large r than t h e bo dy is c las s e d a s a set s cre w . Se e Se c tio n 67 5
fo r o t he r da t a regarding se t s cre ws .

634 . Coa ch or La g S cre ws . Co ach

cre ws a re large or la g s

wo o d s cre ws w it h a h e ad d es ign e d to b e t urn e d w it h a wre nch ;

t h e y a re mad e wit h e it h e r s quare or was h e r h e a ds .

Ne ! Ne 2 Nm 3

F I G 63 4
. .
— Coa c h Sc re ws . No 1
.
,
S q ua re H ea d F IG . 635 .
—H a nge r

G im l t P
e o in t . NO 2 ,
. W h H as er ea dG im le t P o in t . S cre w .

63 5 . H a n ge r S cre ws . H a nge r r ws a re s im ilar to c o ach

sc e

s cre ws w it h th e e xc e pt io n t hat a n ut is pro v id e d in s t e ad o f a h e ad .

BO LT S A ND ST U D S

64 1 . Ma chin e B olt s . Mach in e

bo lts a re mad e U S . .andard
st

w it h s quare or h e x ago n h e ad s and a re thre a d ed ,

on t h e lo nge r
1 44 G EE RI NG
EN I N AN D S H O P PRAC TI CE
b olts machin ed to s ize und e r th e he ad ; t h e y a re us e d in th e
a re

vario us s haft c o up lings .

643 Ca rria ge B olt s

. Carriag e b o lts a re mad e w it h a s qua red
.

po rtio n directly und e rne at h t h e he ad wh ich la tte r is ne ve r s quare ,

No 4 .
NO $ .

F IG . 643 C . a rria ge Bo lts

No . . 1 Co m m on C i g B lt No 2 Ova l
,
a rr a e o . .
,

H d P h il d lph i Ea gl C
ea a e a e i g B lt
a rr a NO 3 B
e o l H d P h il d l
. .
, e ve ea a e

ph ia E gl C i g B lt N
a e a rr a e o . o .4 B t d H d Ph il d lph ia Ea gle C
, as a r ea a e ar

ringe B o lt N 5 C un t . u O .
, o e rs n k H d Ph il d lph i E gl Car ia ge B lt
ea a e a a e r o .

or h e x ago n Th e y a re furn is hed w it h s quare n uts a n d a re m ad e

.

w it h th e follow ing he ad s : c o mmo n o val be vel bas ta rd a nd , , ,

co unters unk .
 SCRE W AN D P I N DATA 1 45

Stove Bolts . St o v e
bolts a re mad e w it h fla t c o un ters un k
o r ro und he a d s and a re furn is h ed wit h large t h in s q uare nuts ;
, ,

t he y a re princ ipa lly us e d fo r s t o ve w o rk .

64 5 Studs
. A s t ud is a p ie c e O f s t ee l o r iro n t hre ad ed at
.

bo t h e nds w ith an unt hre ad e d po rtio n in t h e m idd le ; t hat po rtio n

which is t hre aded to re c eive t h e n ut is ro unded o n t h e en d wh ile ,

F IG . 645 . M illed I ron S tud .

the po rt io n in te nded to b e s cre wed in to t h e cas t ing is fac ed fla t ;

t h e s t andard le ng t h o f t h e t hre ad e d p o rt io n b e ing 1 } t ime s t h e
d iamete r of t he s cre w St uds a re us e d fo r bo lt ing h e ads and
.

flanges to cylind ers o r in d e t a ils whe re t h e p ie c e is lik ely to b e

,

re m o ve d se v e ra l t im es during t h e life o f t h e mach ine .

N U T s , RI V E T S , CoTT E Rs , E T C .

65 1 . Nuts . A n ut is t ha t
quare O r h e xago n s haped pie c e of s -

s t ee l w it h a t hre ad e d h o le d es ign e d t o s cre w o n a bo lt o r s t ud .

Nu ts a re made in t h e U S s t andard s iz e s and may b e pur . .

chas e d ro ugh punch e d ro ugh t hre ad e d se mi fi n is h e d fi nis h e d

, ,
-
,

a n d cas e hard e n e d
- .

652 .Rive ts Riv ets a re manufac t ure d o f e xt re m e ly duc t ile

.

and malle ab le mate ria l and s h o uld b e able to w it h s tand s e ve re

t rea t m e nt in fo rging w it h o ut impa iring t he ir s t re ng t h The y .

a re mad e w it h var io us h e ad s s uch as fla t ro un d be vel c o ne , , , ,

mach ine glo be c o unte rs unk t rus s wh eel o val c o unte rs unk and
, , , , ,

wago n b o x See page 1 46 fo r F ig 652

. . .

653 Cotte rs
. A c o tt e r is a s plit pin w it h a n e ye h e ad de
.
,

s ign e d t o b e ins e rte d in a drille d h ole .

F IG . 653 . S p ring C o tte r.

1 46 ENG IN EE RIN G A ND S H O P PRACTI CE

R o u nd H ea d Be vel H ee d C o n e H ea d

T rus s H ea d

W hee l H ead

G lo be H ea d Wagon Bo x H ea d O va l Co unte rs un k H ea d

F IG . 65 2 . Rive ts .
1 48 G EERI NG
EN I N A ND S H O P PRACTICE

T A B U LA T E D BO LT A ND T H RE A D DA T A .

67 1 . U S Sta n da rd Th rea d, B olt

. . a n d Nut Da ta .
 C EW
S R AN D P I N DATA 1 49

67 2 . Ta p an d Th rea d Da ta fo r Ma chin e S cre ws .

DE CI MA L EQ U I VA LE N TS or NO M I N A L S i zE s or T AP D RI LLS RO E MA C H I N E
S C R E W S (O L D ST Y LE ST D .
)

Am er

533 G D Di m 32 3: D ill Di m
.

Pitch ill r a Size Sid No r

T pD
a
Di
Gg T p D ill
. . . .

“
1 2 T hrea d
B ,
ot
N gp
0
o
a e a ri ll Scre w
G a ge
PM
of
T h ds
'
a e
No o f
a
in In
r

D ill of I n
. . .

r T a p Drill

F IG . 672 C .
1 50 EN G INEERI NG AN D S H O P PRACTI CE

Sta n da rd Ma chin e S c re ws . Sta n da rd .

BAS I C AND M Ax a II SC R EW D IA u m as H um m u SC R EW DI AuE rE RS

D
Ex te rna l ia m a n d
.

No T h ds pe r I n
’
. .

F IG . 67 2 b .

The p it ch es a re a f unc t io n Of th e d iamete r ,

as e xpress ed by
the fo rmula t hre ads pe r inch
,

D
and t h e res ults a re g ive n appro x imate ly and in ove n numb e rs in
o rd e r t o av o id t h e us e o f frac t io na l o r O dd numbe r t hre ads .
1 52 ENG I NEERI NG AND S H OP PRAC TI CE

674. Ta b le of D e cim nl Equiva len t s of a n In ch .

T he follo wing t ab le (F ig 674 ) o f d e c ima l e qu ivale n ts

. of an
inch w ill pro v e us eful in many ins tanc es and is h e re ins e rted to
as s is t in th e s elec t io n of vario us drills .

8ths 1 6th s 32 ds 64 ths 8t h s 1 6ths

F IG . 674 .
 SCR EW A ND PI N DATA 1 53

67 5 . Sta n da rd Se t S c re ws a n d Ca p S c re ws . U S Sta n da rd
. .

Th rea d .
(Com pile d by W . S D ix
. .
)

,
A D E r

Di m e t
a er o f S c rew j ’
1 s 3 1 ;
7
i
T h re ads pe r Inc h 40 24 20 18 16 14 12
S ize of Tap D rill (Ca s t I ro n ) No . 4 3 No 30 No 5 . .
if {I i {1

Di m te
a e r of S c re w
1
T h ad
re s pe r Inc h 10
Size of Tap D rill (C as t I ro n )
it
He x AG O N -HE AD CA P Sc a m s

S b rt LO ng 1 L g L gh
g 1 12512:
on en t s
D ia n Di a rtt 1 Di m (U d
H H
e n er
H d H d)
. .

ea d ea d ca d) ea ea

(C) I . 35 i to 3 1
1 5 . 51 i to 3 m
fl
. 53 i to 3
D
( )
6
,, . 44 I t o 3} I . 58 i to 31 z . 62 i t o 3}

(E ) I . 53 I to 3 ) . 65 I to 3 ) m . 71 i to 3 }
(F)
w
7
1 5 . 62 i to 3 4 3 .
72 i to 3 3 fi . ao I to 3 1
(G ) l . 71 i to 4 i . 87 1 to 4 m . 89 1 to 4
H
( ) . 80 I to 4 1 It . 94 1 1 5 41 l
l

‘
h
-
. 98 i to 4 }
( I) g . 89 1 1 0 4) i 1 to 4 ) m I to 4 }
(J ) i 1 to 4 2 1 1 15 1 4 1 5 41 m I } to 4 }
(K ) i l } to 5 1 4 1 30 1) to 5 w
i
I ; to 5
-
p

L
( ) l 1 3 15 5 I } 1 45 12 to 5 w
i 1 2 to 5
(m 1 1 10 5 I ; 1 59 m
d
l) 1 50 2 15 5 i
n
2 to 5
(N ) 1 I 10 5 1 ) 1 73 2 10 5 H w 2 } to 5

RO U ND 15 “ HE AD
H
233 333
1 31
B U TTO N - EAD CAP S CR E WS
8 8

d
D
iig
iii 0 553 354 3
5 Uz if iii
'g
e
’
ea d

(A )
1
1 1 1 to 2 1
B
( ) I i to 21
(C) i 1 to 3
1 to 3 1
(D ) 1 0 i
’ to 3 1
(E ) 1 s 1
(F ) I i to 3 1

(G) i i to 4

(H ) {i 1 to 4 }
I
( ) i 1} to 4 }
J
( ) 1 1) to 4 }

(K ) I ) 11 to 5
L
( ) } 1 2 to 5

h a . 67 5 .
1 54 EN GINEE RI NG AN D S HO P P RAC TI CE

67 6 . Sta n da rd Ma ch in e S c re w Pro po rtion s a n d Oth e r Da ta .

TA BL E or ST A N DA R D MA CH I N E S C RE W S . O L D ST A N D A RD .
(CO M P IL E D
BY W . S . Di x )

L ENG T R s
T h re a ds Di m
a of D ia m of Di m a of
H H
. . .

pe r In . Bo dy F la t ea d Ro und ea d
F ro m

L e n gt hs va r y by 1 6ths , f ro m
“
y; to 5,
by 8t h s from 5 to I Q, by 4 ths
fro m I } to 3 .

FIG . 6760 .
1 56 ENG I NEERING AN D S HO P PRAC TI CE

S P E CI A L S C RE W S . ST AN DARD
O U TS ID E D IAuE TE ns P ITCH D i m Roo r D IA u ET n s

O ut D ia a nd Mini
. . Max i D ider Mini Ma x i Dide r Mini Mu i B iflcr
T hds P I
. m um
. . m um e nce m um m um e nce m um m um en ce

002 1

F IG . 6761) (contin ued) .

C EW
S R AND P IN DATA 1 57

F IG . 67 60 . FL A T H E AD S CRE W S .

ST A N D A RD
A Di m t of B dya e er o
B 2 A 008 Di m te of H a d . a e r e

C A 00 8
T h ck e o f H d
.

i n ss ea

D 1 7 3A 0 1 5 W idth f Slot
, . o
E QC De pth of Slot

F IG . 67
1 58 ENG INEERI NG AN D S H O P PRACTI CE

F IG . 676d . RO U N D H
E A D S C RE W S .

S T A N D A RD
A Dia m f B dy . o o
B 1 85A 00 5 Di m f H
. . . a . o ea d
C 7A H ight f H d
. e o ea
D 1 73A l 0 1 5 W idth f Sl
.
-
. o ot
E QC 0 1 D pt h f S l t. e o o

F IG . 6 76d
.
1 60 ENGI NEE RING AND S HO P PRACTI CE

F IG . 676i . OV A L F IL L IS T E R H E A D S CREW S .

S T A N D A RD
> ]
I
Dia m e te r o f B o dy
w I
I
D am f H ad
1 64 A
. . 009 i . o e an dRa d fo r O va l
.

o 0 66A
I
I
H ight f S id
. . 00 2 e o e
c 1 7 3A
I
I
.W idth f S l t . 015 o o
m QF D pt h f S l t
l
l
e o o
w C H igh t f H d e o ea

FI G . 676i
.
 C H APTER VII

B E NCH A ND V I S E WO R K

PR E LI MI N A R Y PR O C E S S L A YI N G O U T

7 1 1 . La ying Out Re cti lin ea r W ork . Lay ing

work may o ut

b e d es cribe d as t h e o pe rat io n of p lac ing o n a cas t ing fo rg ing or ,

part ially fin is hed s urfac e s uch lines a s w ill ind icate t he lo catio n
and charac ter of t h e vario us o pe rat io ns s pec ified by t h e draw ings .

T h e ne c es s it y of laying o ut a ll wo rk is appare nt whe n o ne re a lizes

t h e amo un t of t im e and ann o yanc e t ha t m a y b e sa ved by it
in th e d ete c t io n Of e rro rs a lre ady inh e re n t in t h e p ie c e o r t hose
due t o pre v io us o pe ra t io ns .

Lay ing o ut co ns is ts in des ignat ing c e nte rs by c e nte r punch

marks draw ing lin es w it h a s u rfac e gage s cribe r and d ivid e rs on
, ,

pre vio us ly c o ate d s urfac es and in t rac ing irregular fo r m s o n

,

t h e m fro m te mp le ts . Pe rman e nc e is g ive n to many lin es and

arcs by do t t ing and ch ise ling t h e m I n ge ne ral lay ing o ut .
,

s h o u ld b e d o n e o n s o me s o lid p lan e s u rfac e s uch as t hat o f a

be nch blo ck o r a p late T h e s urfac e c o at ing o n wh ich t h e lines

.

a re d es cribe d may b e cha lk p o wd e re d cha lk and a lc o h o l c o ppe r

, ,

s u lpha te wh e re t h e s urface is free fro m o il and any of t h e

vario us c o at ing pa ints on t he marke t .

7 1 2 .L a i
y gn O u t C y lin dri ca l W ork C y lindr ica l w.o rk is

us ually place d in V blo cks o r V chuck s wh ile fia t p ie ces a re p laced

d ire c t ly o n th e plate Ce n te rs fo r c o re d h oles o r o pe n ings a re
.

lo cate d by fi tt ing a s t r ip of woo d across t h e m and d riv ing int o

t h is p ie c e o f w o o d a t t h e appro x imat e c e n te r a t in t a g mad e by ,

be nd ing d o wn t h e c o rn e rs of a t riangular p ie c e of t in and upo n ,

t h is t a g d e s c rib ing t h e line s and mark s wh ich lo ca t e t h e c e n te r .

T h e o pe rat io n O f lo ca t in g c e n t e rs o n w o rk is o n e O f imp o rt anc e

and re q uires care ful atte n t io n Vario us me t h o ds a re use d t h e
.
,

met h o d de pe nd ing upo n t he s h ape of th e p ie c e Cylindrical .

pie c es o r t h os e wh os e cross s e c t io n is s ymmet rical a re us ually

,
-
,

1 61
1 62 ENG I NEERI NG A ND S HO P PR AC TICE
c e nte red by o ne o f t h e fo llo wing s im ilar m et ho ds : c e n te r ing by
d ivid e rs c e nte ring by s urfac e gage o r c e nte ring by h ermaphro d ite
,

ca lipe rs O n t h e e nds of t h e p ie ce w it h a d is t anc e s o me what

.
,

gre ate r o r les s t ha n half its d iame te r fo ur lines o r arc s e nc lo s ing

, ,

a s ma ll fo ur s id ed figure a re drawn fro m po int s o n t h e pe rimete r

-
, .

At t h e c e n te r o f t h is figure m ake th e c e n te r pu n ch m ark and ,

plac ing th e pie c e if poss ible be t wee n t h e lat he ce nters re vo lve

, ,

by hand to de te rm ine t h e accuracy of t h e wo rk ; an e rro r of

o r m o re is t oo gre a t and s h o u ld b e c o rre c te d Div id e rs may b e .

us e d fo r t e s t ing t h e large r p ie c es Ce n te r punch mark s may b e

.

cro wde d o ve r by th e s lanting of t h e punch be fo re s t rik ing Cup .

c e nte rs and c e nte r s quares a re o ft e n use d fo r c e nte r ing wh e re

s quare e nd e d s t o ck is t o b e had and c e n t e r ing mach in e s wh e re
-
,

gre at numbe rs of s im ilar pie ce s a re to b e c e nt e re d .

7 3
1 . L a in
y g O u t D rill W o rk C ha lk t h e s ur
.f ac e t o b e dr ille d
and de te rm ine t h e po s it io n of t h e h ole lo cat ing t h e e xac t c e nte r ,

by me ans o f a ligh t c e nte r p unch mark A bo ut t h is ce nte r .

d es cribe w it h t h e d iv id e rs a c irc le who s e d iamete r is e qua l to

, ,

t hat o f t h e h o le d es ire d O n t h e c ircumfe re nc e O f t h is c irc le

.

make e igh t or m o re ligh t c e nte r punch marks a t equal inte rva ls .

T h e c e nt e r punch mark mus t n o t b e e n large d a s it is prac t ica lly

im po s s ible t o s tart t h e drill in t h e c e n t e r o f t h e h o le w it h o ut a
goo d c e nte r mark .

I n lay ing O ff s ubd iv is io n s o f a c irc le it is c o ns id e re d go o d ,

prac t ic e to firs t s ubd ivid e th e c irc umfe re nc e if po s s ible in to , ,

fo ur o r s ix pa rts and t h e n s ubd ivide t hes e la t te r d iv is io ns ; by

t h is m e ans any e rro r t hat may aris e fro m an in c o rr e c t s e tt ing O f
t h e d iv id e rs wh e re t h e o rd in ary m e t h o d u s e d is re duc e d 4 t o 1 1 5
, , ,

acc o rd ing a s t h e p ie c e is d ivid e d in to fo ur o r s ix part s .

H A MM E R I N G A ND SA W I N G

7 2 1 . H am m e rin g a n d P e en ing . H amm e rs lik e

many anot he r
mach in e s h o p too l a re us e d whe re ve r po s s ib le ; ho we ve r t h e y a re
-
,

d es ign ed fo r po und ing O rd inarily t h e y vary in w e ight fro m

.

5 t o 2 p o und s and a re d e s igna t e d a s ba ll pee n s t ra igh t pe e n and -

,
-

cross pee n a s t h e s ha pe of t h e pee n varies T h e m os t c o mm o n

-
, .

of t h es e is t h e ba ll pe e n h amm e r w e igh ing fro m 1 t o 1 ? p o und s

-
, .

This h amme r is us e d fo r a ll o rd inary wo rk ; it be ing es pe c ia lly

adap ted to rive t ing and pe e n ing o w ing to t h e fac t t hat th e ,
1 64 ENGI N EE RI NG A ND S HO P PRACT I CE
to e lim ina te any e rro r t hat wo uld b e caus e d in w o rk by s tart ing
t h e die o n croo ke d T h e fac e of t h e die s h o uld a lways b e pe rpe n
.

dic ula r t o t h e ax is o f t h e p ie c e wh ile it is be ing t hre ad e d La rd .

o il s h o uld b e u s e d fre e ly during t h e o pe ra t io n o n wro ugh t iro n

and s te el and care t ake n to back o ff t he die afte r e ach t urn a

,

d is t anc e e qual to or greate r t han e ach fo rward cut .

73 2 T a . in
pp g W h e n it
. is d e s ire d t o c ut an in t e rna l t hre ad
o r s cre w by hand a t a p is us e d and t h e o p e rat io n ca lle d t app ing .

A ta p a s we have le ar ne d is a hard e n e d s t ee l s c re w fl ut e d lo ng i
, ,

t udina lly t o fo rm cu tt ing e dges and hav ing a t t h e e n d of it s S hank

a s quare d po rt io n o ve r wh ich fi ts t h e ta p wre nch by which it is
t urn e d T h e c o mm o n fo rms of mach in is t s hand t ap s a re t h e t a pe r
’

”
,
.

t h e p lug and t h e b o tt o m ing T h e re ad e r is adv ise d t o re fe r bot h

.

t o t h e t e x t and to t h e illus t rat io n s in Chapte r 6 Sc re w and Pin

“
,

D at a , for add it io na l inf o rmat io n re la tive t o taps and d ies .

W h ere it is d es ire d to t hre ad a h o le t hat d oes not run t hro ugh

t h e p ie c e a t ape r ta p is u s e d t o s t ar t t h e t hre ad and a p lug t a p
,

t o c o mp lete it t o n ear t h e bo t to m I f a full t hre ad is des ire d a ll

.

t h e way t o t h e bo tt o m o f t h e h o le a bo tt o m ing t a p is u se d ,
.

Whe re t h e h o les pas s t hro ugh t he mate rial th e t aper t a p alo ne is

us e d T h e s ame pre caut io ns S h o uld b e us ed w it h th e t a p t hat
.

were n ec es s ary w it h t he die Care s h o uld b e t ak e n t o s t art t h e

.

t a p s o t hat its ax is c o inc id es w it h t h e ax is o f t h e h o le and to

back o ff t h e t a p aft e r each fo r ward t urn a s was t h e cas e wit h t h e ,

die in o rd in ary w o rk ; afte r o n e o r t wo t urns t h e ta p s h o u ld b e

tes te d fo r t rut h w it h t h e t ry s quare .

733 Ali g
.nin g th e T a p A s it is O f
. gre a t imp o rt anc e t ha t a
t a p b e s t art e d pro p e rly i s s o t ha t t h e ax is o f t h e t a p c o inc ides
,
. .
,

—
wit h th e ax is o f th e h ole th e fo llo wing eff e c t ive met h o d o f
s e cur ing t h e a lignm e n t is s ubm itt e d fo r t h e be n e fi t of t h o s e wh o se

e xpe rie nc e is lim it e d : P lac e t h e w o rk o n t h e t ab le of t h e dr ill ,

plac e th e c ut t ing e n d of t h e ta p drill in th e drill chuck and bring

t h e w o rk in t o lin e by in s e rt ing t h e drill in t h e h ole Bolt in .

po s it io n ins e rt t h e t a p in t h e h o le fo r t apping and h o ld t h e but t

,

e n d o f t h e drill wh ich is p o in ted firm ly in t h e c e n t e r of t h e t a p

, ,

wh ile it is b e ing t urn e d w ith t h e t a p wre nch Th is me t h od is

,
.

s ugg e s t iv e o f many way s in wh ich t h e drill and lat h e may b e us e d

fo r s e curing t h e a lignm e n t fo r t h e rap id and profi t able t app ing

o f s ma ll h oles W it h t h is m e t h o d t h e t a p s h o u ld a lways be t urne d
.

by hand .
 BENCH AND VI S E W ORK 1 65

Lard h o u ld b e freely us e d during t h e ope ra tio n on wro ught

o il s

iro n and s t ee l ; cas t iro n and bras s a re t appe d dry .

7 3 4 .D e p th o f Ta pp e d H o le s I n o rd inary prac
. t ic e h o le s t o ,

b e t appe d in cas t iro n a re drilled t o a d e pt h of t w ic e t h e d iame t e r

O f t h e s cre w (2 D ) and t appe d t o a d e pt h O f l i D wh ile t h e s cre w ,

itse lf is made t o e nte r t h e t appe d h o le I QD F o r wro ught iro n .

and mach ine ry s tee l t h e pro po rt io ns a re t h e follo wing : D e pt h

drille d l i D de p t h t appe d
,
1 } D d e pt h s cre w e nt e rs
, 1D .

CH I P PI N G

7 4 1 . Chippin g an d It s A pplica tion s adve n t of. Be fo re t h e

m ode rn mach ine tools , ne arly a ll fin is he d
metal s urfac es had fi rs t
to b e ch ippe d and t h e n s mo o t h e d up w it h a fi le much aft e r t h e ,

fas h io n in wh ich we no w re mo ve irregularit ies o n cas t ings Ch ip .

p ing is s t ill us e d in plac es d ifficult t o get a t wit h a mach ine in ,

s t ruc t ura l w o rk and whe n in t h e e re c t io n O f b ridges large

, , ,

mach ines e tc s o me unf o re see n o bs t ac le mus t b e o ve rc o m e T h e

,
.
,
.

ch ipp ing O f k e yways in s hafting and pulle ys is O f c o mmo n o ccur

re nc e wh e re t h e wo rk m us t b e d o n e a t n igh t or wh en re pa irs or
add it io ns a re to b e mad e wh e re t h e mach in e ry is alre ady in p lac e .

A s av ing o f much t im e and m o n e y is o ft e n e ffe c t e d by ch ipp ing

und er s uch c o nd it io ns .

74 2 .P n e um a ti c H a m m e rs P n e um a t ic hamm
. e rs f or ch ip

55 u
m 53 53

FIG . 742 . Se c tion a nd Pa rts o f a B y Pn

o er e um a tic Ha m m er .
1 66 EN I N G EE RING AN D S HO P PRAC TICE
p ing and rivet ing have abo ut s upe rse ded t h e o ld hand met h o d ,

es pe c ia lly in s h o ps wh e re co mpre s s e d a ir is t o b e had A se c t io nal .

drawing of th e Bo ye r pne umat ic hamme r toget he r wit h s o me

of th e de t a ils is s h o wn in t h e illus t ra t io n F ig 742 ,
. .

7 3
4 T h e C h
. is e l I n t h e c o ld ch ise l w.e m ee t an o t h e r m o d i
fi ca t io n O f t h e w edge in its applicat io n t o s uch fam iliar too ls a s
th e plane th e k n ife o r t h e ch is e l
, P res e nt ing th e e dge o f an
.

o rd inary p o ck et knife a t va rio us ang le s t o a le ad pe n c il w ill

produc e a ll t h e charac te ris tic ch ips of the drawknife th e woo d ,

ch is el th e plane and t h e c o ld ch is e l
, .

F o r o rd inary w o rk t h e angle be t wee n t h e cutt ing fac es o f

c old ch is e ls and cape ch is els s ho uld be abo ut 60 and t h e edge °

gro und s light ly c o nve x H ard e n t h e cutting end of t h e ch ise l

.

by a s udde n que nch ing in b rine aft e r it h as bee n he ate d to a

lo w che rry red B righ t e n bo t h fac es and draw t h e t e mpe r t o a
,
-
.

s t raw o r bro wn c o lo r O n acc o un t o f t h e varying qua lit y of

.

s t ee l and t h e vario us m e t h o d s of hard e n ing t h e b es t t e mpe r can

, ,

b e O b ta ined o nly by t rial A n e dge to o brit tle o ne t hat crumb les

.
,

o r s p lit s s h o u ld b e t e gro und and t h e t e mpe r drawn t o a dark e r

,
-

c olo r A n e dge too s oft o ne t hat t urns o ve r o r ups ets mus t b e

.
, ,

re gro und re hard e n e d and t h e t e mpe r drawn t o a ligh t e r c o lo r

-
,
-
.

U s e ple n t y O f wate r wh e n g rind ing t o o ls and do n o t bea r t oo

hard o n t h e s t one ; o ve rh eat ing may t hus b e av o id e d O ve r .

he at ing is ind icate d by a change in c olo r and s ho uld t h is o cc ur ,

it w ill b e ne c e ss ary to re te mpe r t h e to o l -

.

7 44 Th e W o rk . Wh e n pos s ible plac e t h e wo rk t o b e ch ippe d

.
,

o n a fla t s u rfac e and mark O ff a ll h o riz o n t a l lin es w it h a s u rfac e

gage Ro ugh s urf ac es s ho uld firs t b e chalk ed so t hat t h e s cribe r

.

may produc e we ll de fi ne d lines A s olut io n Of co ppe r s ulphate

-
.
,

applie dw it h a brus h to a c le an iro n s urfac e w ill d e pos it a t h in ,

c o at of me tallic c oppe r o n which any lin es t hat may b e drawn

a re re ad ily s ee n A fte r draw ing t h e h o riz o n t a l lin e s ve rt ica l
.
,

lin es may b e draw n w it h t h e s cr ibe r guide d b y t h e t ry s quare

‘

blade t he be am of wh ich re s ts o n t h e flat s u rfac e Me as ure a ll

, .

lines t h us drawn to mak e s ure t ha t no e rro r e x is ts .

7 4 5 Th e Cut . I n c lamp ing w o rk in th e v is e c o ppe r jaws

.
,

s h o u ld b e us e d t o pro te c t t h e fi nis h e d s u rfac e s I n c o mm e nc ing .

t h e c ut t h e ch is e l is gras pe d in t h e le ft h and w it h t h e t humb

and ind e x finge r c los e up t o t h e he ad I n o rd e r to les s e n t he .

liab ilit y to injury t h e t humb and ind e x fin ge r s h o u ld b e re laxed

, ,
1 68 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S HO P PRACT I CE
by fairly acc urate gro o ves and may be h e av ie r in pro po rt io n
th e .

T h e c o ns t an t t rying of t h e ch ipp e d p o rt io n a s t h e w o rk pro gress es

is t h e o n ly way t o in s u re acc uracy .

7 4 6 C h.i i
pp gn G roo v e s I n w o rk. ing o ut gr oo v e s o r k e yways

w it h a cape ch is e l care s h o uld b e t ak e n t o k ee p a s c los e to t h e

lin es a s pos s ible a ligh t out be ing mad e fro m e n d t o e nd Th is
,
.

o ut w ill s e rv e a s a gu id e f o r t h e o t h e rs wh ich may b e any d es ire d

,

d e p th I n wo rk ing o ut a w id e groo ve a c ut s h o uld b e t ake n on

.

e ach s id e c los e t o t h e lin e s ; t h e s to ck b e t we e n t h es e chann e ls

may t he n b e rem o ve d w it h h e avy cuts .

F I LI N G A ND F I LE S

75 1 . A pplica tion a n d P ra cti ce fi tt ing and fin is h ing ma

. In
ch ine parts it is o fte n ne c e s s ary t o e liminate t he furro ws and
ridges wh ich c o mpo s e t h e s urfac e le ft by t h e ch ise l plane r and ,

s hap e r ; fi ling is t h e n re s o rt e d t o F iles a re als o us e d whe n e ve r

.

a m inute re duc t io n in s ize is d es ired fo r by t h e ir care ful and ,

s k ilfu l us e gre a t accuracy may b e O b t a in e d I n o rde r t o re nd e r

.

a ro ugh s urface s m oo t h files of vary ing d egree s O f fine ness a re

,

us e d ; t h e c o ars e fi le is fo llowe d by t h e fine r o ne and t h e w o rk

fin is h e d in t urn by t h e fine s t .

7 5 2 Th
. e T oo l s . A fi le is a p ie c e o f hard e n e d s t ee l o f t h e

d es ire d s hape and s ize t h e s urfac e of wh ich is c ut int o by a s e ries

,

o f groo v e s wh ich fo rm s harp p o in ts o r e dg es ca lle d t e e t h Th es e

.

t ee t h a re O f un ifo rm h e igh t and a re s o arrange d t hat wh ile e ach ,

o ne cu t s a fu rro w o f it s o wn t h os e t ha t fo llo w s e rv e t o le v e l t h e
,

ridges t hus fo rm ed lea ving prac t ically a s m oot h s urfac e T h e

,
.

t ee t h fo rm ed by t h e groo v e s a c t o n t h e s u rf ac e a s a s e ries o f
s mall ch is e ls e ach re m o v ing a s ma ll ch ip
,
.

T h e o n ly o t h e r t oo ls n e c e s s ary fo r t h e fi ling a re th e file ca rd wh ich ,

”
is e s s e n t ially a w ire and a bris tle brus h o n t h e s am e hand le u s e d fo r ,

t h e purp o s e o f bru s h ing part ic le s fro m t h e tee t h o f t h e fi le ; a s m a ll

co pper chis el fo r pu s h ing s uch p ins fro m be twee n t he teet h a s
“

cannot b e re mo ve d by t h e us e of t h e card ; and a p ie c e of chalk .

5
7 3 C.a r e o f F il e s A . du ll fi le cann o t b e s harp e n e d and in

t h is res p e c t it is un lik e o t h e r t o o ls ; c o ns id e rable care s h o uld

”
t h e re fo re b e e x e rc is e d t o k e e p it s harp and in g o o d c o nd it io n .

F iles s h o u ld ne v e r b e abus e d by lay ing t h e m o n t o p o f e ach o t h e r

o r aga in s t o t h e r t o o ls W h e n in us e t h e file is lia b le t o pin
.
,

i e s ma ll part ic les o f s t o ck s t ick b e t wee n t h e t ee th and s crat ch

. .
,
.
 BENCH AND VIS E WO RK 1 69

th e wo rk ; pe c ially is t h is s o in th e cas e of wro ugh t iro n and

es

s tee l. To o b ta in t h e b es t re s u lt s it is n e c es s ary to c lean t h e

,

file a t s h o rt inte rvals n o t o n ly during its us e b ut be fo re it is put

,

away Th e c le aning is e ff e c te d by t he us e of t h e file card or

.

c le ane r and in so me cas es by me an s of a p ie c e Of c o ppe r .

75 4 C .ro s s Fi l in g I n m
. o v ing a fil e e ndw is e acr o s s t h e w o rk
c o mm only called cross fi ling t he point of the fi le is h eld be t wee n
,

t h e t humb and t h e firs t finge r of t h e left hand wh ile t h e hand le ,

is h e ld by res t ing t h e t humb of t h e r ight hand up o n it and le tting

”
t h e e n d s t and aga ins t t h e pa lm o f t h e hand t h e finge rs gripp ing ,

it ligh t ly I n m o v ing t h e fi le fo rward o ve r t he s u rface co ns id

.

era b le d o wnward pres s ure m u s t b e app lie d t o caus e it t o b ite “

.

A ll pres s ure s h o u ld b e re m o ve d in t h e re t urn s t ro k e a nd in m any

cas es it w ill b e fo und advan tageo us to lift th e fi le e nt ire ly c lear
of t h e w o rk .I n cros s filing t he re is a te nde ncy for t h e hands to
-

s w ing in arc s o f c irc les abo u t t h e j oin t s of t h e arms wh ile t h e

bo dy s w ings m o re o r les s de pe nd ing o n t h e wo rk To o verc o me

, .

t hes e t e nd e nc ies gre at care s h o u ld b e t ake n t o m o ve t h e fi le in a

p lane paralle l to th e s urfac e as any ro ck ing m ot io n w ill res ult
,

in a ro und ing O f t h e edg es O w ing t o t h e c o nve x it y o f a file

.
,

c o mparat ively fe w O f its tee t h a re cutting a t any o ne t ime ; t hus

it w ill b e see n t ha t s h o rt s t ro k es may re nd e r t h e s u rfac e of t h e
wo rk c o ncave wh ile w it h th e lo ng o nes it may b e eit h e r fla t or
,

c o nve x I t w ill be not ice d in fi ling t hat s mall groo ves a re left
.

on t h e w o rk a t e ach s t ro k e and t hat wh e n t h e s t ro k es a re a ll

,

mad e in th e s ame d ire c tio n t hes e groo ves beco me deepe r neces s i ,

t a t ing t h e ir re mo val by m e a ns of a fine r grad e of fi le .

7 55 D .ia g o n a l F ilin g B y chang

. ing t h e ang le O f t h e d ir e c t io n
o f t h e s t ro k e w it h t h e w o rk a t s h o rt in t e rva ls t h e groo ving ,

”
m e nt io ned abo ve may b e avoid ed Th is e nables th e file to take .

a be tte r out s inc e t h e gro o ves runn ing a t an angle to th e cut

, , ,

caus e t h e fi le to b ite m o re free ly and th e part ic les to b e m o re

“

e as ily s e parat e d Th is als o e nab les t he wo rk m an to s ee j us t whe re

.

t h e file is cutt ing and t o gage th e s t ro k e s o t hat t h e d e s ire d part

o f t h e s urfac e w ill b e re m o ve d Th is met h od is ca lled diago na l
.

fi ling .

75 6 D .r a w Fili n g W h.e n fi ling is d o n e by m o v ing t h e fil e

s id e w is e acro s s t h e w o rk it is ca lle d draw fi ling and is v e ry e n

g
e ra lly us e d in fin is h ing t urn e d w o rk wh e re it is d e s ire d t o re m o v e

t h e c ircu lar t o o l mark s and t o la y t h e m e ndw ise I n dra w .

1 70 ENGI NEE RIN G AND S HO P PRACT I CE
filing th e fi le is gras pe d wit h bo t h hands o ne a t e it he r en d and , ,

drawn s id ewise to ward t h e O pe rato r Ca re s ho uld b e t ak e n to .

h old t h e file s o t hat t h e teet h w ill cut a s it m o ves away fro m t h e

wo rk and to relie ve t h e pres s u re on t h e ret urn s t ro k e as in cro ss
fi ling I n draw fi ling t h e c ut is no t a s d ee p a s in cros s fi ling
.
,

t h e t ee t h s t and ing a t s uch an ang le t o t h e d ire c t io n o f t h e m o t io n

t hat a ligh t s he aring rat h e r t han a cu t t ing e ff e c t is pro duc e d ;
ve ry s moo t h wo rk may b e do ne by t h is m e t hod A s e c o nd cut .

o r s m o o t h fi le is bes t s uit e d fo r draw fi ling .

7 57 F il e
. s a n d Th eir Ch a ra cte ris ti c s A fi le a s we have .
,

le arn e d is a p ie c e o f hard e ned s t ee l O f t h e des ire d s hape and

,

s iz e t h e s u rfac e o f wh ich is c ut in t o by a s e rie s O f groo v es wh ich

,

fo rm s harp po in ts or e dges ca lle d tee t h .

T h e kindof a fi le a s w ill b e s ee n fro m t h e t able us ua lly re fe rs t o its

, ,

cross s e ct io n and s hape s uch as fla t m ill hand s q uare ro und e t c

-
, , , , , , .

T h e cut of a fi le d es ignates t h e charac t e r o f its t ee t h I t is .

s ing le out w h e n t h e t ee t h a re c ut in o ne d ire c t io n o n ly d o ub le ,

out wh e n t h e t ee t h a re c ut in t wo d ire c t io ns ras p wh e n t h e t ee t h ,

a re po in t e d and hav e n o c o nn e c t io n w it h e ach o t h e r .

Coa rs en es s re fe rs to t h e s iz e o f t h e t ee t h as d es igna te d by t h e
t e rms c o ars e ba s t ard s e c o nd c ut a n d s m oo t h ; t h e s e may re fe r
, ,

t o any and a ll O f t h e k ind s and cu ts m e n t io n e d A s a fe edge file .

h as o ne of its e dges s m oo t h and may b e any k ind o r c ut T h e fla t .

or hand file d o uble c ut is c o mm o n ly us e d t o pro duc e fla t s urfac es

, , .

T h e m ill file s in gle cut is us e d fo r la t h e w o rk

, ,
I n re fe re nc e t o .

c o ars e nes s t h e bas t ard is bes t adapte d for ro ugh wo rk ; t h e s e c o nd

,

c ut ,wh ile not cu tt ing a s rap id ly pro duc es a s moot he r s urfac e ; ,

fi n is h e d s u rfac e s a re pro duc e d by m e an s of t h e s moo t h file .

7 5 8 F ile. Ta b le Sh a pe s Cuts U se s e tc
, , , ,
.

B a n d F il e

g
b
S c re w

2 0 mg F l a t F il e

M il l F il e

F IG . 7 58 a . F ile N o m e n c la t ure .
1 72 ENGI NEERI NG AND SH OP PRACTI CE
Plac ing t h e p iec e pre vio us ly t rued by plan ing and filing a t a
, ,

c o nven ient he ig ht for t he wo rk it s h o uld n ot b e c lampe d for ,

c lamping is liab le to s pring t h e p ie ce it is brus h ed to re mo ve

any dus t o r d irt t hat may b e o n t h e s urfac e Any burrs fuzz or .
,

irreg ularities a re re m o ved by t h e us e of s m o ot h o r dea d s m oo t h

fi les T h e s urface plate is n o w app lied; befo re applying h o we ve r , ,

its fac e is w ipe d and c o ate d w it h t he mark ing mate ria l A .

mark ing mate rial may c o ns is t of any red or black m ix t ure t hat
is n o t grit t y ; a m ix t ure of lard o il and Ve net ian red mak es an
e xc e lle n t mark ing s ubs t anc e A s urfac e pla te is app lie d fac e
.

d o wnward o n t h e w ork and rubbe d back and fo rth o ve r t he

e n t ire s urfac e ; n o press ur e is n e c e s s ary as t h e w e igh t of t h e p la t e

is s u ffic ie nt . U po n t h e re m o va l o f t h e p lat e irregular pa t ch es of

mark ing ma te rial w ill b e fo und wh ich ind icate th e h igh s po ts on
,

t h e s u rfac e ; a fe w s t ro k e s o f t h e s crap e r w ill re m o ve t h e m .

F IG . 761 . Scra ing p a S urfa ce Pla te .

T hehand le of th e s crape r is h eld in th e right h and wit h

t h e t humb e xt e nd e d a lo ng t h e t o p a s was t h e cas e in gras p ing
,

t h e fi le. T h e b lad e is gra s pe d w it h t h e le ft hand a s c lo s e to t h e,

cutt ing e dge as is c o nve nie nt T h e s crape r is us ually t ho ugh

.
,

n o t a lways h eld a t an angle of 30 w ith th e wo rk and o nly

°

”
, ,

t hat am o un t o f press ure n e c es s ary t o re m o ve th e re q uire d m e t al

is app lie d . T h e s crap ing is effe c te d by pus h ing t h e s crap e r away
fro m t h e o pe ra to r T he c ut s a re s quare and vary fro m g to i
.
'
on
”
BENCH
a s ide and a re g to apart Th e y a re t ak e n a t righ t angles
AND VIS

t o each o t h e r in s uch a manne r as t o g ive to t h e s u rf ac e a ch e cke r

E WO RK 1 73

board effe c t A fte r th e s urface is s cra pe d bo t h ways in t h e

.

man ne r indica te d th e wo rkman s h o uld w ipe h is hands free of grit

,

and rub it o ve r t h e e n tire fac e of th e s u rfac e t o s moo t h the

mark ing ; t he plate is t h e n applie d to t he wo rk as be fore and th e ,

o pe ra t io n r e p e at e d Th e t rue r t h e s u rfac e be c o me s t h e t h inne r

.
,

s h o uld b e t h e c o a t ing of mark ing ma te r ia l o n t h e p la te .

Turpe ntine is ofte n us ed advan t ageo us ly fo r in add it ion to , ,

lub ricat ing t h e s urfac es it a ls o fac ilit at es t h e w o rk of s crap ing

, .

7 62 S c.ra i
p gn in th e L a th e S crap ing in t h e la t h e.is a vas t ly
d iffe re n t pro c ess fro m s crap ing by hand and is res o rt e d to a s a
s ubs tit ute fo r fi ling Th e s hank of a lat h e t oo l c lampe d in a
.

t o ol pos t may b e us ed as an impro v is e d s upp o rt for t h e s crape r .

I n w o rk of t h is charac te r it is ne c ess ary to t ak e ligh t cut s to ,

ho ld th e s crape r firmly and t o wo rk fro m t h e c e n te r o ut Chat .

te ring may s o m et imes b e pre ve n t ed by p lac ing a p ie c e o f lea t h e r

und e rn e at h t h e t oo l .

K E YS , K E YF I I T I N G ' ‘
A ND BRO A C H I N G

7 7 1 . K e y Nom en cla ture mach in is t us es t h e te rm key

. The
to d e s igna t e t ha t p ie c e of s teel imbedd e d in t h e s haf t and filling
,

a groo ve in th e hub t hat h o lds t h e parts in t h e ir re lat ive pos it io ns

, .

A ke y s ea t is t h e groo ve in t h e s haft wh ile t h e key wa y is t h e

- -

gro o ve in t h e hub O rd inarily k e ys and ke y ways a re mad e t o

.
-

"
t ape r us ually g pe r fo o t
,
A s t ra igh t ke y is o fte n t e rm e d a
.

fea ther Wo o drufi pa t ent k e ys a re mad e by s lit t ing a d is c o f

'

-
.

c o ld ro lle d bar acro s s its d iamete r and imbe dd ing it in a ke y sea t -

,

made by s ink ing into t he s haft to t he pro pe r de pt h a m illing , ,

cutt e r wh os e d iam et e r is e qual to t hat o f t h e bar So me pro v i

,
.

s io n is ge n e ra lly mad e fo r re m o v in k e ys ; e it h e r t h e ke y s e a t is -
g
lo nge r t h an is n e c ess ary s o t hat t h e ke y may b e dr ive n o ut o r ,

t h e large r e n d of t h e ke y is pro v id e d w it h a h e ad ; in t h is lat te r

case t h e ke y is re mo ve d by t h e use o f a pinch bar o r w edge .

77 2 K e.
yfi ttin g O rd inary k
. e ys a re u s ua lly mach in e d a
t rifl e large r t han t h e ke y s e at and t h e n fitt ed by fi ling t o s ize
-
, , .

T h e firs t s t e p in fi t t ing is t o d e te rm in e wh e t h e r t h e s ide s of t h e

ke y s e at and ke y way have b ee n c ut s t ra igh t ; any inaccuracy
- -

s h o u ld b e re c t ifi e d by e n larg ing jus t e n o ugh t o s t ra igh t e n t h e m .

T h e c o rn e rs of t h e ke y a re ve ry s ligh t ly ro und e d and bo t h t h e

1 74 ENGI NEERI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE
ke y se
- at and ke y way a re c o ate d wit h s o m e mark ing material ;
-

t h e ke y is t h e n ligh t ly dr ive n in t o po s it io n wh e n it is w it hdrawn

,

and fi le d whe re a be aring is ind icated ; t h is pro c ess is re peate d

unt il a t igh t driv ing fi t o n a ll s id es is s e cure d A we ll fi tt ed ke y
.
-

is be dde d firm ly aga in s t t h e t 0 p a nd bo tt o m a nd it is abs o lu te ly

es s e nt ia l t ha t it have a driv ing fi t on t h e s id es as it is e n t ire ly
,

th e s ide fi t t hat is d e pe nd e d upo n t o h o ld t h e s haft and t h e hub

t og e t h e r Th e pres s ure o n t h e t0 p and bo tt o m o f t h e ke y s h o uld
.

b e me re ly s u ffic ie n t to draw t h e o pp o s ite s ide o f t h e bo re of th e

hub firmly to th e s haf t The re is prac t ica lly no te nde n cy to
.

bre ak t h e hub o r t hro w t he wo rk o ut of line by mak ing t h e ke y

fit t igh t o n t h e s id es if t h e s ides b e s t ra igh t ; h o we ve r it is a ,

ve ry e as y matte r t o crack a h ub o r to t h ro w it o ut of line

by o ve rs t ra in ing a t th e t0 p and bo tto m of t h e ke y I n fi tt ing .
,

care mus t b e t ak e n to c o at t he ke y w it h t he mark ing mate rial

wh ich als o ac ts as a lub rican t ; if drive n in dry t h e ke y will ,

s ure ly c ut .

773 . K e y w a y C utt
-
in g S ma ll k e
.
y way s may -
s o m e t ime s b e

advant ageo us ly cut by hand in t h e lat he in t h e fo llo wing mann e r :

A s pe c ia l t oo l s o me wha t s im ilar in s hape t o a bo ring t oo l and
,

gro und like a s lott ing too l a t t h e end is c lampe d in th e to o l

,

pos t and bro ugh t up to th e bo re to b e ke y wayed ; t h e to o l w ith -

t h e car riag e is t h e n t rav e rse d back and fo rt h t hro ugh t h e

hub by hand tak ing light plan ing ch ips until th e wo rk is
, ,

fin is he d .

K e y ways and ke y s e a ts a re mad e in ma n y ways ; t h e y a re

- -

s o m e t im e s ch ippe d and fi le d ; m o re o f te n h o we ve r t h e m illing

, ,

m ach ine p lan e r o r s h ape r is u s e d wh ile in t h e large r s h o ps

, ,

s pe c ia lly d es ign e d mach ines ca lle d ke y se a te rs a re e mp lo ye d

-
.
1 76 EN IN G EE RING A ND S HOP P RACTI CE
re mo ved by d rills if n eed b e of varying s iz es T he s quare h ole
, , .

in s o ck et o r chuck s cre w wre nch es is ge n e rally mad e w it h a

-

bro ach K ey ways a re ofte n cut by t h e follo w ing pro c es s of

.
-

broach ing : A bro ach whos e wid t h is t hat of t h e ke y way hav ing
,
-
,

a cut ting e dge a ndguide lip as s how n in t h e illus trat io n F ig 7 75 , .

Brooc h

F IG . 775 . Too ls fo r Broac h ing K ey-wa ys .

is made ; a gu id e plug is th e n t urne d to fi t t h e bo re o f t h e hub and ,

a t ape ring groo ve of pro pe r de pt h cut in it ; t h e drift o r bro ach

is t h e n drive n t hro ugh t h e gu ide groo v e wh ile it s cutt ing e dge
re mo ves a ch ip I n o rd e r to o bt a in t h e de s ire d d e pt h line rs o r
.
,

s h ims ,
c ut fro m s h e e t m e t al a re p lac e d in t h e b ot t o m of t h e
,

guide groo ve unt il a s u ffi c ie nt numbe r of cuts t o s ec ure t h e ,

proper d ept h a re made , .

F rrs A ND F I TT I N G

7 8 1 . I nve s tiga tion an e xhaus tive inves t igat io n of fi ts

. F or
a n d fi t t ing t h e s t ud e n t is re fe rre d t o a pap e r by t h e au t h o r and
, ,

its d is cus s io n fo rm ing part o f Vo lum e 2 4 of t h e Tra ns ac t io ns of

,

t h e A me rican So c ie t y of Me chan ical E ng in ee rs W h a t follo ws is .

in a m ea s ure a n abs t rac t of t h e au t h o r s pape r ; h o we ve r t h e

’
,

fo r m ulas rela tive t o fo rc ing and run ning fi ts and t o lim its fo r
lim it gages have be e n chang ed in t h e d ire c t io n ind ica t ed by t h e
,

bulk o f t h e crit ic is m s All t h e fo rmulas w ill n ow b e found t o

.

ind ica t e in t h e ma in t h e b es t prac t ic e in t h is d ire c t io n

, ,
.

7 8 2 .F ittin g P ro c e s s e s B e f o re t h e adv e n t o f.m o d e rn m e t h

od s o f manufac t ure t h e maj o rit y of t h e fi tt ing was d o n e by hand
,

and was d e pe nde nt fo r its accuracy upo n th e s k ill and judgme n t

, ,

of t h e w o rkman A n e xpe rie nc ed w o rkman w it h a w ell e ducat e d

.
-

e y e and s e n se of to uch was ab le t o mak e fi t s w it h in a lim it of a

 BENCH AN D VIS E WO RK 1 77

fe w t h o us a nd t h s an inch by t h e o ld cut and try met ho d

of , .

Thes e m et ho d s have bee n s upe rs e d e d and t he us e of lim it gages

re nde rs s uch s k ill and expe rie nc e unn e c e ss ary T h e o pe rat io n of .

fi t t ing a plug to a bo re wa s acc o mplis he d by a delicate calipe ring

o f t h e bo re w it h ins id e ca lipe rs t rans fe rring t h is d im e ns io n t o
,

o u ts id e ca lipe rs and t urn ing o r fi ling t h e p ie c e to t h is d im e n s io n .

S uch unc e rt a in m et h o ds a s int e rpos ing bet wee n t h e legs o f t he

calipe rs a fi lm of s a liva o r pape r to se cure t h e fit allo wanc e we re , ,

us ed T h e lim it t h us s e cured was d e pe nde nt en t ire ly upo n t h e

.

s k ill o f t h e wo rkman w it h t h e ca lipe rs and h is judgm e n t regard ing

t h e a llo wanc e fo r t h e fi t in hand S uch nie t h o ds have bee n .

s u pe rs e d e d and w it h t h e m t h e u n c e rt a in t y and e xpe n s e o f t h e

c ut and t ry m e t h o ds
- - Thes e toge t h e r wit h much of t he s k ill
.
, ,

have g ive n place to t h e mo re rat io nal and che ape r o pe rat io ns o f

fi t t ing and int e rchange ab ilit y wh ich s prang into us e w it h t h e
a dv e n t of lim it gages .

W h e n t h e fi t is to b e mad e by hand and th e wo rk to b e filed

”
t o fi t a c e rt a in gage o r wh e n a c e rt a in accuracy is d es ire d it is
, ,

t h e prac t ic e e mp ir ica lly s pe ak ing t o le av e s ma ll la t h e wo rk

, , ,

a f t e r t h e fin is h ing c ut abo u t 0 0 2 large and to re m o v e t h is s t o ck

, .

w it h wha t is te rmed a flo a t us ually a s ingle c ut bas tard o r

“
, ,

s e c o nd c ut m ill file ,
T h e e nd n e x t t h e de ad c e n te r s h o u ld b e
.

fi led fi rs t s o t ha t t h e gage w ill jus t e n te r and t he o pe rat io n of ,

fin is h ing gradua lly carried to ward t h e live c e n te r le av ing t h e ,

s urf ac e s uch t hat wh e n t h e gage o r ca lipe r is pas s e d o ve r it no ,

pe rc e p tible loos e ness is d etec ted .

G rind ing s c rap ing m illing and fi ling may b e te rm ed fit t ing

, ,

o pe ra t io n s and fo r m o re e x plic it info rma tio n regard ing t h es e

,

s ubj e c ts t h e re ad e r is re f e rre d to t h e chap t e rs d e a ling es pe c ia lly

w it h t he m .

8
7 3 . F o rc in g Fi t s F o rc ing fi ts may
. b e d e fin e d as t h os e

m ach in e ry fi ts wh ich re qu ire t h e us e o f s o me fo rm o f press ge n ,

e ra lly hydro s t a t ic t o c o mp le te t h e as s e mb ling o p e ra t io n

,
Th is .

s o rt o f fi t find s its m os t ge n e ra l app lica t io n in t h e fi t t ing o f car

.

w h ee ls a nd ax le s in t h e a ss e mb ling o f crank s and crank p in s

, ,

c rank s and crank s haf t s and crank s haft s and arma t ures .

Re gard ing t h e as s e mbling pro c e ss or t h e m an ipu la t io n o f ,

fo rcing fi ts we find t h e fo llo wing go ve rn ing c o nd it io ns : (1 ) T h e

,

a llo wanc e Th is s ho uld ne ve r b e s o great a s t o pre v en t t h e

.

s t re s s fro m c o m ing w e ll wit h in t h e e las t ic lim it o r cru s h ing s t re ngt h ,

1 78 ENG INEE RIN G AND S HO P P RACTICE
of thematerials e mplo yed (2 ) T h e s u rf ac es I n ge ne ral we
. .

m a y s a y regard ing t h e s u rfac es fo r t h is k ind of fitt ing t ha t t h e ,

bes t res ults a re o bt a ined wh e n bo t h s urfac es a re gro und to fi t

gages T h e c ond itio ns in s o me ins t anc es re nd e r t h is im pra c t i
.
, ,

All o wa nce
P lug D ia m e te r = N o m iiia i D ia m e te r pl us A l l o wan ce

l 2
"
8

V o te: Curves f o r t h e
"
4

Runn ing l-
b 0
””” 7

lts w il l h e f o und o n th e
‘
8 9

Lim i
n
o

ts D iag ra m
u u
"
D iu n .

F I GS . 783 , 785 , 786 . A ss e m bling F it C urv es .

cable ; h o we ve r t h e s urfa ces o f t h e p ie c es to b e a s s embled s h o uld

,

b e a s s m o o t h a s it is prac t ic a l t o m a ke t h e m ( )
3 T h e lubr ic a .

t io n . L in s e e d o il m a ke s an e xc e lle nt lubric a n t fo r as s e mb ling

fo rc ing fi ts (4 ) T h e a lignm e n t I t is impo rt ant t o s t art th e
. .
1 80 ENG I NEE RING A ND S HO P P RAC TICE
T he curve (F ig , . 7 84) an hype rbo la whose e q ua t io n is

PF W
D “

wh ere P F is t h e pres s ure fac to r and D t h e no m inal d iame te r of

t he fit , ass umes t h e hub t o b e t w ic e t h e d iame t e r o f t h e p lug ,

wa
'
et .

Fm . F 78 4 . o rc ing Fit P u F c t C u v
s . re ss re a or r e .

t he mat e ria ls e mplo ye d to b e mach in e ry s t ee l p lugs and cas t iro n -

 BENCH AND VI S E WO RK 1 81

h ubs , and the mach ined s urf ac es t o b e prac t ica lly t rue and free
fro m t oo l mark s S ho u ld th e hub d iamete r e xcee d t w ic e t hat of
.

t h e plug th e pres s ure acc o rd ing t o c o nd it io n t h ree

, , will b e ,

s o me wha t grea te r t h e am o un t be ing o b t ain ed by t h e cons t ruc

tio n of an ot he r hype rbo la Sh o u ld t h e mat e ria ls emplo ye d b e
.

ot h e r t han t h o s e t h e curve ass um es t h e press ure acc o rd ing t o

, ,

c o nd itio n four w ill aga in vary ne ce ss itat ing t h e de te rm ina tion

, ,

of an ot he r va lue o f P F T h e fe w va lue s o bt a ine d fro m t h e

.

m eage r dat a relative to t h is part icular po int see m to ind icat e

t ha t a n e w va lue o f P F m igh t be o bt a in ed by mu lt ip ly ing P F
d ire c tly by t h e rat io e xis ting be t wee n t h e ave rage value of t he
crus h ing s tre ngt h of t he t wo new ma te rials and t he average
value o f t h e crus h ing s t re ngt h of cas t iro n and mach ine ry s tee l .

Mo reo ve r t h e inves t igat io n d is c lo s ed t h e p ro ble m t o b e far t o o

,

co mplica ted to adm it o f s o s imple a s olu tio n T h e deart h of .

part icular va lues and t he inc o mple teness o f t he expe rime nts
lead ing to t h e ab o ve ind icat io n we re s uch as to influ e nc e t h e
aut ho r to sa y t hat t h e s t ate me nt is of no prac t ical va lue H o w .

e v e r it may b e we ll t o s t a t e t hat t h e pro ble m wa s firs t at t ack e d

,

on t h e a ss ump t io n t hat a s olu t io n m igh t b e had fro m a c omparis o n

of t h e m odu li of elas t ic it y of t h e ma te ria ls Th is pos itio n wa s

.

re nde red untenab le : firs t be caus e in mate ria ls s uch as c as t iro n

, ,

wh ich have no well de fi ned e las t ic lim it th e m odulus de cre as es

-
,

fro m a max imum ne ar t h e beg inn ing o f t h e tes t ; se c o nd as s o me ,

pe rmane nt defo rmatio n of th e bo re and plug ge ne rally res ults as

a c ons e que nc e of t h e as s e mbling t h e e las tic lim it o f t h e ma te rial
,

is o bv io us ly pas s ed ; t h is furn is h e d a c le w fo r a tt ack ing t h e pro b

le m w it h re fe re nc e to t h e crus h ing s t re ng t h The n aga in t h e .

inves t igat io n pro c ee d e d w it h a t re at m e nt of t h e hub as a t h ick

h ollo w cylind er und e r te ns io n We re t h is ass umpt io n c o rre c t
.
,

t h e fo rmulas of Profe s s o rs Barlo w and Me rriman s h o u ld b e a ppli

cable and t h e te ns io n o n e ve ry c o nc e n t ric laye r caus e d by t h e ,

int e rnal pre ss ure wo u ld va ry inve rs e ly as th e s quare o f its dis

,

t anc e fro m t h e c e n te r Th is pos it io n is fault y in t ha t c as t iro n

.

is n o t h o m o ge n e o u s in t e x t ure is n o t inc o mpress ib le and wh e n

, ,

us ed for t h e mate rials of cy lind e rs of hydra ulic pres s es t he ,

t h ickn es s wh ich o b t a in a re s uch t ha t t he s t re s s e s ca lculate d by

t h e se fo rmu las wo u ld po s t ula t e t h e use of s t ee l t o re nd e r t h e m
re a s o nab ly s afe . Th is lat te r may no t b e a paralle l cas e a s ,

hydraulic cylind e rs a re us ually s o lid a t one end .

1 82 ENG INEERING AN D S H O P PRACTI CE
In pass ing t he aut ho r co nc ludes t hat t h e influenc e wh ich t he
,

us e of d iff e re n t ma te rials w ill hav e o n t h e press u re m a y o n ly b e

s at is fac to rily d e te rm in ed by e xpe rim e n t .

T h e t abulat e d va lues o f P F fro m t h is curve w ill p ro ve t h e

mo re c o nve n ie nt for rea dy refe re nc e ; ho we ve r t he met hod of ,

us ing t h e curve is as fo llo ws : s elec t t h e no m inal d iamet e r o f t he

fi t and follo w its o rd inat e up to t h e curve ; fro m t h is in te rs e c t io n
follow h o riz o n ta lly to t h e left and read P F t h e p ress ure fac t or .

Th e e quat io n f or t h e press ure is

Pres s u re in To ns
Area of s u rfac e o f fi t X dif in d iam be t wee n plug and bo re x P F
. .

T he res u lt will be t h e p res s ure in tons requ ired to fo rc e t he p lug

ho me A fo re man may t hus als o eas ily d et e rm ine whe t h e r or
.

n o t h is press is o f s u ffi c ie n t capac it y fo r t h e w o rk in hand .

7 8 s Sh r
.inkin g F it s S.hrink ing fi t s a re e mp lo y e d f o r a
varie t y of wo rk and a re ge ne ra lly us ed in t he s malle r s ho ps whe re
n o s u it ab le press is t o b e had fo r as s e mb ling t h e w o rk .

Th e a llo wanc e fo r s hrink ing fi ts in t h o us and t hs of an inch

may b e obt a ined fro m t he e quat io n

Th is eq uat io n g ives allo wanc es wh ich agree wit h t he s tandard

ado pted by t he A me rican Ra ilway Mas ter Me chan ics Ass oc ia t io n
fo r lo c o mo t ive wh ee l c e n te r and t ire gag e s
- T h e agree me n t is
.

id e n t ical to t h e t h o us and t h d e c ima l p lac e t h is be ing t h e ex t en t t o

,

wh ich t heir s t andard is carried (See F ig 78 5 pa ge

. .
,
T he a l
lo wa n ces ob t a ine d by t h e us e o f t h is fo rmu la wh ile no t e xc e s s ive
, ,

a re s u ffic ie n t t o ins ure a t igh t fi t t hu s avo id ing t h e dange r o f

,

e xc es s ive s hrinkage s t res ses o ft t imes d ee me d n eglig ib le

,
wh ich ,

a re a lwa y s add it io na l to t h os e inc id e n t t o ac t ua l s e rv ic e Tak ing .

t h e m o d ulus of e las t ic it y o f s tee l a t t h e s t re ss caus ed

by t h is amo un t of s hrinkage wo uld b e abo u t po unds pe r
s quare inch wh ich is w e ll w it h in t h e e las t ic lim it of mach in e ry
,

s t ee l.

Co n s id e ring t h is c las s
fi t ting w it h a vie w to o b ta in ing t h e
of

greates t res is t ance to te ns io n and to rs io n we d is c o ve r t ha t ,

s hr ink ing fi ts a re far s upe rio r to f o rc ing fi t s t h e y b e ing und e r , ,

lik e c o nd it io ns a s Profes s o r W e tm o re h a s s h o wn un ifo rm ly

, ,

abo ut t hree t imes as t igh t bo t h in t e n s io n and t o rs io n E x pe ri .

1 84 ENG INEERING AN D S H O P PRACTICE
8
7 7 . Running F its nn ing fi t is des igned to a llo w the
. A ru

s u rfac es in c o n t ac t t o m o ve o r re vo lve free ly o ve r e ach o t h e r .

T h e m o re n e arly t h e s urfac es in c o n tac t appro ach pe rf e c t io n t h e ,

be t te r will be t h e fi t ; h o we ve r t h e re s ho uld be a s u ffi c ie n t difi e r

,

e nc e in d iame te r to adm it o f m ot io n and lubrica t io n T he .

d iff ere nc e in d iame te r t o b e allo wed in any g iven fit de pe nds upo n

t h e f ollo w ing c o nd it io ns : t h e na t ure o f t h e mach in ed s urfac es ,

t h e k ind o f met a ls in c o n t ac t t h e le ng t h o f t h e fi t and its d iam

,

e t e r and t h e pres s ure and k ind o f w o rk

, T h e pe rfe c t io n o f t h e .

fit d e pe nd ing large ly as it d oes up o n t h e s u rfac es in c o n t ac t

, , , ,

re nde rs it impe rat ive t hat t h e y b e s moo t h and t rue W h e n .

poss ible in t h e s malle r s iz es b o re d h oles s h ou ld always b e re amed

, , ,

a s t h is n ot o n ly in s ures a s t andard s iz e b ut fin is h es t h e h o le

c o mparat ive ly s moo t h and true .

T wo fo rmu las a re g ive n fo r runn ing fi ts ; on e fo r c lo se runn ing

fi t s to b e us e d fo r o rd inary w o rk s lo w s pee d s and ligh t pres s u res
, , ,

and t he o t h e r fo r free runn ing fi ts to be us ed for h igh s peeds , ,

he avy pre s s ures ro ck e r s hafts et c T h e fo rmula fo r t h e c los e

, , .

runn ing fi ts is A 1 3 D 5 whe re A allo wanc e in t ho u

s a nd t h s o f an inch Th es e allo wan ce s wh ile s ee m ing un neces
.
,

s a rily s ma ll a re s uch a s g ive a h igh s t andard o f runn ing fi ts

,
.

T h e fo rmu la fo r free runn ing fi ts is A {G B I t w ill b e

re me mbe re d o f c o u rs e t hat in o rd e r to o b t a in t h e s haft d iamete r

, , ,

t h e a llo wanc e s h o u ld b e s ub t ra c t e d fro m t h e d iame t e r o f t h e

be aring wh ich is ge n e ra lly fin is h ed by a s t andard reame r Th is
,
.

fo rmu la as s umes t h e c o nd it io n o f th e s urfa ce s in co nt ac t to b e

s im ilar t o t h a t o b t a in e d by t h e us e o f a re am e r and t h e a llo w ,

a n c es w ill b e fo und t o fa ll w it h in t h e lim its g ive n in S e c t io n 7 88

o n lim it s fo r lim it gag es .

I n pas s ing it m igh t b e we ll to g iv e a fe w c a u t io nary s e n t e nc es

,

regard ing t h e pro duc t io n o f s a t is fac t o ry ru nn ing fi ts Regard ing .

t h e t ru t h and accuracy o f bo red h o les prac t ic e ind ica t e s t ha t t h e ,

bes t res u lts a re o b t a ine d w it h a ve ry ligh t cut a h igh s pee d and ,

s lo w f ee d I n ligh t chuck w o rk t h e re is a t e nd e ncy in t igh t

.
,

e n ing t h e chuck jaw s t o d is t o rt t h e p ie c e and it may b e n e c e s s ary

, ,

in s o me ins t anc es parti ally t o re lie ve th e pres s ure fo r t h e ligh t

fin is h ing cut T h e mos t s a t is fac to ry re s ults a re o bt a in ed in
.
,

fi tt ing wh e re lim it gages a re us ed W he re no lim it gages a re t o

, .

b e h a d in many in s t a nc es it w ill b e fo und advan t ag eo us to

,

fin is h t h e bo re fi rs t a s it is ea s ie r to fi t t h e s haft to t h e ho le t han
,
.
 BENCH A ND VISE WO RK 1 85

vice vers a . W hen a mad e any too l mark s left on eit h er t he

fi t is ,

s haft o r t h e bo re w e ar away rap id ly and d e fe a t t h e purpos e of

t h e w o rk . No t o n ly is t h e ir he lical c o n s t ruc t io n c o nduc iv e t o

rap id wear b ut p erfec t lubricat io n is rend e red almos t imposs ib le
,

a s t h e groo v es t e nd t o le ad t h e o il o ut o f t h e be ar ing I t is .

d es irab le t o have t he s urfac es in c o n tac t ground as t hey t h e n ,

approach pe rfec t io n ; wh e re t h is is no t feas ib le t h e y s h o u ld b e ,

fi le d and po lis h e d O n goo d wo rk a v e ry fe w s t ro k es of t h e

.

fi le w ill s u ffi c e t o re m o ve t h e t o o l marks ; litt le o r n o fi ling s h o uld

b e at t e mpted aft e r t h e ir re mo va l a s t h e fi ling of cy lindrica l ,

wo rk is a t its bes t a n ega tive pro c ess wh e re trut h and accuracy

a re t o b e s o ugh t .

7 88 .L im it s f o r L im i t G a ge s L im it gag es a s we a re .w e ll ,

aware a re us ed primarily a s t ime s ave rs ; t h e y avo id t h e was te

,

of t im e in fin is h ing parts undu ly accura te wh ile s t ill hav ing t h e m ,

accurate e no ugh to mee t a ll t h e d e mands of in te rchange ab le

man ufac t ure T he se le c t io n of t h e limits of variat io n fo r any
.

g ive n c las s of wo rk re qu ires e xpe rie nc e and s o und judgme nt .

A s it is c le arly a mat t e r of t ime s av ing t h e pro b le m res o lves its e lf ,

in to t wo phas es : t h e accuracy and e ffi c ie ncy of t h e mach in e o n

o n e hand and t h e rap id it y o f pro duc t io n on t h e o t h e r Th e .

larges t lim it o f var ia t io n t h e n t hat w ill pro duc e t h e d es ired

, ,

accuracy and e ffi c ie ncy in th e machine is t he o ne to b e s elec ted .

F o r t h is re as o n t h e s e le c t io n o f lim its pro ves a hazard o us und e r

t ak ing fo r any b ut t h e o ne wh o h a s t o do w it h t h e pro duc t io n o f
t h e mach in e ; h o we ve r t h e f o llo w ing d iagram is s ubm it ted a s
,

being app licab le to mach in e too l e ngine wo rk and s imilar prac t ic e , .

I n t h e manufac t ure o f lim it gag es t he re a re reas o ns why o ne

o f t h e s e ts s h o u ld b e mad e o ne ha lf t h e a llo wab le varia t io n large r

t h a n t h e n o m inal s iz e wh ile t h e o t h e r s e t s h o u ld b e mad e jus t a s

,

much s ma lle r Th is it is be lie ved is t he prac tic e of the bes t

.
, ,

manufac ture rs t h o ugh in s o me of t h e da ta inves t iga ted s uch

, ,

was n o t t h e cas e T h e f o rmu la fo r t h e curve o n t h e d iagram is

.

L } D . 3 and gives ha lf t h e lim it variat io n in t h o us and t h s

2
of an inch plus or m inus as d es ired
,
.

An e xp lana t io n of t h e lim its d iagram is as fo llo ws : T h e dis

t anc e b e te we n t h e lines A and B o n any n o m inal d iame te r g iv es
t h e max imum variat io n of t h e re ame r o r bo re ; as fo r ins t anc e o n ,

t h e 2 inch d ia m e t e r t h e max imum varia t io n is 0 0 1 1 inch es

-
,
T he . .
1 86 EN G INEE RING AN D S H O P P RACT ICE
lin e C is t h e curve fo r c los e runn ing fi ts (A {50 It
will be see n t hat whe n t he re ame r limits a re refe rred t o t h is curve ,

t h e max im um d iff e re nc e in d iame t e r be t w ee n th e h o le and t h e

s haft is t h e d is t anc e
,
o n any n o m inal d iame t e r , bet ween t he
 CH APT ER V III

T U R NI NG
T U R N I N G MA C H I N E S
81 1 . La th e s L at h es a re p ro bab ly us e d fo r a grea te r varie t y
.

o f o pe ra t io n s t h a n any o t h e r mach in e t o o l and to t h is re as o n is

,

due t h e varie t y o f c las s es and t h e w ide range of s iz es in e ach

c lass T h e t yp ical me t al w o rk e r s la th e t h e mos t c o mmo n of
.
’

a ll is t h e e ng ine la t h e ; t h e on e t o wh ich m os t of o ur re marks

w ill b e d ire c te d .

F IG . 81 1 . L dge
o an d S h ip ley Pa te nt H ea d La the .

In cas es wh e re t h e e ng ine la t h e c o uld n o t b e us ed to advan t age ,

s pe c ia l la t h es h a v e b ee n d es ign e d amo ng t h e mo re c o mm o n o f
,

wh ich a re t h e fo llo wing :

81 2 Th e Too l m a k e r s La th e A t o o l m a k e r s lat h e is a n
’ ’
.
- -
.

e ng in e la t h e manu fac t ure d w it h gre a t care a n d po s s e ss ing e x t ra

.

a t t a ch m e n ts t h a t a re d e s irable fo r t oo l m a k ing .

1 88
 T U RNING 1 89

F IG . 81 2 . P ra tt W h itne y T o o l-m a ke r
’
s L th
a e .

81 3 . Th e G a p gap lat he is an e ng ine lat he s o de

La th e . A
s ign ed t ha t it w ill s w ing pu lle ys and s im ilar large w o rk t hro ugh

a gap or depress io n in t he be d n ear t h e h ea d s t o ck - .

F IG . 81 3 . G ap L th
a e .
1 90 ENG INEE RING AN D S H O P P RACTI CE
81 4 . Th e Ax le La th e .axle la t he is a pe cu liarly d es igned
An
la t h e w it h t wo carriages us e d fo r fin is h ing car ax les ; t h e wo rk is
ge n e rally drive n fro m t h e c e n ter .

8 1 5 Th e W h e el La th e
. A whee l lat he is an es pe c ia lly de
.

s ign e d la t h e for fin is h ing lo c o mot ive driv ing wh ee ls and s im ilar

wo rks th e wo rk ofte n be ing dr ive n fro m t he c e nte r

,
.

8 1 6 Th e Turre t La th e
. A t urre t lat h e is es s e n t ia lly a manu
.

fa c t urin g lat h e t h e charac t e ris t ic fe a t ure of wh ich is a t urre t

, ,

des ig ned to bring in rap id s ucc es s io n a numbe r of varie ties of

t oo ls wh ich a c t o n t h e s t o ck pass e d t hro ugh t h e s p ind le and h e ld
in th e chuck T o t h is c lass of la t h es be lo ng s cre w mach in es
.
,

mo n it o r and brass worke r s la t hes

-
’
.

8 1 7 Th e Pull e y La th e
. A p ulle y lat h e is a t yp e of s p e c ia lly
.

d es ign ed lat he fo r t urn ing pu lle ys .

FIG . 81 7 . Pull y Le a th e .
192 ENG I NEERING AN D S HO P PRACT ICE
Th e Cra nk -s crank s haft lat he is a t ype
h a ft La th e . A -

of s pe c ia lly d e s ign e d la t he fo r t urn ing multiple t h ro w crank -

s haf ts . Th e drive is ge ne ra lly un ifo rm fro m e nd to e n d and no

d ifficulty is e xpe rie nc ed in k ee ping any numbe r of crank p ins of
t h e s ame s haft in po s it ive a lign m e nt .

F IG . 8 1 75 . T in de l Alb h t C
rec ra n k s
-
h f t M ch ine
a a .

81 8 . Th e B en ch or be nch o r pre c is io n
P re cis ion La th e . A
lat he is d es ign e d fo r fin is h ing fi n e s ma ll wo rk wh e re gre a t accu
,

racy is d es ire d ; it res e mb les c lo s e ly a wa t ch mak e r s la t h e and is

’
-

int e nd e d fo r lig h t w o rk o n ly .

F IG . 818 . R ive t B e nc h P re c is io n L th
a e.

8 1 9 Th e Spe e d or B a n d La th e
. A . s pe e d o r hand la t h e is

S im ila r to a w o o d - w o rk e r s la t h e and is d es ig ne d to ro t a te t he
’
 T U RNING 193

wo rk a t a h igh e r s peedt han t he o rd inary e ngine lat h e ; w it h it s uc h

hand too ls as g rave rs and fi les a re us e d A great d e al of fin is h ing .
,

drilling and c o unte rs ink ing is d o ne with pro fit o n t h is mach ine .

F IG . 81 9 . Blou nt S pe e d or H an d La the .

Tm : E NG I N E LA T H E
82 1 . D e s c ription . ng ine lat h e is a lat h e equ ippe d w it h
An e

a lead s cre w us ed fo r cu tt ing s cre w t hread s and po we r fe e d s fo r ,

a ct ua t ing t h e m o t io n of t h e t oo l ; it is drive n fro m a c o un te r s haft -

o r by d ire c t c o nn e c t ed m o to r .

I n t he fo llo w ing d es cr ip t io n o f a s tandard t ype o f a s cre w

cu tt ing e ng ine lat he a re g ive n b rie flv t h e names a nd func t io ns o f
it s v a rio us part s . Re fe rring to fi gure 8 2 1 a we have ,

B Be d o r S h e ars carry ing t h e w o rk ing p a rt s o f t h e la t h e .

W W ays plan ed o n t h e b ed t o gu id e t he carriage a n dta il s t o c k -

.

R Ra ck fo r t rav e rs ing t h e carr iage .

LS Lead S cre w us e d fo r trave rs ing t h e carriage .

C OA Change G e ar A rm .

FR F ee d Ro d wh ich a c t ua tes t h e fee d me chan is m in t h e apro n

,
.

A S B A u to ma t ic Sto p Blo ck .

RF C Ro d F ee d Co ne .
194 ENG I NE E RI NG A ND S HO P P RACT ICE

Legs s uppo r t ing the be d .

H ead -S to ck c a rry ing driv ing m e c h a n is m .

S p ind le wh ich t hro ugh a do g fa c e p la t e o r chuck t ra ns m it s

, ,
-
,

its m o t io n t o t h e wo rk .

L ive Ce n t e r ins e rt e d in t h e s p ind le .

F a c e P la t e s c re we d t o t h e s p ind le
-
.

S t e ppe d D r iv in g Co n e o f w h ic h 1 2 3 4 5 a re t h e l s t
‘

, , , , , , ,

2 d 3d 4 t h a n d 5 t h s te ps res p e c t ive ly
, , .
1 96 EN GI NEERING A ND S HO P PRAC TICE
O il Po cket wh ich h o lds o il fo r o iling t he de ad c ente r .

H and W h ee l for adj us t ing t he t a il s to ck s p ind le a nd t h e

-

d ea d ce nte r .

Clamp ing N uts for c lamp ing t h e t a il s to ck t o t h e b ed

,
-
.

Se t o ve r S cre ws fo r se tt ing o ve r t h e t a il s to ck s p ind le whe n

-
,
-

t ape r t urn ing .

Change G e ars fo r s cre w cu tt ing and ge ared fee d s

-
.

S te ady Res t us e d t o s uppo rt lo ng S le nd e r wo rk

, , .

Co un te r S haft .

Clu t ch on c o un t e r s haft -
.

H ange rs fo r c o un t e r s haft - .

P ulle y Res t .

F ac e Pla te
- .
 T U RNI NG 19 7

82 l a a . Ree d Engine L tha e, Mo to r D riv e n .

Bradfo d Engine
r La the .
1 98 E NG I NEE RI NG AN D S HO P P RAC TICE

F IG . 82 l c . Se c tio n t h ro ug h Hea d s to c k
- .

F IG . 82 1 d. Ap o Fr n ro n t .

F IG . 82 1 8 . Ap ro n B a ck .
2 00 ENGINEERING A ND S HO P PRACT ICE
is acc o mp lis hed by t hro w ing t h e s h ippe r arm in t h e oppos ite
d irec tio n fro m t hat wh ich runs t h e lat he fo rward .

3 T h e met h o d o f adjus t ing t h e wo rk in t h e la t h e

. This .

t o p ic is t rea te d mo re fully unde r t h e h ead s o f Ce n t e ring Se c 83 1 ,

.
,

Lat he bo ring o pe rat io n Se c 9 32 A dj us t me nt in chucks Se c 9 33

, .
, , .
,

A dju s t me nt o n face plate Se c 9 3 4 and A djus t me nt o n car

-
, .
,

riage , Se c 9 35
. .

4 . T h e adjus t me nt of t he s teady and fo llo w res t T he met ho d

.

of adj us t ing and c lampin g t h e s te ady res t o n t h e ways and t h e

follo w res t o n th e ca rriage .

5 T h e vario us adjus t m e n ts o f t h e ta il s to ck adjus ting t h e

.
-
,

”
t a il s to ck s p ind le c lamping t h e t a il s t o ck in t h e pro pe r po s it io n
-
,
-
,

h o w to re mo ve b o t h live and d e ad c e n te rs and t h e me t h o d of ,

s e tt ing o ve r fo r t ape r t urn ing .

6 T h e me t ho d o f adj us t ing t h e auto ma t ic fee d m e chan is m

.

afte r t he d et e rmina t io n of t h e d es ire d feed H o w t h is feed .

motio n is t rans m itte d by means of feed c o nes and ge ars to t he

fee d ro d and carriage ; t h e lo cat io n and o pe rat io n o f t he feed
kno bs and c lu tch es and ho w to ins tantly t hro w e it he r of t h e
feeds in to o r o ut of o pe rat io n Als o t h e met hod of re ve rs ing t h e
.

d ire c t io n of t he feed .

7 H o w t h e carriage is bro ugh t in to its pro pe r re la t io n w it h

.

t h e wo rk by m ea ns o f t h e t rave rs ing crank ; a ls o t h e m e t ho d o f

d is e ngag ing it fro m t h e rack by m e ans o f t he t rave rs e p in io n
k nob and h o w t o c lamp it in pos it io n o n t h e wa ys by mean s of
,

t h e carria ge c lamp ing s cre w .

8 T h e o pe ra t io n o f a ll t h e o t h e r m e chan is m c o n t a in e d in
.

and o n t h e apro n .

9 T h e adjus t m e n t o f t h e s lid e and c o mpo und res t b o t h fo r

.

s t ra igh t a n d t ape r t urn ing .

1 0 T h e c o rre c t m e t h o d o f s e tt ing t h e to o l and its adj us t me n t

.

in t h e too l pos t t o o b t a in t h e pro pe r ang les o f rak e and c le aranc e

fo r t h e cut t ing e dge .

1 1 Th e m e t h o d o f adjus t ing t h e change ge ar s t ud s and arm

.
- .

Ca ution Always s to p t h is o r any o t h e r mach ine fo r t h e

.

t ak ing o f m e as ure me n ts o r wh e n it is n e c es s ary t o le ave t h e

mach ine b e it j us t for a mo me n t
, .
 T U RNING 201

PR E PA R A TO R Y PR O C E SS E S

83 1 . Cente ring perations of lo cating drilling and

. T he o , ,

rea m ing c e n ters o n lat h e wo rk a re of impo rt anc e and re qu ire

care ful a tte ntio n V ario us me t h o ds de pe nd ing upon t h e s hape

.
,

of t h e p iec e a re us e d fo r lo cat in g c e n te rs
, Cy lindrical p ie c es or .
,

”
t h os e wh os e cro sss e c t io n is s ymme t rica l a re us ua lly c e n te red by ,

o ne of t h e fo llow ing S im ilar me t h o ds a lready des cribed in ,

Se c 7 1 2 o n Lay ing o ut cy lindrica l w o rk

. ce n te rin g by d iv ide rs ,

c e nte ring by s u rf ac e gage o r c e nte ring by he rmaphro d ite ca lipe rs

, .

O n t h e e nd s o f t h e p ie c e w it h a d is t anc e s o me what gre ate r or

,

less t han ha lf its d iame te r fo ur lin es or arc s inc los ing a s ma ll

, ,

fo ur s ided figure a re dra wn fro m points o n th e pe rime te r At th e

-
, .

c e nte r of t h is figure make t h e c e n te r punch mark and plac ing ,

t h e p ie c e be t wee n t h e la t h e c e nt e rs re v o lve by hand t o d e t e rm ine

,

t he accuracy o f t h e w o rk ; an e rro r o f or m o re is t oo gre a t and

s h o u ld b e c o r re c t e d Ce nt e r punch mark s may b e cro wd e d o ve r

.

by s lan t ing th e punch be fo re s t rik ing Cup c e nters a n d c e nte r .

s q ua re s a re o ft e n u s e d fo r c e n t e ring wh e re s quare e nd e d s t o ck is -

to b e had and c e n t e ring m ach ines wh e re gre a t n umbe rs o f s im ilar

,

piec es a re to b e c e nt e red .

83 2 D rillin g a n d Coun te r s inking

. H aving de te rm in ed t h e .

appro xima te c e nters a s mall ho le s ho uld b e drilled a t each o f

,

t he m Bo t h e nd s hav ing bee n drilled to s uffi c ie nt d e p t h t h e

.
,

60 c o unt e rs ink S h o uld b e us e d to rea m t h e h o les t o t h e p ro pe r

°

s hape Care mus t b e t ak e n t h at t h e point of t h e co un te rs ink

.

d oes no t to uch t h e bo tto m of th e h ole T h e c o mbin ed drill .

and c o unte rs ink w it h wh ich th e h o le is drilled and c o un ters unk

,

a t o n e o pe ra t io n h as s upers ed , e d t h e m e t h o d wh e re t h e s e para t e

drill and ce nt e r re ame r a re us ed .

Ce nt e rs may b e drille d in t h e s p ee d la t h es a drill chuck in t h e ,

p lac e of t he live c e nte r be ing us e d to h o ld t h e drill T h e wo rk .

he ld agains t t h e d ead c e nte r may t he n b e fed by me an s of t h e

t a il s t o ck s c re w o r le ve r Ca re mus t be t ake n to s uppo rt t h e
’
-
.

pie c e o t he rw is e its we igh t w ill have a te nd e ncy to t hro w it out

,

o f pos it io n I n w o rk ing wro ugh t iro n o r s tee l s o me lubrican t

.

s uch as lard o il mach in e o il o r a s olut io n o f s o d ium carbo na te

,

(sa l s o da 1 part wat e r 2 0 parts ) s h ould always b e us ed ; o t h e r

,

m et a ls may b e w o rk ed dry If t h e h ole is d ee p t h e dr ill s h o uld

.

b e wit hdrawn o cca s io na lly to c le ar it of ch ips and to avo id o ve r

2 02 ENG INEE RING AN D S HO P PRACT ICE

” ”
heating Us e t h e high es t s pee d fo r drilling ho les un de r in

”
.

d iame te r W he n a c o mb ined drill and c o un te rs ink is us ed to

.

c o un te r
s ink w o rk f ro m 5 to 3 in d iame t e r s iz es B and
"
F ,
“
,

h aving bo dy d iame te rs fl, and may be us ed to advanta ge .

T h e d iame te r a t t h e bas e o f t h e c o ne o f t h e c o un t e rs ink ge nerally

"
v a ries fro m t o g in w o rk o f t h e abo ve d iame t e r .

ST RA I GH T
T U RN I N G
84 1 .Mani pula tion Afte r th e o pe ra t ions o f c e nte ring and
.

c o un te rs ink ing t h e p ie c e is re ady fo r t h e la t h e Wh e n t h e p ie ce .

t o b e t urne d is cy lindrica l t h e re a re t h ree d is t inct o pe rat io ns t o

”
b e pe rfo rmed a lways in t h e fo llo w ing o rd e r :
,

F irs t S qua re u p th e e nds

. T h e ro ugh ing c ut S ho uld le ave
.

t h e s to ck 1h lo nge r t han t he fin is h e d le ngt h T he r igh t ha nd .

-

s id e t oo l is us ed and fed o u t wa rd fro m t h e c e n t e r F o r accurate .

wo rk re c o un te rs in k th e c en te rs and fin is h t o t he re quired le ngt h

,
-
,

s e t t ing t h e righ t hand S id e t ool s o t hat it s p o in t le aves n o ma rk

-

o n t h e w o rk Back ing o ff t h e d e ad c e n te r a t rifle to a llo w t h e

.

po int o f t h e s id e t oo l to j us t e nte r t he c o n e of t h e c o un ters ink ,

a n d t hus to rid it o f t h e burr o r w ire e dg e is o ft e n t ime s re co m ,

me nded T h e o bj e c t io n c ited t o t h is met h od of ge t t ing rid of

.

t h e burr is t ha t t he s to ck is liab le t o run a t rifl e o ut o f c e n t e r ;

t h is la t t e r res ult ing in t h e sa me c o nd it io n of inaccura t e runn ing
t hat e x is t s in a p ie c e wh ich h as n o t had it s e nd s s qua re d .

S econd Ta ke ro ugh ing cut over le ngth

. Turn t he p ie c e to .

large r t han t h e fin is he d d iame te r us ing t h e d iamo nd p o in t,

-
,

ro und n os e ro ugh ing o r s o me s im ilarly gro und t ool I f upo n

-
,
.
,

c a lipe rin g a t s e ve ra l po in ts t h e d iam e t e rs a re fo und t o vary it

, ,

ind ica tes t hat t h e c e n t e rs a re o ut o f line and t ha t t h e de ad ,

c e nte r m us t b e re adj us te d W he re s e ve ral ro ugh ing cuts a re

.

n ec es s ary t h e y s h o uld b e a s heavy a s c o nd it io ns w ill pe rm it and

,

b e t ak e n o ve r b ut ha lf t h e le ngt h o f t h e s t o ck Re ve rs e t h e p ie c e .

a n d t urn t h e o t h e r ha lf in t h e s am e mann e r I n t h is pos it io n .

t h e fi rs t ha lf o f t h e las t ro ugh ing c ut is t ak e n w it h o u t a lte ring

.

t h e adj us t m e n t o f t h e to o l o r m o v ing t h e s lid e re s t ; t h e w o rk is

aga in re ve rs e d and t he s e co nd ha lf of t he rough ing c ut tak e n .

Th ird T a ke fin is h ing c ut o ver le ngth

. W it h a kee nly whet te d
.

( s t o n e d ) fin is h in g t oo l o r t h e s a m e t o o l re s harp e n e d and -

adj us ted fi n is h to t h e e x ac t d iame t e r As wa s t h e cas e w it h

, .

t h e ro ugh ing c ut t h e fin is h ing c ut is made o ve r b ut h a lf t h e

,
2 04 ENG INEERING AN D S HO P PRAC TICE
tab le , t he n adj us t t he belts and ge ars to o bt ain t h is s pee d an d
fee d
4 . P ull over by ha nd W it h
adj us t me nts made and t he
. a ll ,

t o ol in its pos itio n , pull o ver by

hand to avo id breakage a nd to
as c e rt ain t h e accuracy O f t h e adjus t me nts .

5 S ta rt th e la th e; depth of out
. W it h a ll c lut ch es re le as e d .
,

s tart t h e la t h e and fee d t h e too l by hand un t il t h e d es ire d d e pt h

o f c ut is o bt a in ed .

6 Throw in th e feed B y me a ns of t h e fee d kn o bs t hro w in

. .

t h e au t o ma t ic fee d and wat ch t h e w o rk ca re fully t o d e t e c t any

irregu larit y in t h e wo rk ing O f t h e mach ine Be re ady to t ake .

advan ta ge O f e ve ry o p po rt un ity to s ave t ime So me lubrican t .

s uch as lard O il mach in e O il o r s o da wa te r s h o u ld b e us e d wh e n

, ,

t urn ing wro ugh t iro n and s tee l ; o t h e r m e t a ls may b e wo rk e d dry .

T h e fin is h ing c ut s h o u ld a lways b e v ery ligh t and m ad e w it h a

k ee n ly s t o ned to o l .

F I N I S H I N G PR O C E S S E S

85 1 . F ilin g . La t h e wo rk
hat is s ubs e que nt ly to receive a ,
t
h igh po lis h o r to b e draw fi led mus t b e fi le d aft e r t h e s m o o t h
, ,

”
fin is h ing c ut Care mus t b e tak e n no t to s cra t ch t he wo rk and
.

t o do jus t t h e am o un t o f fi ling n e c es sa ry t o re m o ve t h e t oo l
marks Scrat ch ing o ccu rs whe ne ve r t he fi le p in s
. p inn ing
is t h e c o lle c t io n O f lit t le ba lls O f m e t a l be t wee n t h e te e t h O f t he
fi le . W he n t he fi le is pa s s e d o ve r t h e s urfac e O f t h e wo rk t h es e
part ic les s c o re o r s cra t ch it S ee t hat t he fi le is k e pt c le an fo r .
,

it is impo ss ible t o pro duc e g o o d wo rk un les s p inn ing is avo id ed .

W he n wo rk is to b e fi le d t o fi t a c e rt a in gage o r wh en accuracy ,

”
is d es ire d it is t h e pra c t ic e to le ave t h e w o rk abo ut 00 2 large
"
.
,

afte r a s moo t h fin is h ing c ut and t o re mo ve t h is s to ck w it h what

is te rm e d a flo at fi le D uring t h is o pe rat io n O f fin is h ing .
,

pinn ing m a v b e to a g rea t e x te nt avo id e d b y h o ld ing t he po int

O f t h e fi le t o ward t h e t a il s t o ck s o t h a t it mak es an ang le w it h -

t h e ax is O f t h e w o rk ; in t h is po s it io n it s h o uld b e pus h e d s qua re ly

acros s t h e wo rk t ha t is a t righ t ang les to t h e a x is O f t he w o rk
, ,
.

D uring t h e o pe ra tio n t h e fi le appe ars to b e m o v ing t o ward t h e

le ft ; t h is h o we v e r is n o t t h e c a s e
,
I n s o m e c as es fi lling t h e
, .
,

tee t h o f t h e fi le wit h cha lk w ill pre ve n t p inn ing .

I f t h e w o rk b e ro t a te d t oo rap id ly and es pe c ia lly if it is large , ,

t h e tee t h O f t h e fi le w ill b e ins t an t ly wo m a way A n av e rage .

 TU RNIN G 2 05

cutting s pe ed fo r fi les is about 50 fee t per m inute On t h e for .

ward s tro ke O f t he fi le t h e press ure s h o uld be ligh t and un ifo rm ;

re turn ing th e file may ro ll on th e wo rk O w ing to t h e variatio n
, .

O f press ure and t o t h e lack o f un if o rm it y in t h e hardn es s o f t h e

,

meta l it is almos t imposs ible to fi le a p ie ce pe rfec tly ro un d

, .

T h e wo rk s h o u ld make fo ur o r fi ve re vo lut io ns fo r e ach s t ro k e O f

t he fi le Wh e n fi ling t o a gage t h e end ne x t t h e de ad c e nte r
.
,

s h o u ld b e fi le d firs t SO t hat it w ill jus t e n te r ; and t h e o pe ra t io n

,

o f fin is h ing gradua lly carr ie d t o ward t h e live c e n t e r le aving t h e ,

s urfac e s uch t hat wh e n t h e gage is pass e d o ve r it no pe rc e pt ib le

loos e n es s is d e te c ted .

85 2 S cra pin g
. F or fin is h ing fla t s u rfac es s uch a s flanges
.
,

e tc.
,
s crap ing is o ft e n reso rt ed t o ins t e ad O f fi ling Befo re co m .

”
m e n c ing t h is O pe ra t io n t h e wo rkma n S h o uld re v ie w what h a s b ee n
,

s a id re la t iv e t o grave rs and s c rap e rs in t h e chapt e r o n Cut t ing

“

T ools Se c s 432 and 433 T h e S hank of a lat h e too l c lampe d

,
. .
,

in t he to o l pos t may b e us e d as an impro v is e d s upport fo r t h e

,

s crape r I n wo rk o f t h is charac te r it is necess ary to t ak e ligh t

.

cuts to ho ld t he s crape r firm ly and t o wo rk fro m t h e c e nte r o ut

, , .

Cha tte r ing may so me tim es b e pre ven ted by p lac ing a p ie c e of
le a t he r und e rn e a t h t h e to o l .

853 Polish in g
. Po lis h ing is acc o mp lis h ed in t h e la the by
.

t he us e O f e m e ry c lot h and o il t h e c o a rse r grad es of c lo t h firs t

’

, ,

follo w ing w ith t h e fine r The e me ry c lo t h is us ually att ached to

.

a s tick wh ich during t he o pe ra tio n is pass ed o ve r t he too l res t

, ,

a nd und e r t h e w o rk Co n s id e rab le press ure m a y be e xe rt ed by

.

pres s ing do wn o n t h e o ute r e nd o f t h e s tick wh ich s h o u ld b e ,

mo ved back and fo rt h c o nt inually in o rd e r t hat th e lines cut by ,

t h e part ic les O f e m e ry w ill b e c o n s t an tly cro s s ing and re cross ing - .

I n po lis h ing t he la t h e s h o uld a lways b e run a t its h igh es t s peed

, .

Wat ch t h e d e ad c e n te r ; th e press ure and h igh s pee d may caus e

it t o h e at and b e t w is t e d O ff A c las p mad e O f t wo p ie c es O f
.

wood is o fte n us ed fo r po lis h ing s haft ing .

T A P E R T U R N I NG
861 M eth o ds of Turnin g Ta pe rs Th e re a re four m e t h o d s
. .

O f t urn ing t ap e rs in c o mm o n us e : (1 ) T h e d e ad c e n t e r is s e t o ut

o f lin e w it h t h e liv e c e n t e r ; t h is is t h e o rd inary m e t h o d (2 ) A .

la t h e pro v id ed w it h a s pe c ia l t ape r a ttachm e n t is e mp lo ye d ; t h is

is a be t te r m e t h o d ( )
3 A s pe c i
.a l t ap e r t urn ing la t h e in w h ich -
,
2 06 ENG INEE RING AND S H O P P RACT IC E
the hea d ck and ta il s to ck may b e s e t a t an ang le t o t h e line
-s to -

O f t h e t o o l fee d m o t io n
- is e mplo yed; t h is is t h e bes t m et h o d
, .

( )
4 T h e t ap e r may b e t urn e d wit h t h e a id O f t h e c o mp o und res t .

T h e firs t me t h o d is app licab le o n ly fo r o u ts id e t u rn ing wh ile t h e ,

o t h e r t hree may b e us e d fo r t urn ing and bo ring .

I t is e v id e n t t ha t if a c o n ical o r t ape r s urfac e is d es ire d t h e

to o l mus t t rave l a lo ng a line a t a n angle t o t h e ax is O f rot at io n
O f t h e w o rk Th is is eff e c ted in mos t lat hes by mo ving t he d e ad
.

c e nte r to o ne s ide or t he ot he r by mean s O f s et o ve r s cre ws in -

t h e ta il s t o ck - I n d o ing t h is t h e firs t o pe rat io n is t o loos e n t he

.
,

t a il s t o ck and s h o ve it a lo ng t h e wa vs un t il t h e t wo c e n t e rs
-

nearly t o uch Back O ff t he s e t o ve r s cre w o n t hat s ide t o ward

.
-

wh ich t he c e nte r is to b e mo ved plac e a s c a le be t wee n t he c e nte rs

,

and t urn t he ot he r s et o ve r s cre w un t il t he pro pe r amo un t of

-

s e t o v e r a s ind ica te d by t h e s ca le is O b t a ine d

-
,
T he firs t s e t o ve r
, .
-

s cre w s h o u ld t h e n b e bro ugh t up t o a firm be aring aft e r wh ic h ,

t h e ta il s to ck is mo v ed b a c k and c lampe d in t h e d es ired po s itio n

-
.

T h e am o un t t h e d e ad c e n te r s h o u ld b e m o ve d o ve r t o t urn a
g ive n ta pe r is d e pe nde n t upo n t wo t h ings : (1 ) Th e angle o r t he
amo un t O f t h e tape r us ua lly give n in inches pe r fo o t ; and (2 ) t h e
,

en tire le ngth of th e s tock be t w ee n t h e c e n t e rs rega rdles s of th e

” ”
,

length o f th e ta pe red portion .

T a pe r is almo s t always e xpres s ed b y t h e d iff e re nc e in d iam

e t e r pe r un it O f le ng t h ; t e t h e ra t io 1 in 1.6 or
.
1
1 5
,
t o o r 2 .

”
t o t h e foo t W h e n t h e ang le O f t he t a pe r is g ive n in d egre e s
.
,

t h e t ange n t o f t ha t ang le g iv es t h e ra t io fo r e xamp le t ang , , .

3° — 35 0 62 6 ; appro x ima te ly 0 62 5 wh ich is I V or i pe r

'
.
t
.

fo o t .

862 B rown
. Sh a rpe a n d Mo rs e Ta pe rs T h e t wo s t andard .

t a pe rs in c o m m o n us e a re t h e B ro wn S harpe and t h e Mo rs e

”
.

Thes e tape rs a re d es igna te d by numbe rs s uch a s Mo rse ta pe r

”
,

NO .
2 t he numb e r O f t h e t ape r ind ica t ing a c e rt a in d iam e te r o r
s iz e . T h e B ro wn S harpe t ape r is s uppo s e d to be h pe r fo o t ,

w h ile t he Mo rs e t a pe r wa s in te nd e d to b e g pe r fo o t b ut unfo r ,

”
t una te ly t h e fi rs t s ta ndard s we re inc o r re c t and c o n s e qu e n t ly t h e .

, ,

t ape r of t h e d iff e re n t numbe rs o f t h e Mo rs e t ape rs a re n o t t h e .

s ame and n o on e O f th e m is e xac t ly a pe r foo t a s was o rig ina lly

in te nde d .

863 Rule f o r Se t ove r

.
- Se t t ing o ve r t h e ce n te r change s t h e
.

o r ig ina l d is t anc e fro m t h e s urfac e O f t h e w o rk t o t h e t o o l Th is .

2 08 ENG I NEE RI NG AND S HO P P RACTICE
th e mall e nd we have t h e pat h Of th e too l a lo ng CD and t he
s ,

re c ed e nc e C D e qual to A B as befo re A c irc le drawn t hro ugh

’ ' ' ’
.

D re pres e n t s t h e d iam ete r t he to o l is t urn ing whe n it arrives a t

’

D . If we d es ire t o find t he d iame te r th e t oo l is t urn ing a t t h e

m idd le O f t he line CD we halve the line C D and t hro ugh t he po int
,
’ ’

K dra w a c irc le wh ich g ives t h e d es ire d d ia m e te r ; in lik e mann e r

’

any numbe r of po ints may b e fo und and t rans ferre d t o t h e fro n t

e le va t io n wh e n it w ill b e fo und t ha t t h e line C IJ is curve d
, A .

t ab le O f t ape rs pe r foo t and t h e c o rres po nd ing ang les is g ive n in

Se c 52 9 . .

S CR E W CU TT I N G
87 1 . Th e Th rea din g Tool . A ft e r
re ad ing what h a s bee n s a id
abo u t t h e t h re ad ing too l in Se c 44 7 in t he chapte r on Cutting .
,
“

T oo ls and grind ing t h e to o l acc o rd ing ly t h e workman is re ady to

, ,

t ak e up t h e o pe rat io n O f s cre w cu tt ing in t h e lat he I t is e vid e n t .

.

fro m t h e d es cript io n t hat t h e s ame t ool cannot b e us e d fo r bo t h

,

righ t and left hand t hre a ds wit h o ut cha ng ing t h e c learanc e T h e

-
.

c e n t e r gag e is us e d t o O b t ain t he c o rre c t po s it io n o f t h e t oo l .

I n adjus t ing t h e t oo l t h e cu t ting edges s h o uld a lways b e p lac ed

o n a lin e w it h t h e c e n t e rs and s o t ha t a c e n t e r lin e be t w e e n t h e m
,

is p e rpe nd icu lar to th e s urfac e o n wh ich t h e t h re ad s a re t o b e

c ut .I n t h is po s it io n t he t oo l is c lampe d fir m ly in t h e too l p os t ,

and care s h o u ld b e tak e n t o s ee t hat t he dog is t ight o n t he wo rk ,

and t hat n o e nd play e x is ts .

87 2 Ch a nge G ea ring
. T h e fi rs t O pe ra t io n in s c re w cu tt ing
.
,

a f te r grind ing and s t o n ing t h e t o o l is t h e s e le c t io n of t h e pro pe r ,

c h a ng e ge a rs O n m os t lat h es will b e fo und a t ab le O f change

.

ge ars in t h e fi rs t c o lu m n o f wh ich is g ive n t h e nu m be r O f t hre ad s

,

t o t h e inch t o b e c ut I n t h e c o lumn mark e d s p ind le o r s t ud is

.

g ive n t he numbe r O f tee t h in t h e ge ar wh ich be lo ngs on t he s p ind le

o r s t ud I n an o t h e r c o lumn will b e fo und t h e numbe r o f t ee t h
.

in t h e ge ar wh ich be lo ngs o n th e le ad s c re w Wit h s uc h a t a b le .

a n d o rd inary p it ch e s t h e s e le c t io n O f t h e pro p e r g e a rs is an e a s y
,

t as k A s t he in te rme d ia te o r id le r ge ar is us ed s imp ly t o t ran s m it

.

t h e m o t io n a n y s ize t h a t will co nve n ie n t ly c o nn e c t t h e t wo is se

,

le c te d See t ha t n o b a ck la s h e x is ts in t h e ge a rs and a ls o t ha t t h e y
.
-

do n o t mes h s o c lo s e t oge t h e r a s to caus e unne c e s s ary fric t io n .

W he n no ch a nge ge a r t a ble is give n o r wh e n it is re qu ire d to ,

c ut a t hre ad wh o s e p it ch is n o t giv e n in t h e t ab le it is n e c es s a ry ,

t o c a lcu la t e t h e c h a ng e g e a rs T h e firs t t h ing t o do is to d e te rm in e

.
 T U RNIN G 2 09

whet he r o r no t t he ge ar o n t he s t ud mak es t he s ame n umbe r of

re v o lu t io ns as t h e s p ind le Th is can b e d o ne by co u n t ing t h e
.

”
tee t h O f t h e p in io n o n t h e s p ind le and t h e te e t h O f t h e dr iv ing
ge ar o n t h e s tud T he s pee d in mos t cas es w ill be fo und to b e
.
, ,

id e n t ical and t h e lat h e is ge ared e v e n I f fo r any re as o n t h e

“
.

gears a re inacc es s ible a t ria l may have t o b e mad e P ut gea rs

,
.

O f e qua l s iz e o n t h e s t ud and le ad s cre w and c ut a ligh t t hre ad

o n any c o nve n ie n t p iece . I f t h e t hre ad pro ves t o b e t h e s am e

as t ha t O f t h e le ad s cre w t h e lat h e is g e are d e ve n If the
“
.
,

t hre ad is fo und to b e d iff e re n t us e t h e t h re ad c u t as if it w e re

,

t h e rea l t h re ad O f th e le ad s cre w ign o ring in yo ur ca lcu la t io ns

,

t h e ac t ua l p it ch o f t h e le ad s cre w A ru le fo r O bt a ining t h e
.

c hang e g e a rs in s imp le g e aring is a s fo llo w s :

87 3 Sim m
. e G ea rin g — Rule W rite t h e p it ch O f t he le ad
.

s c re w o v e r t h e p it ch o f t h e d es ire d t hre ad in t h e fo rm O f a frac t io n .

T h e nume rat o r w ill ind icate t he numbe r O f tee t h in t h e g e ar to

Sim ple G ea rin

g

L e ad S cre w

F IG . 873 . S im le p Gea ring .

b e put o n t he s t ud o r s p ind le , and

d e no m ina to r w ill re pre se nt
the
t h e numbe r o f t ee t h re qu ire d o n t h e g e ar t o b e put o n t h e le ad

s cre w ; in o th e r w o rd s t h e ir rat io
,
AS ge a rs have ge n e ra lly n o t
.

les s t han 2 0 t ee t h it w ill b e n e c es s ary to mu lt iply bo t h num e rato r

,

and d e n o m ina to r by s o me n umbe r t ha t w ill g ive a c o mbina tio n

t ha t can b e fo und a m o ng t h e change g e a rs F o r e xamp le : t h e
.
2 10 ENGI NEE RING AN D S HO P PRAC TICE

”
lea d cre w h as 7 t hre ads pe r inch ; we d es ire to cut a s tandard
s

1 p ipe t hre ad O f 1 1 } t hre ads pe r inch ; t h e n 7 o ve r 1 1 } r e pres en ts

t h e gears t o b e us e d Mult iply ing by 3 3 o r 3 we have t he
.
, , ,

fo llowing co mbinat io ns fro m wh ich to s e lec t : 35 33 and 33 , , .

7 4 28 7 6 42 7 8 56
X = x x
11 4 2 Zé i fi e 69
’
I rr s 92
'

Sinc e , ina t rain O f ge ars runn ing toget he r t h e c ircumfe re n t ial

velo c it y o f th e tee t h is t he s ame in a ll and s inc e t h e c ircumfe re nce ,

is pro po rt io na l to t h e nu m b e r o f t h e tee t h we m a y s ubs t it u te t he ,

numbe r Of tee t h fo r t h e c ircumfe re n t ial velo c ities in t h e fo rmulas ;

th us we O bt ain o ur pro po rt io n s .

87 4 Com poun d G ea ring

. Wh e n th e thr e ad to be c ut is Of
.

s uch an unc o mm o n p it ch t hat th e m et h o d jus t e xp la in e d ca lls

fo r g e ars o ne or bo t h of wh ich cann o t b e f o und in t h e asso rt me n t

C o m po undG ea rin
g

F IG . 874 . C om p o un d G ea ring .

acc o mpany ing t h e lat h e c o mpo und gearing mus t b e res o rted to
,
.

I n t h e us ua l fo rm o f c o mpo und ge aring t wo ge ars o f kn o wn rat io ,

a re p lac e d in t h e p o s it io n O f t h e in t e rm e d ia te o n its s t ud T he .

fo llo wing is t h e rule fo r de te r m in ing t h e change ge ars fo r co m

po und ge aring :
Rule for Com po un d G ea ring D ete rm in e t h e rat io e x is t in g
.

be t wee n th e ge ars o n t h e id le r s t ud .
2 12 ENG I NEE RI NG AN D S HO P P RACTICE
bro ke n O ff by s t rik ing t he s h o ulde r a t t he e nd O f the pre c ed ing
cuts T he le ngt h Of the impe rfe c t t hre ad t hus produc ed s h o uld
.

ne ve r e xcee d o ne ha lf a turn A t t h e e nd Of large r t hrea ds 11 h ole

.

is s o met imes drille d o r a groo ve is mad e aro und t h e w o rk w it h a

,

parting too l in to wh ich t he t hrea d ing to o l is a llo wed to run o ut ;

,

t h e las t ha lf t urn ge n e rally be ing mad e by hand

- As t h e d e pt h
.

of t h e t hre ad incre as es t h e cu t s s h o u ld be c o m e ligh te r ; t h e fi n is h

ing cut made w it h a s harp k ee n ly wh e t t ed (s to ned) too l is v e ry

, ,
-
,

light and re quires gre a t care ; if care is not e x e rc is e d a t t h is po int

t h e t hre ad will b e e it h e r t oo t igh t or t o o loos e in t h e n ut In a .

pro pe rly fi t te d t h re ad no loos e ness is pe rce pt ib le and t h e nut ,

may be t urned t h e e nt ire leng th Of t h e s cre w by hand .

W he n t hre ad ing wro ugh t iro n o r s tee l th e p ie c e s h o u ld b e

,

fre e ly lubricated ; lard O il a we ak s o lu tio n O f so ap or a wea k

, ,

s o lu t io n (1 pa rt so da t o 2 0 part s wa t e r) of s o d ium carbo na te

(sa l s o da ) may b e us ed .

W he n n e c ess ary to re mo ve t h e wo rk fro m t h e lat he no tic e ,

and mark t he s lo t in th e face p late us ed fo r t h e t a il Of t h e dog;

whe n rep lac ing b e s ure that it o ccupies its o riginal pos it io n
,
.

Ne v e r re le a s e t he le ad s cre w n ut on S h o rt w o rk unt il afte r

, ,

t h e o pe rat io n O f t hrea d ing is c o mp le t e d I f it b e n e c es s ary to

re m o ve the too l for re—
.

grind ing re adjus t it a s be fo re to fi t t h e

,

gage ; t urn th e lat h e fo rward fo rward on acc o un t O f back las h

and n ote th e re lat ive pos it io n O f th e cut and t h e we ] po int .

I f t h e adj us t m e n t is inc o rre c t dro p o ut t h e id le r o r in t e rme d iat e

,

ge ar and turn t h e lat he fo r ward unt il t h e pro pe r adjus t m e n t is

O bt a ined; t hro w in t h e id le r g e ar and pro c eed w it h t h e c ut In .

cas e t he th re ad be ing c ut is a ve ry lo ng o ne much t ime w ill b e

lo s t in wa it ing f o r t h e t oo l t o run back I n t h is ca s e t h e fo llo w ing
.

me t h o d is O fte n us ed Th e le ad s crew n ut is d is e ngage d and t he

.

too l mo ve d qu ick ly back t o t h e be g inn ing O f t h e t hre ad ; wh e n

t h e numbe r O f th re ad s pe r inch be ing c ut is a mult ip le O f t h e
numbe r O f t h reads on t h e lead s cre w t h e t hre ad may b e caught
,

by e ngag ing t h e n ut a t any po s it io n fo r th e re as o n t hat wh e n t h e

,

n ut is o p e ned and t h e carr iage m o ve d in e it h e r d ire c t io n t h e n ut ,

will no t mes h aga in un til t h e carriage has mo ved a d is t anc e e qual

t o t h e p it ch o f t h e le ad s cre w If t h e p it ch O f t h e le ad s cre w b e
.

e igh t fo r e igh t t hre ad s t h is ca t ch e s t h e s cre w O u t h e n ex t t hre ad ;

, ,

fo r 1 6 it m is s es o ne and ca t ch es t h e s e c o nd ; fo r 2 4 it m is ses t wo
and cat ches t h e th ird If t h e nu m b e r O f th re ads o n a le ad s cre w
.
 T U RNIN G 213

be a multiple Of t h e t hre ads cut t he t h reads can eas ily be caught ,

by ins pect io n ; for t h os e t h re ads wh ich ca nn ot be caugh t by

ins pectio n t h e s ys te m of mark ing and s to pp ing as s ugges t ed for ,

cas es whe n t he s to ck is re mo ve d is s o me times us e d ,

.

87 6 O rde r of O pe ra tion s f o r Sc re w Cutting

. O bs e rve t h e .

fo llo wing o rder O f pro c edure whe n s cre w cutting in th e lat he

1. G r ind the tool T he too l s h o uld b e gro und and wh etted t o
.

s u it t h e t h re ad t o b e out ; if fo r a 60 o r t h e s t andard t h rea d it

°
,

s h o u ld b e ma d e to fi t t h e 60 c e nte r gage °
.

2. S elect the ch a nge gea rs A fte r de te rm in ing upo n t h e pro pe r

.

change gea rs place t he m in pos itio n noting t hat whe n p lac ed

, ,

n eit he r backlas h nor an un due a mo un t O f frict io n ex is ts .

F IG . 87 6 . Adj u ting th e Th reading T

s oo l .

3 T hrow 0 17 th e feed belt or feed gea r

.
.

4 P lac
. e th e w o r k S ee t ha
. t th e c e n t e rs a re in lin e , and t ha t
t h e dog is se cur e ly fas t e n ed t o t h e w o rk O il t h e d e ad c e n t e r .

c o unte rs ink , see t h at no e nd p lay e xis ts , and put a chalk mark

wh e re the t h read is t o s to p .

5 . A d us t th e
j tool . cu t t ing
Th e e d g es O f th e t o o l s h o u ld b e

plac e d on a line wit h t he ce n te rs B ring t h e to o l int o po s it io n .

,

us ing a c e n te r gag e in adju s t ing in t h e mann e r s h o w n in t h e

drawing .

O n la t h es w h ich hav e c o mp o und re s t s t h e f o ll o w i ng m e t h o d

Of g rind ing and set t ing t h e t o o l may b e u s e d t o advan t ag e A S .

o rd ar
in il s y hap e d and g r o und t hr e ad ing t o o ls hav e lit t le o r n o

to p rak e and f o r t h is re a s o n a r e e a s ily du ll e d and un s a t is fac t o ry ;

by u sing a t o o l f o rg e d and gr o und as s h o wn and s e t t ing t h e

c o mpo und res t a t an angle Of 60 w it h t h e axis O f th e wo rk as °

2 14 ENG IN EE RI NG A ND S HO P PRAC TICE
ind ica ted in t h e figu re (F ig t h e d is a dvan t ages O f t h e o t he r
.

too l a re o ve rc o me Th e t oo l is give n to p rak e t o its cu tting

.

e dge wh ich o pe rat es o n b ut o n e S id e O f t h e t hre ad ; t h e t oo l is s et

,

in t h e us ua l mann e r w it h th e t hre ad ga ge .

6 Clutch es a nd lea d s cre w

. Wit h t he feed be lt O ff release a ll
.
,

t h e c lut ch es in t h e apro n and c lamp t h e lea d s c re w n ut on t h e

lead s c re w .

7 A dj us t th e s to p
. A djus t t h e s to p and s to p s cre w S O t hat
.

t h e t oo l w ill bare ly mark t h e wo rk .

8 P ull over by ha nd S h ift t h e be lt t o t h e c o rre c t s pee d

. .

abo ut 1 5 fee t per minute for s oft s teel or iro n and pull o ve r
by hand to de te rm ine t h e accuracy of a ll adjus t me n ts .

9 S ta rt the la the
. S tart t h e lat h e and t ak e a v e ry ligh t c ut
.

t o de te rm ine t h e c o rre c t n es s O f t h e pit ch .

1 0 P roceed wit h th e work

. D uring t h e o pe rat io n t h e cuts
.

s ho uld be c o me ligh t e r a s t h e d e p t h O f t h e t h re ad incre as es ; t h e

fin is h ing c ut s h o uld be made w it h a kee nly whe tte d t o o l and be

ve ry ligh t Whe n t h e wo rk is re mo ve d fo r t ria l in t he gage or
.

n ut ca re mus t b e t ak e n t o plac e it in e xac t ly t h e s am e po s it io n

,

t ha t it o ccup ie d be f o re its re m o val .

877 Note s on S c re w Cuttin g

. M otric s crew t h re ads may b e .

c ut on lat h es having inch div id ed le ad s cre ws - by t h e us e O f ,

change ge ars having t h e pro po rt io n 50 to 1 2 7 be caus e 1 2 7 c e nt i ,

me t e rs 50 inch es (1 2 7 x 39 37 .

T he lead of a s cre w is t h e d is t anc e t h e th re ad advanc es in o ne

t urn ; in a s ingle t hre ad e d s cre w t h e le ad and t h e p it ch a re t h e
-

s am e I n a d o ub le t hre ade d s cre w t h e le ad e qua ls t wic e t h e

.
-

pitch .

A dou ble th read m a y b e cut wh e n t h e numbe r O f tee t h in th e ,

S p ind le ge ar is e ve n by dro pp ing o ut t h e id le r fro m t h e s p ind le

,

ge ar hav ing firs t mark e d a t oo t h o n t h e s pindle ge ar and a

c o rres po nd ing too th s pac e o n t he id le r and t he n t urn ing t h e
la t h e f o rward ha lf t h e numbe r O f t ee t h in t he s p ind le ge ar Th e .

id le r is no w re p lac ed and t h e cu tt ing pro c ee d s as be fo re A .

bet te r meth od is to have s lo ts d iamet rically o p po s ite to ea ch ,

o t h e r m ille d in t h e fac e p la t e and t o p lac e t h e t a il O f t h e d

,
-
,
og in

o n e fo r t h e firs t t hre ad and in t h e o t h e r f o r t h e s e c o nd t hre ad .

A left ha nd th read is on e wh o s e t hre ad inc lines SO as to b e

-

ne are r t he le ft hand a t t h e und e r s id e and is c ut by ins e rting a

.
,

s e c o nd id le r to chang e t h e d ire c t io n o f rot a t io n O f t h e le ad s c re w .

2 16 ENG I N EERING A ND S HO P PRAC TICE
s quare t hre ad s ; its angles O f s ide c le aranc e h o we ve r w ill vary , ,

w ith e ve ry d iame te r and e ve ry p itch O f t hread Lo o k ing a t t he .

e n d O f t h e c o mm o n fo rm o f t o o l u s e d fo r cu t t ing s quare t hre ad s ,

t h e cutt ing po rt io n app e ars to be t wis t e d t o o ne s id e t ha t is a t , ,

an angle t o t h e pe rpe nd icular ax is of t h e too l Th is fo rm O f too l .

mus t be s o s haped a s to run s m oot h ly in t h e t hrea d and to t h is ,

fac t is due t h e angularity not iced T he o rd inary me t h o d O f

.
.

find ing t h e amo unt O f t w is t to give t h e cutt ing po rt io n of t h e

“

t o o l is a s f o llo ws : t h e c ircumfe re nc e o f t h e p ie c e to be t h re ad e d
is la id o ut o n a h o riz o n t a l line and a t its e n d is e re c ted a pe rpe n
,

dic ula r whose le ngt h is e qua l to t h e p it ch ; a righ t t riangle is t he n

fo rmed by c o nnec t ing t he e nd O f t he pe rpe nd icular w ith th e e nd
O f t h e h o riz o n t a l lin e T h e ang le be t wee n t h e hypo t h e n us e and
.

t h e lo nge r leg Of t h is t riangle is th e ang le wh ich t h e ax is O f t h e

t w is t e d cut t ing po rt io n O f t h e to o l makes w it h t h e pe rpe nd icu lar
ax is If an o t h e r t riangle b e la id o ut taking t h e c ircumfe re nc e
.
,

a t t h e bo tt o m o f t h e t hre ad it is e a s ily s ee n t ha t t h is ang le varies

,

w it h e ve ry c ut and t hat t h e me t h o d jus t e xp lained canno t

, ,

t h e refo re b e t h eo re t ica lly c o rrec t ; it is h o w e ve r t h e me t h o d

, , ,

us ually e mployed I t is impo ss ible for me chan ical re as o ns to

.
, ,

c ut a e rfe c t s quare t hre ad w it h a s ingle t oo l s uch as t h e o ne

p
d es cribe d ; s uch a too l w ill c ut a t h re ad wh os e S ides and botto m
a re curv ed T o c ut a pe rfe c t s quare t hre ad t h e ro ugh ing c ut is
.
,

mad e w it h a s ingle too l and t h e S id es and botto m fin is hed s e pa

,

ra t e ly w it h d iffe re n t t o o ls e ach hav ing b ut o n e cu t t ing e dge and

,

t hat cu tt ing e dg e plac e d o n t h e c e n te r W he n us ing t h e S ing le .

t o o l it mus t be gro und lik e t h e parting t o o l t h inne r a t t h e b o t to m ,

t han t h e t o p to ins ure c le aranc e .

883 Th e 60 . V Th rea d Th is t hrea d is s im ilar in S hape

°
.

t o t h e U S s t andard w it h t h e e xc e pt io n t ha t it s s id e fac es m ee t
. .
,

bo t h a t t h e top and t h e bo tto m in a s harp edge o r c o rn e r g iving , ,

ris e to t h e n ame by wh ich it is s o m e t imes kn o wn s harp t h re ad .

Th e s ide fac e s O f t h is t hre ad mak e an ang le O f 60 w it h e ach °

o t h e r t h e d e p t h O f t h e th re ad b e ing t h e s in e O f t h e ang le
,

t im es t h e p it ch Th e d iame te r a t t h e bo t to m o f t h e th re a d
.
,

t h e n o m in a l s iz e O f t h e t a p drill e qua ls t h e o u ts id e d iame t e r ,

O f t h e s cre w m inus t h e quan t it y d ivid e d by t he p itch

Th is threa d is ch iefly us e d fo r s ma ll s cre ws ,

etc .
,
an d es pe c ia lly fo r c a s e hard e ned
-
se t s cre ws .
 T URNING 2 17

F IG . 883 . V Th read .

884 . Th e B ro wn Sh a rpe Th is t hread 2 9

°
W o rm Th rea d .

is re c o mm e nde d by B ro wn S harpe fo r wo rms and h o bs and is

.

t h e c o mmo n t hre ad fo r wo rm ge aring T h e s id es O f t h is t hre ad .

make an angle O f 2 9 wit h each o t he r T he fla t a t t h e botto m of

°
.

fi -
. fl li P
~ L
< — r

F IG Wo m T h d
. 88 4 . 29 °
r rea .

t h e t h re ad is 3 1 O f t h e p it ch wh ile t he fla t a t t h e t o p is 335
.
,
.

o f t h e p it ch ; t h is it w ill b e s ee n ins ures a pe rfe c t fi t o n t h e S id es

, ,

o f t h e t hre ad . Th e d e pt h O f t he t h re ad is 6866 O f t he p it ch .
,

and t he d iame te r a t t h e bo tto m o f t h e t hread is Ob ta ined by

s ubt rac t ing fro m t h e o u ts id e d iam e t e r t h e quan t it y O bt a ined by

mu ltiply ing t w ic e t he d e pt h x2 by t he pit ch .

88 5 Th e 2 9 S cre w Th rea d A cm e Sta n da rd O n acc o un t O f

.
°
,
.

iT —fi fi P —
"l -
'

fi
"
r
z ‘
_

°
2 9 Sc h ew T h re ad A c me S ta nda rd

F IG . 885 . 29 °
S cre w T h rea d , Acm e S ta n da rd .
2 18 ENG INEERING AN D S HO P PRAC TICE

its having b ut a s ma ll a m o un t O f s ide fric t ion t h is t hrea d is being ,

used e xte ns ive ly ins te ad O f t h e s quare th read whe re a c o ars e ,

pitch s cre w is d es ired .

T h e vario us parts O f t h e 2 9 Screw Thread A cm e Sta ndard

°
, ,

a re O bt a ine d a s fo llo ws :

Widt h o f po int o f too l fo r s cre w o r t ap t hre ad

. 370 7
NO . Of t hd s .
pe r inch
370 7
Wi d t h cre w th re ad
.

of s o r nut
NO . of t hd s .
pe r inch

Diamete r of tap D iame te r Of s cre w . 020 .

Diame te r of tap or s c re w at roo t Diame te r Of s c re w

1
No . of line ar t hds pe r inch .

1
. 0 10 .

886 . Ta b le of 2 9 8 Scre w Th re a d Pa rt s ,
A cm e Stan da rd .

NO Of T hds .

W idth at T op 5 178 0 ? at TOP

of T hd . of T hd .

. 5 1 00

F IG . 886 .

887 . Th e B ritish Stan da rd o r W h itwo rth

har Th rea d . T he c

a c t e ris t ic fe a t ure s O f t h is t hre ad a re t h e ro und ing O ff O f t h e t hre ad

t o ps t h e fi lle t ing in O f t h e ro o ts and t h e 5 5 a ng le wh ich t h e

°
,

s id es o f t h e t hre ad mak e w it h e ach o t h e r T h e am o un t t ak e n 0 6 .

t h e t h re ad t o p and add e d to t h e roo t is o ne s ix th o f t h e h e igh t

 CH APTER IX
R OR I NG

BO R I N G MA C H I N E S

9 1 1 . B o ring D efi n e d
B o r ing m a y
. b e d e fin e d as t h e pro duc
t io n o f int e m a l cy lindrica l o r c o n ica l s u rfac es B o ring mach in es ,
lik e mos t ot h e r mach in e too ls have t he ir o rig in in t he lat h e b ut
, ,

lik e t h em re t a in b ut fe w o f its charac teris t ic d e t a ils

,
T he N O .

c las s es in to wh ich boring mach ines a re d ivided a re t he h o riz o nta l

a nd t he ve rt ica l .

9 1 2 Th
. e H o riz on tal Boring Ma chin e T h e h o riz o n t a l b o ring.

mach ine in a c o mmo n t ype ret ains so me Of th e de t ails O f lat he

, ,

c o ns t ruc t io n in t hat t h e he ad w ith its s p ind le c o n e pulle y and

, ,
0

F IG . 9 12 . Bins ee H o riz o n ta l B o ring M hi

ac ne .

back gea rs res e mbles t ha t of th e lat h e I ns te ad O f t h e b e d and

, .

carriage a ta ble fo r s up po rt ing t h e wo rk and h av ing ve rt ical

, , ,

s id e and lo ngit ud ina l adjus t m e n t s is pro v id ed T h e e nd O f t h e

, .

220
 B O RI N G 22 1

sp ind le is pro v id e d wit h an at tac hme n t fo r h o ld ing e it he r a bo ring

bar o r a drill T h e s p ind le is S p lin ed and S O d es ign ed t ha t wh ile
.
,

it rot a tes w it h t h e driv ing ge ar it may b e fed t hro ugh t h e w o rk

, ,

e it h e r au t o ma t ica lly o r by ha n d ; t h is s t y le may a ls o b e us ed

advan ta geo us ly fo r many dr illing and h eavy m illing o pe rat io ns .

9 3
1. Th e V e rt ica l B oring Ma chin e V e rt i
.ca l b o ring mach in es

a re c o mm o n ly t e rm e d b o rin g and t urn ing m ills ; t h e y be ar lit t le

F IG . 9 i 3a . Ba ush 3 0
”
V e rt ica l B o ring M h ine
ac .
222 ENG IN EER ING AN D S H O P PR ACT ICE
res e mblanc e to any o t h e r mach ine to o l s ave po ss ib ly to t h e plane r ;
,

a c o mmo n t ype hav ing th e charac te ris t ic h o us ings cros s ra il and ,

-

heads which we a re wo nt to s ee o n plane rs I n p lac e O f t h e p late n

.

t h is mach in e is pro vid e d w it h a h o r iz o n t a l c irc ular t ab le wh ich is ,

in re a lity a huge fac e p late o n wh ich t h e wo rk is bo lte d

,
- Th is .

t ab le is ro t at ed by me ans of be ve l g ears wh ile t h e t oo l h e ld in

, ,

F IG . 9 1 3b . B
e t ts M d
o tor- rive n B o ring a nd T urn ing M ill
, 7 ft .

an adj us tab le bo ring bar in t he to o l head o pe ra tes o n t h e wo rk

,

wh ich is bo lted on t h e table T h e s add les carry ing t h e he ad s o n

.
,

t h e cro ss ra il may b e o pe ra te d e it h e r au to ma t ica lly o r by hand

-
, ,

as may a ls o b e t h e bars carrie d in t h e h e ads Thes e h ead s may .

b e s w ive led a t any ang le t o pro v id e add it io na l adjus t m e n t fo r t h e

t oo l and t o e nab le t ap e r wo rk to b e t urn ed F or fac e pla te w o rk
.
-

and s uch ot h e r t urn ing a s may b e hand le d t he make rs c la im to ,

b e ab le to eff e c t a s av ing O f fro m 40 2 t o 70 9 2 wh e n s uch wo rk

9 7

is mach in e d o n a b o ring m ill .

9 1 4
. Th e L a th e a s a B o rin g M a chin e Th e pr o duc t.io n o f
in te rna l cylindrica l o r c o n ica l s u rfa c es in t h e la t h e is a ls o te rme d
22 4 ENG IN EE RI NG A ND S H O P PRAC TI CE
and turret s lides ; a driv ing me chan is m fo r o pe rat ing t he table ;
and a fee d ing mechan is m c o ns is t ing O f t h e vario us fee d c o n es ,

gea rs and re ds fo r c o n t ro lling t h e mo ve me n ts O f t h e hea ds and

to o ls. Many of t he s ma lle r mach ines a re eq uippe d wit h s cre w
cutting d e v ic es and have un ivers al chucks wit h inde pe nd e nt jaws

”
built in t o t h e t able T he t ab le is o pe rated by m ean s O f a driving

”
.

co ne t hro ugh t h e m e d ium O f ba c k gea rs and a bevel gea r pin ion

wh ich e ngages in tee t h o n its pe riph e ry A 30 mach in e h as a .

t ab le 2 8 in d iame t e r wh ich h as 1 6 changes o f s pee d s The .

mo ve men t of t he too l wh ich is he ld in t h e he ad or t u rret and ,

wh ich ope rates o n t h e wo rk fas te ne d to t h e tab le is c o n t rolle d ,

by t h e feed me chan is m t hro ugh t h e med ium of t he feed c o n es ,

gears and ro d s T h e s add le s carrying t he head s t urre ts e tc

.
, , ,
.
,

o n t h e cro ss ra il - may b e o pe ra ted e it he r auto mat ica lly o r by

,

hand as may a ls o t h e s lides and turre ts T he b ea ds may b e

,
.

s w iv e le d a t any ang le to pro vid e add it io na l adju s t m e n t fo r t h e

to o l and t o e nab le tap e r w o rk t o b e t urn e d The y a re pro vid ed .

w it h an abs o lu te c e n t e r s to p s o t hat t he y may b e run to t h e

c e nte r O f t h e t ab le and c lampe d in wh ich pos it io n t h e Mo rs e

”
,

t ape r w it h wh ich t h e y a re pro v id e d is c o nc e n t ric w it h t h e t ab le

” ”
, , ,

pe rm itt ing t he us e of s mall drills bo ring bars e tc w it h o ut t h e

, , .
,

re m o va l o f t h e t o ol pos ts fro m t h e s lid e I n t h e 30 mach in e .

t h e t urret is 1 0 in d iame t e r and pro v id ed w it h fo ur 2 5 h o les ;

”
t he s lid e may b e s et a t an angle up t o 30 fo r bo ring and t urn ing
°

””
t ap ere d w o rk a n d po ss e s s e s a d o wnward m o ve m e n t O f
, Th e
fee d s wh ich a re po s itive range fro m 1 1 0 to
, , h o rizo n tally and
fro m 31 6 to l, v e rt ica lly a re e igh t in numbe r and a re pro v id e d
,

w it h a uto m a tic trips T he s cre w cut t ing attachme n t pro v id es a

.
-

me ans O f cutt ing fro m 4 to 1 2 t hre ad s pe r inch Wit h t h is .

mach ine a d o uble s pee d c o unt e r S haft is pro v id ed

- -
.

9 2 3 Ch
. a ra c t e ri s ti c O pe ra tion s I t is imp o rt an t. t o und e r
s tand t h e fo llo w ing o pe ra t io ns and adju s t m en ts O f t h e bo ring and

t urn ing m ill b e f o re s t art ing t o w o rk

( ) h e c o rre c t m e t h o d O f adjus t ing t h e too ls in t h e too l p os t

1 T
o r t urre t a ls o a kn o w le dg e O f t h e t urre t m o ve m e n t t oge t h e r w it h
,

t he us e O f t h e s o ck e t and t h e me t h o d o f re m o v ing t he t o o l and

bars fro m t h e s pind le o r tape rs .

( ) T h e adjus t me n ts o f t he drive m e chan is m back gears e tc

2 , ,
.
,

S O t ha t af te r its d e te rm ina t io n t h e c o rre c t s pee d may b e g ive n

,
,

t o t h e tab le and w o rk .
 BORI N G 225

()
3 T h e met h od of manipulating th e s add les and h ea d s s o as
to bring t h e t o ol in to its pro pe r rela t io n w it h t h e w o rk .

( )
4 T h e var io us m e t h o d s O f se cur ing af t e r t h e ir d e t e rm i na
, t io n ,

and o f c o n t ro lling t h e d iffere nt feed s .

( )
5 H o w t o t hro w i n t h e au t o ma t ic fee d s and t h e adju s t m e n ts
,

of t h e au to ma tic t rips .

( )
6 A th o ro ugh und e rs t and in g o f t h e s cr e w cu t t ing m e chan i s m -

and its change gears .

BO R I N G

93 1 . P re pa ra tion of th e prW o rk
e para t io.n of T he
t h e w o rk
fo r t h e bo ring m ill is S im ila r to t ha t re qu ire d wh e n c as tings a re
m ach in ed in t h e lat h e Ve ry little if any lay ing o ut is neces
.
, ,

s ary t h e maj o r part o f t h e pre para t o ry pro c e

,
s s b e ing its adjus t

me nt in re lat io n to t h e t oo l As wa s th e c as e w it h t h e lat h e th e
.
,

p ie c e m us t b e s et c e nt ral w it h t h e c ente r O f rotat io n whe n it is ,

b lo cked up and c lampe d e ith e r o n t h e table o r in t h e chuck F o r

, .

t urn ing and b o ring fla t wo rk what h as bee n s a id relat i ve to ,

chuck ing s uch w o rk in t h e lath e applies w it h e qual fo rce he re .

T h e c e n te r o f s uch a p ie c e is firs t bo re d t h e to p fac e d and as ,

much o f t h e o u ts id e turn ed as t h e jaws w ill pe rm it whe n it is ,

t urn e d o v e r and aga in chuck ed to t h e fin is h ed p o rt io n and fi n

is h ed W h e n poss ib le drive rs
. de v ic es to pre ve nt t h e work
,

fro m turn ing o n t h e t able s ho uld be us e d in o rd e r to pre ve nt

S lipp ing in t h e jaw s fro m t h e s t res s due to t h e t ang e n tia l pres s ure
,

o f t h e to o l T h e princ ip les h e re s t ated a re fundam e n t a l t h o ugh

.
,

th e fas te n ing o f irregular p iec es may ca ll for so m e lit tle inge n uit y
o n th e p a rt o f t h e O pe rat o r .

93 2 .La th e b o -
rin g p O e ra tion s T h e o p e ra t io n
. o f bo r ing af t e r ,

t h e wo rk h a s bee n fas te ne d is c o mpara t iv ely s imple, Co ns id e r .

able judg m en t s h o u ld b e us ed in t h e grind ing and adj us t m ent of

t h e t o o l ; t h e t h eo re t ica l h e igh t o f t h is t o ol is be lo w t h e c e nte r
fo r th e s am e re as o n t hat fo r o uts id e t o o ls it is abo v e t h e c e n te r .

F o r o t h e r re as o n s h o w e ve r it is ge ne rally plac ed o n t h e c e n te r
, ,

and ground fo r s cant c learance in t h is pos it ion W he re no h ole .

is c o red t h e p ie c e is c o un te rs unk w it h a s pec ia l too l and a h o le

, ,

drilled w it h e it he r a fla t chuck ing or an o rd inary t wis t drill th e ,

drill being h eld in a s uit able h old e r F o r bo ring long h oles in .

s p ind les and t h e lik e a h og or ha lf ro und fla t n os e drill is s o m e

, ,
-
,

times us e d T h is drill is so m etimes us e d a s a bo tto m ing drill

. .
226 ENG I NEERI NG AND S H O P PRACT ICE
I n t h is drill o ne s ide O f t h e cylindrica l s to ck O f wh ich it is made
,

is c ut away and t h e o t h e r le ft full S iz e to a ct as a guid e ; t h is drill

,

cannot b e fed as fas t as a t wis t drill o n acc o unt O f its hav ing b ut
o n e cu t ting e dge W he re ro ugh bo ring is des ire d in c o red h o les
.
,

a fla t drill is us ed ; t he us e O f t h is drill nec es s itates a s pe c ia l ho lde r

”
wh ich is clampe d in t he too l pos t .

T h e s t ud e nt s h o uld n ow read again what h as bee n s a id abo ut

bo ring to o ls Se c 445 in Chapte r 4 o n Cutt ing Too ls and
,
.
,
“

re la te d ma t t e r in Se c s 9 4 6 to 9 4 9. T h e ro ugh ing c.ut — wh ich

can n e ve r b e ve ry hea vy on acc o unt of t h e s pring O f t h e tool
s h o u ld b e as h e avy as p o ss ible A fte r t ak ing t h e ro ughing
.

c ut t h e h o le S h o uld b e ca lipe re d ; if fo und t o b e t ape re d it w ill b e

,

nec es s ary t o us e ligh te r cuts So met imes a t ape red h ole may be
.

s t ra igh t e n e d by re ve rs ing t h e feed; t h is h o we ve r is n ot goo d , ,

prac t ic e F in is h ing cuts s h o u ld always b e ligh t and take n w it h

.

a fi ne feed I n turn ing a pulle y or t h e flange O f a flange c oupling

.
, ,

it is firs t chuck ed for bo ring and bo red ; af ter b o ring it is re ame d

and fo rc ed on an arbo r o n wh ich it is s ubs e que ntly fin is hed .

W h e re t h e pu lle y is s ma ll it may b e drive n by me ans O f a dog o n

,

t h e e nd O f an arbo r ; whe re it is large it is drive n by a lug (t e rmed ,

a driver) bo lte d to t h e fac e plate wh ich e ngages o ne O f its arms

-
,
.

9 33 Ch uckin g
. A dj us tm en t in Ch uck s T h e m e t h o d of .

h olding or adjus t ing in chucks is bes t adapted fo r wo rk t hat is

s m a ll and re gu lar T h e c o mmo n fo rm O f la t h e chuck c o n s is t s of
.

a h eavy cas t i ro n d is k o n t he back O f wh ich is bo lted a s mall

-
,

fac e p la te t hre ad ed t o fi t t he lat he S p ind le I n t he fro n t o r fac e

-
, .

o f t h is d is c rad ia l S lo ts a re c ut t hro ugh wh ich jaws fo r h o ld ing

,

t h e w o rk a re m ad e t o s lid e by mea ns o f s cre ws I n fas t e n ing t h e .

chuck to t h e s p ind le it S ho uld be he ld carefu lly in pos itio n and

t h e la t h e turne dover by h a ndunt il it s t art s o n ; no o t h e r way s h o uld
b e us ed Ne v e r a llo w t h e chuck to c o me up to t h e s h o u ld e r w it h
.

a bang A chuck t hat is t igh t o n t h e s pind le may O fte n b e s t art e d

.

by me ans O f a woo d e n le ve r place d be t ween t h e jaws So metimes .

t h is le ve r is s o p lac ed a s to s t rik e t h e la t h e b ed wh e n t h e lat he

is s t art ed backward a t its s lo wes t s pee d Be fo re as s e m b ling t h e
.

chuck and t h e s p ind le t he t hre ads o n t h e S pind le and in t he

,

chuck s h ou ld always b e w ipe d c le an and O iled .

As t he ma tte r O f adjus ting and c e n te r ing t h e w o rk in ind e

pe nd e nt and c o m b ina tio n chucks is o ne O f t ry and t ry fo r t rial ,

t he p ie c e is c lampe d in t h e chuck and t h e s pind le ro t a t e d s lo wly ,

228 ENG I NEERI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE
de v ic e T he wo rk as it can h e s h o uld b e t rued befo re t h e final
.
,

c lamp ing t he ho rizo n tal pos it io n o f t he tab le pro vid ing a re ady
,

means O f adjus t ing th e bo lts s t raps and jacks I rregular s hapes ,

.

s uch as e cc e n t r ic d is c s .
O ff s e t va lv es
, e tc requ ire no c o un te r ,
.
,

bala nc ing wh ile for manufac t uring purpo s es j igs and fix tures fo r
, ,

s e curing and lo ca t ing cas t ings a re e as ily a t t ach e d t o t h e t able ,

.

()
2 A d j u s t t he too l Se le c t .and adju s t t h e t oo l n o t ing t ha t it ,

is pro pe rly gro und and wh e t te d A se t of bo ring too ls c o ns is ts O f

.

a bo ring to o l fi ve t urn ing to ols a bar a 4 lippe d drill a loose

, , ,
-
,

re am e r s hank and s he ll re am e r and a t o o l h o ld e r - .

( )
3 A d j u s t th e s lid e a n d s a dd le B ri ng t h e h e ad and s.add le

in to t h e ir pro pe r re la tio n w it h t h e w o rk t h e too l jus t o ve r t he ,

ed ge O f t h e s urfac e to be o pe rate d upo n .

( )
4 D e te r m in e th e s p eed a n d f ee d C a lcu l a t e it o r c o n s u lt t
. h e

mate rial in Chapte r 4 and t he n adjus t t he be lts and ge ars to

,

O bt a in t h is s p ee d a n d fe e d .

( )
5 A d j u s t f or tr a v e l a nd f ee d A dju s t t h e au t o ma t i c
. t r ip d o g s

S O as to s to p fee d ing a t t h e pro p e r t im e and t h e feed m e c han is m ,

c o a rs e o r fine as t h e wo rk in hand d e mands s o a s to O b ta in

a max imum o u tpu t .

( )
6 P u l l over by ha nd W it h a ll adj us t m e n ts m ade and t h e
.
,

to ol in it s po s it io n pu ll o ve r by hand to d e te rm in e t h e accuracy
,

o f t h e adjus t m e n ts and to av o id bre akag e .

( )
7 S ta r t th e m a c h in e S t art t h e mac. h i n e and f ee d t h e t oo l
by hand un t il t h e d es ire d de pt h O f cut is O bta ined .

( )
8 Th r o w i n th e f ee d Th ro w in the auto mat ic fee d and
.

wa tch t he wo rk care fu lly to d ete c t any irregularit y in t h e wo rk ing

of t h e mach in e Be re ady to t a k e advan t ag e of e ve ry o ppo rt un it y
.

t o s ave t ime .

CH U C R S , BO RI N G T O O LS A ND CH U C K I N G

94 1 Ch uck s
. A s h a s b ee n s t a te d t h e c o mm o n f o rm O f la th e
.
,

chuck c o ns is ts O f a h e avy cas t iro n d is c o n t h e back of wh ich is -

,

bolted a s ma ll fac e pla te t hre ad ed to fi t t h e lat he s p ind le I n

-
, .

t h e fro n t o r fac e O f t h is d is c rad ia l s lo ts a re c ut t hro u gh wh ich , ,

jaws fo r h o ld ing t h e w o rk a re m ad e to s lid e by m ean s O f s cre ws

, ,
.

Chuck s a re c la ss ified acc o rd ing to t h e nu m be r of jaws and t h e

,

me t ho d of t he ir a djus t me n t in to ind e pe nde n t u n iv e rs al and , ,

c o mb ina t io n e ach k ind hav ing e ith e r t wo t hree o r fo ur jaws as

, ,

d es ire d .
 BO RI NG 22 9

9 42 . In de pen den t Ch uck s . An inde pe nd e nt chuck is so

arrangedt hat ea ch jaw may b e mo v ed wit h its , s e para te adju s t ing

Fm . 9 42 . I nde pe nde nt F o ur-ja w Ch uck .

s c re w ,
nd
i e ep nd e n t ly o f t h e o t h e r jaw s Th is s t.
y le o f chuck is

bes t adapted to h e avy wo rk and wo rk of irregular s hape .

9 43 U.ni ve rs a l Ch u ck s T h
. e u n iv e rs a l chuck is c o n s t ruc t ed

Fm . 9 43 . U nive rsa l G ea re d Sc ro ll Ch uck .

2 30 ENG I NEERI NG AN D S HO P PRAC TICE
in uch a manne r t ha t whe n any o ne j a w is mo ved the ot he rs
s ,

mo ve s imult an eo us ly in t h e sa me d ire c t io n a lik e d is tanc e , .

Thes e chucks a re bes t adapted to regu lar wo rk as a grea t s aving ,

of t ime is e fi e c t ed by t h e ea s e and rap id it y w it h wh ich s uch w o rk

may b e c en te re d .

9 44 . Co m b in a tion C h u ck s T h e c o mb ina
. t io n chuck as it s ,

name indicates is a c o mb inatio n of t h e ot he r t wo w it h its jaws

, ,

F IG . 9 44a . C om b ina ti
on Chu ck .

mo v ing ind e pe nd e n t ly o r s imu lt aneo us ly a s d es ired O w ing . to

its gre a te r c o mp le x it y t h is chuck re q uires a lit t le m o re care
,
in
hand ling ; it is us ed bo t h fo r regu la r a nd irregula r wo rk .

F IG . 9 44b . S ec tio n of S kin n e r Co m b in

a tio n Ch u ck .
2 32 ENG IN EERING AND S H O P PRACTI CE

F IG . 9 46g . AC o mm o n B o ring Ba r.

A noth er Boring Ba r with Cutters

F IG . 9 4Gb . An other Ba r with C utters .

F IG . 9 46C . A Cutt e r or Bo ring Hea d .

. c ut t e rs fo r t h is bar is s h o wn a t t h e righ t o f t he bar

s e t of ,

F ig 9 4G b
. A is a ro ugh ing cu t te r and is h e ld in t h e b a r in th e
.

manne r s ho wn So me tim es t wo ro ugh ing c uts a re n e ces s ary fo r

.

"
each h o le t hus re qu iring t wo ro ugh ing cu t t e rs
,
A bo u t 0 2 5 is le ft . .

fo r t h e fin is h ing cu t te r B wh os e fo r m is s h o wn w it h ro und ed
, ,

cu tt ing edges I t is plac e d in t h e s ame s lot a s A b ut t h e s e mi

.
,

c ircu lar gro o ve in it is e n larged s o tha t whe n t h e cu tt e r is in its

 BO RI NG 2 33

plac e t h e pin d oes no t c o me in c on tac t wit h it th e pin be ing ,

us e d in t h is cas e me re ly to pre ve nt t h e cu tte r fro m falling o ut of

t h e bar pre v io us to its e n te ring t h e h o le Cu tt e r C is us ed for
.

c o unte rs ink ing o r chamfe ring the o pe n ing ; t h is is ge ne rally d o ne

befo re the fin is h ing cut is take n .

9 47 C h u
. c k in g D r ill s C huck
. i ng drills a re mad e i n a varie t y
of s ty les and s ha n ks t h e mos t n ot ic eab le variat io n from t h e
,

o rd inary t w is t dr ill be ing a p ro v is io n fo r c o nve y ing a lubricant

to t h e po in t o f t h e drill O rd inar ily a s ma ll c ircular o il h ole

.
,

c onne c te d w it h a hollo w s hank pass es t hro ugh t he lands of th e

,

drill to t h e po int o r lips F o r drilling c o re d ho les t hree o r

.
,

fo ur gro o ve drills a re us e d ; t h is c las s of drill is ne ve r us ed for

-

drilling so lid s tock ; s ho u ld it b e des ired to us e it h o we v e r it , ,

s h o u ld fo llo w t h e o rd inary t wo gro o v e t w is t dr ill - T wo gro o v e .

-

t w is t drills s h o uld n e ve r b e us ed in c o re d h o les o r fo r fo llo w ing

-
,

ano t he r drill Se e F igs 9 47 a b and c pages 2 34 5

.
—
,
.
.
,

94 8 C o u
.n te rb or e s C o.un t e rb o r ing may b e t e rm e d t h e annu lar
e n la rge m e n t o f t h e uppe r e n d o f a h o le ; t h e s pac e be t w ee n t h e

t wo c ircumfe re nc es fo rming a s ho u ld e r t hat is g iv ing t o t h e , ,

e n large d p o rt io n para lle l s id es and a fla t bo tt o m Co un t e rbo res .

,

like o t h e r s ma ll to o ls a re mad e in a var ie t y of s t yles s izes and

, ,

s hapes Co mm o n c o mm e rc ia l bo res a re pro v id e d Wit h s t ra ight

.

o r t ape r s hanks having a t the cu tting e nd a pin o r gu id e wh ich

, ,

is inse rted in t h e h o le to b e c o un te rbo re d ( g 9 48 pa ge

F i . .
,

T h e gu id es o f s t andard c o un te rbo res a re mad e e it h e r fo r t h e bo dy

s iz e h o le o r fo r t h e ta p dr ill h o le wh ile t h e d iam e t e r o f t h e c o un te r
,

bo re is made fo r t he s cre w h e ad o r fo r t h e bo dy of the s cre w .

A n o t he r fo rm o f c o unte rbo re is mad e by ins e rt ing and s e curing a

t oo l s tee l cu tte r o f pro pe r s wee p in a re c t angular h o le in a ro und ,

bar ofte nt imes th e o rd inary bo ring bar .

9 49 C.h u c ki n g R e a m e r s C huck ing

. r e am e rs l ik e chuck ing ,

drills a re s o me t imes pro v id e d wit h mea ns fo r c o nve y ing a lub ri

,

cant to t h e cutting lips F o r bo ring and re aming dee p c o re d

.

ho les t he fluted po rt io n of these reame rs is

,
und e r s iz e and
is ge ne rally m a d e w ith t hree groo v es S t ra igh t flu ted chuck ing
.

re am ers wit h a nu m be r of flu tes a re mad e in s tandard s izes

, ,

w it h a ros e e nd o r w it h s t ra igh t e nd s in s izes 00 5 less t han t he

no minal d iamete r See F igs 9 49 a t o j pages 2 35—
.

. .
6
, .
ENGIN EE RI NG AN D S HO P PRACT ICE

mx a 89 0 K
ms punou m
‘
mso 80 3
 ENG I NEE RING AN D S H O P P RACT ICE

F IG . 9 49 e . Ro se Ch u c king Rea m e r, S h o rt Se t .

F IG . Ros e Ch u c king Rea m e r, L o ng Se t .

F IG . 9 49 9 . Flut e d Ch uc king Re a m e r, S h o rt S e t .

F IG . 9 49 k . F lut e d Ch u c king Re a m e r, L o ng Se t .

F IG . 9 49 i . S h e ll Re a m e r A rb o r, S h o rt Se t .

F ig 9 49 j . . S h e ll Re a m e r Ab r o r, L o ng Se t .
 C H APT ER X
D RI LL I NG

D R I LL I N G MA C H I N E S

I oI I . D rilling Ma ch in e s Th ere a re se ve ral

a n d O pe ra tion s .

t ype s o f drilling mach in es o n t h e mark e t ; t h e s ma lle r s iz es be ing

te rm ed se n s it ive o r se ns it ive fric t io n dr ills ; t h e medium o r h e avy
s iz es a re us ua lly te rm e d upr igh t dr ills ; wh ile t h e te rms rad ia l ,

un ive rs a l mult ip le s p ind le adjus t ab le s p ind le flange po rt able

, , , ,

and pne uma t ic us ually po rt ab le a re a ll d es crip t ive adj e c t ives

applied to t h e vario us k ind s o f drilling mac h ines .

F IG . 101 1 .
— D ubl h d D illing M h i
Ba us h I ii s pindle
-
o e -
ea r ac ne .

T h e us e o f dr illing mach in es h as e x te nded fro m t h e m e re

wo rk o f mak ing ro u nd h o les in me t a ls un t il no w it inc lud es s uch
,

o pe ra t io n s as : co un ters i n king a tape ring e n large me n t of th e

uppe r e nd o f a h o le ; cou nterboring an annular e n large me n t o f
t h e up pe r e n d o f t h e h o le t h e s pac e b e t w ee n t h e t wo c ircumfe r
,

e n ces fo rm ing a s h o u ld e r ; rea m ing pas s ing a ream e r t hro ugh a

h o le to o bta in accura cy and to o ve rc o me impe rfe c t io ns ; ta pping
t hread ing t h e in s id e o f a h o le ; and s pot fa c ing a ve ry s hallo w
-

c o un te rbo re bare ly d ee p e n o ugh to fo rm a s moo t h s h o u ld e r fo r

,

t h e h ea d o f a n ut o f a bo lt .
2 38 ENG I NEE RING A ND S HO P PRACT ICE
1 0 1 2 . Th e S en s itive F ri ction D rill . A typ e
h drill co n of t is
s is ts o f t h e fo llo w ing es s e n t ial part s : a ba s e s upp o rt ing t he c o lumn

and driv ing me chan is m ; a colum n wh ich s uppo rt s th e tab le ,

s p ind le and fee din g d e v ic e ; a m o vab le ta ble o n wh ich t h e w o rk

may be b o lte d ; a s pindle d e s ign ed to re c e ive and ro tate th e drill;

F IG . 1012 . S e n s it ive F ric tio n D rill

.

a lever f
eed ra is ing o r lo we ring the s p ind le ; fr iction dis c a nd
for a

wheel fo r c hanging t h e s pee d O f t h e drill ; and a tight a nd lo os e

pu lle y for driv ing t h e mach ine .

I n th is dr ill t h e fric t io n o r s pee d chang in g d e v ic e c o n s is ts o f

-

an iro n d is c and a lea th e r rim m ed whee l wh ich may b e m o ved

-

acro s s its s u rfa ce by m ea ns O f a t rea d le T h e le a t h e r rimme d .

-
2 40 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S HO P P RACT ICE
ord inary machin e s ho p W h ile it is t ru e t hat t h e lat he is o fte n
.

us ed advan t ageo us ly fo r dr illing h o les in p ie c es alre ady o r e as ily ,

chuck ed t he me d ium s iz e d dr ill is bette r adap te d fo r drilling

,
-

ho les in mo s t o f t he o rd inary wo rk o f t h e s ho p .

A c o mm o n t yp e o f t h is dr ill c o n s is t s o f t h e fo llo w ing es s e n t ial

part s : a ba s e s uppo rting t he c o lumn t igh t a n d lo os e pu lle y and
, ,

F IG . 1 0 1 3b .
— Ba rne s y D
Ele c t rica ll rive n Up igh t D
r rill .

s pee d c o n e ; a colum n wh ich s uppo rts th e tab le t h e s lid ing h ead , ,

t h e upp e r c o n e back ge ars s p ind le and fee d m e ch a n is m ; a m o v

, ,

ab le ta ble o n wh ich t h e wo rk is p lac e d o r bo lt ed ; a s pindle d es ign e d

t o re c e ive and ro t a t e t h e dr ill ; co n e pulleys and ba c k gea rs fo r
chang ing t h e s pee d o f t h e dr ill ; a s liding hea dco n ta in ing a var iable
 D RI LLING 241

powe r o r ha nd feed equ ippe d wit h a utoma tic stop and quic k return ;
a d e vic e fo r ra is ing or lo wering t h e s lid ing head ; a de v ice fo r
ra is ing o r lo we ring t h e table ; and a tight a nd loos e pulley for driving
t h e mach in e .

T h e ve rt ical s p ind le t h e lo we r e nd of wh ich c o n ta ins a t ape r

,

h ole for re c eiving t h e drill s hanks is rot ated fro m its uppe r end
,

by means o f be ve l gears fro m t h e h o rizo ntal s haft wh ich carries

t he back ge ars and c o n e pulle y Bo t h of t hes e latte r a ff o rd
.

m eans of vary ing t he s peed of th e s p ind le Th e c o ne pulle y abo ve

.

is d rive n by a s im ilar c o n e o n t h e s haft w it h th e t igh t and lo ose

pulleys s it uated near the bas e of t he m ach ine T he uppe r c o ne .

pulle y co ntains the back gears wh ich may b e thrown in to o r o ut

,

of ac t io n by m e ans of a s u it ab le le ve r Th is le ver s h o uld n e ve r

.

b e to uched wh ile t he mach in e is in m o t io n Dire c t ly und e rn e a t h

.

t h e s p ind le fas te n ed to t h e c o lumn aro und wh ich it may b e

, ,

s wung is a h o riz o n ta l t ab le to wh ich t h e w o rk may b e c lamped

,

o r bo lte d . This table wh ich is adjus table ve rt ica lly may b e

, ,

rotated abo ut its ax is as we ll as abo u t th e ax is of t h e c olumn .

T h e s p ind le h a s a v e rt ical mo ve m e n t fo r fee ding t h e drill wh ich ,

may b e o pe rated wh ile runn ing e it he r auto mat ically o r by hand

, .

A le ve r and w hee l t o t h e s id e of t h e s p ind le a re pro v id e d for

feed ing by hand ; the po we r o r au to mat ic feed is ope rated by
means of a s mall c o ne pu lle y and wo rm gears and is equipped ,

wit h s u itable lat ches and s to ps for thro w ing it int o o r o ut of

ac tio n I n add itio n to t he s p ind le adjus t me n t fo r feed ing in
.
,

many mach ines t he c o ns t ruc t io n is s uch t ha t t he e n tire s p indle

and its fee d me chan is m may b e adj us te d ve rt ically o n th e c olumn ;
when t h is is th e case the drill is s a id to h ave a s lid ing h ead T h e .

s p ind le lik e t hat of m o s t d rills co n t a ins a t its lo w e r e n d a t ape r

, ,

ho le to re c e ive t h e drill s hanks A s lo t t hro ugh t h e s p ind le

.

cross es t h e uppe r end of t he t ape r t hro ugh wh ich a drift or key

,

is pas s e d to fo rc e t h e drill fro m t h e s p ind le .

T h e advan t a g e of t h is drill o ve r t h e s e ns itive drill lies no t o nly

in t h e incre as e d capac it y and adjus t m e n t b ut in t h e fac t t ha t ,

ve ry he avy irregular o r awkward s hape d p ie c es may b e e as ily

,
-

adjus te d and c lamped in po s itio n W h e n us ing t h is mach ine it

.

is g oo d prac t ic e to bolt t h e w o rk s ecure ly to t h e t ab le o r b as e ,

bot h o f wh ich a re s lo tted fo r th is purpo s e Lo ng bars V blocks

.
,
-

for h o ld ing ro und p ie c es t h e dr ill v is e and s im ilar art ic le s

s h o u ld invar iably b e b o lt e d to t h e t ab le bo t h t o in s ure accuracy
,
2 42 ENG I NEE RING AN D S HO P PRACTICE
and to avo id acc id e nt T h e lubricatio n o f a drill is mo re e as ily
.

e ffect ed wh e n it is h e ld v e rt ica lly in a s p ind le t han wh e n h e ld

h o riz o n ta lly in a lat h e fo r t h e rea s o n t ha t in t h e fo rme r cas e t he

,

o il fee d s by grav it y in to t h e cu tt ing lips .

1 0 1 4. Ra dial a n d Unive rs a l D rills T h e rad ia l drill is de

.

s ign e d t o drill h o les in s uch large o r irre gu lar w o rk a s cann o t b e

F IG . 1 0 1 4a . Bickf d Pla in Ra dia l

or D rill
.

read ily plac ed o r bo lte d o n t he bas e o r table of t he m ed ium

uprigh t drill A c o mmo n type o f rad ia l drill c o ns is ts o f a ba s e
.

pro vid ed w it h an e xte ns io n t ab le s uppo rt ing t h e c o lumn and

s pee d b o x ; a colum n wh ich s upp o rt s t h e arm and s o m e o f t h e

s pee d and fee d m e chan is m ; a h o r izo n t a l a rm carry ing t h e h e ad ,

fee d me chan is m and ro d s ; t h is arm may b e ra is e d o r lo we red

e it h e r by hand o r au t o ma t ica lly and may b e s wung in a full

c irc le aro un d t h e c o lumn Th e h o riz o n t a lly s liding hea d carries

.
2 44 ENG INEERING AN D S H O P PRACT ICE
rad ial drill d oes no t d iff e r mate rially fro m t hat of ot h er drills ,

t h o ugh t h e advan tages of s uch a mach in e too l a re o bv io us .

DR I LLI N G

1 02 1 . P re pa ra tion of W o rk urface
La yin g Out . Cha lk t h e s

to b e drilled and d e te rmine t h e p o s itio n of th e h o le by me as uring

fro m t h e c e n te r lines or a fi n is hed s urfac e lo cat ing t h e exact ,

c e nte r of t h e ho le by me ans of a ligh t c e n te r punch mark A bo ut .

t h is c e n te r d e s c ribe w it h t h e d iv id e rs a c irc le wh o s e d iam e ter is

e qua l to t ha t o f t h e h o le d es ired O n t h e c ircu m fe re nc e of t h is
.

—
c irc le make a fe w fo ur s ix or e ight ligh t punch marks at
,

e qua l in te rva ls T h e o bj e c t of t h e pun c h mark s be ing t o give

.

pe rmane nc e to t h e c ircumfe re nc e s o t hat t he drill may b e bro ught

,

to t h e pro pe r c e n t e r aft e r t h e o r iginal c e n te r punch mark h as

bee n cut away O n mach ined s urfac es it is ofte n bette r to
.

d es cribe a c irc le s ligh tly la rg e r in d iamete r t han t h e h o le re quired

, ,

fro m t h e c e nte r punch mark and to c e nte r th e drill fro m t h is

c irc le .

W h e n a numbe r of s im ilar p ie c es a re to b e drilled drill j igs ,

o r t e mp le ts a re us e d t o o bv ia t e t h e e xpe ns ive o pe ra t io n o f accu

ra t e ly lay ing o ut and drilling h o les by t h e m e t h o d o ut lin e d abo ve .

A h o le t ha t is s ub s e que n tly t o b e t hre ad e d by tapp ing is

us ually ma rk e d t hus : 1 4 Thd W h e n a h o le is s o marke d
.
,

t h e ta p dr ill fo r t h is t hre ad s h o u ld b e us e d t h e t a p drill of c o urs e , , ,

b eing o ne a t rifl e large r t han th e d iame te r a t t h e bot to m of th e

” ”
t hre ad s T h e s izes of ta p drills fo r U S s t andard t hre ad s a re
. . .

g ive n in t h e t a ble of U S St andard Thre ad Bo lt and Nut

“
. .

D at a Se c 67 1 in t h e chapt e r o n Scre w and Pin D at a

“
. .
, ,

1 02 2 Ch a ra cte ris tic O pe ra tion s

. I t is imp o rt an t to und e r
.

s t and t h e fo llo w ing o pe ra t io n s and adjus t m e n ts O f t h e dr illing

mach in e befo re s tart ing to wo rk

1 Th e c o rre c t m e t h o d o f grind ing t h e drill and of h o ld ing
.

it in t h e s p ind le o r chuck ; a ls o th e us e o f t h e s o ck e t and t h e me t h o d

o f re m o v ing t h e drill fro m t h e s p ind le .

2 Th e adj us t m e n t o f t h e drive and fee d be lts and t h e back

.

gears s o a s to a tt a in afte r ca lculat io n t h e c o rre c t s peed and

, ,

fe e d .

3 T h e m e th o d o f m an ipu la t ing t h e table s o a s t o bring t h e

.

c e n te r p unch mark o n t h e w o rk d ire c t ly und e rne at h t h e dr ill and

o f c la mp in g it in t h is p o s it io n .
 D RI LLI NG 2 45

4 . various me thods of fee d ing by mea ns of t h e le ve r for

T he
s ma ll h o les by us ing t h e hand wheel and auto mat ically by
, ,

t h ro w ing in t he lat ch .

5 T h e met h o d of rea d ing t h e d e p t h s ca le t o o b t a in t h e pro pe r

.

de pt h of hole .

6 T h e mann e r in wh ich t h e auto ma t ic s to p blo ck is adjus te d

.

to t hro w t h e la t ch w h ich in t urn s to ps t h e fee d a t t h e des ired

, ,

d e pt h .

7 H o w to
. t hro w th e drill A drill t ha t is off c e nt e r may.

b e drawn back w it h th e c e nte r ch ise l A groo ve is c h ipped quite .

,

near t he c ente r d o wn t h e s id e to ward whic h t he drill po int is to

,

b e drawn .

8 H o w t o ra is e t h e drill s pind le w hile runn ing

. T his is .

eff e c ted by t h ro w in g o ut t h e fee d gra s p ing th e la t ch hand le o n ,

t h e lo ng le ve r w it h t h e righ t hand and ra is ing t h e s p ind le with

t h e s h o rt le ve r in t h e le ft hand .

1 02 3 O rde r of O pe ra tion s
. O b s e rve t h e fo llo wing o rd e r o f
.

pro c edure wh e n o pe rating t h e mach ine drill .

1
. A dj us t th e work a nd ta ble Bo lt o r c lamp th e wo rk to t h e
.

t ab le ; if h e ld in a v is e t he v ise s h o uld b e bo lte d to t h e t ab le

, .

Se le c t t h e pro pe r drill w ipe bo t h t ape r and s o ck e t c le an and

, ,

in s e rt in t h e s p indle S w ing t h e drill t ab le abo u t and adj us t

.
,

t he c en te r mark of t h e h o le un til it is d ire c tly und e rne a t h t h e

drill po in t mak ing s ure t hat t he p o int c o inc id es wit h t h e ce n te r
,
.

2
. F a s ten th e ta ble Clamp t h e t ab le fo r po s it io n a t its c e nt e r
.
,

and fo r he ight o n t h e c o lumn .

3 D eterm ine th e s peeda ndfeed Co n s u lt t h e ta b le (F ig 1 0 2 4 )

. . .

and th e dat a in Se cs 42 4 42 8 and 42 9 Adjus t th e belts t o give

.
,
.

t h e pro pe r s pee d and fee d; i e t h e o n e s s e le c te d . .

,
.

4 P ull over by ha nd
. W ith t h e adjus t m e n ts mad e p ull o ve r
.
,

by hand to dete rm ine t he ir accuracy .

5 S ta rt th e drill
. A fte r s tart ing t h e mach in e fee d t h e drill
.
,

s lo wly by hand ; wh e n t h e p o in t of t h e drill h a s e n t e re d t h e w o rk

t o abo ut ha lf its d e p t h ra is e t h e s p ind le b lo w o ut t h e ch ips and

, , ,

e xam in e to s ee if t h e drill is cu tting in t h e c e n te r o f t h e c irc le .

I f t h e drill h a s run o ff it mus t b e drawn back ; t h is is acc o mp lis h e d

w it h a c e n te r ch is e l a ligh t narro w ro und nos ed ch is el w it h
, ,
-

which th e met a l is cut away on t h e s id e t o ward wh ich th e drill

poin t is t o b e drawn A groo ve is ch ippe d d o wn t h e s ide q uite
.
,

near t he c en te r be caus e me tal re mo ved t he re w ill draw t h e drill

,
2 46 ENG I NEERING AN D S H O P PRAC TICE
fart he r t han whe n t he ch ipping is d o ne nearer th e c ircumfe re nc e .

If t h e e rro r is gre a t re adjus t t he t ab le

,
No w lo we r t h e s p ind le
.
,

drill t h e ho le a little dee pe r and c o rrec t in t h e s ame manne r un til

t h e pro p e r adjus t m e nt is had A ll c o rrec tio ns m us t b e mad e
.

befo re t h e full d iamete r of t h e drill enters th e meta l .

6 Rea d depth s ca le
. .No te t h e re ad ing of t h e d e pt h s cale and ,

if s e ve ral h o les of t h e s ame de pt h a re t o b e drilled adj us t t h e ,

auto mat ic s to p .

7 Throw in feed Th e au to ma t ic fee d s h o uld b e t hro wn in to

. .

ac tio n afte r t h e wo rk h as bee n accurately lo cated and t h e wo rk ,

care fu lly watch ed to de te c t any e rro r o r mo ve me nt t hat may o ccur .

8 When thro ugh ra is e drill s pindle

.
,
Th is may b e qu ickly
.

d o ne as s t ated abo ve by t hro wing o ut th e fee d gras p ing t he

, , ,

la t c h hand le o n t he le ve r wit h t h e righ t hand and ra is ing t h e

s p ind le w it h t h e s h o rt le v e r in t h e le ft hand

”
.

1 0 2 4 Th e Spe e d of Drills Th e fo llo wing dat a is re co m

”
. .

me nde d by t he Cle veland Tw is t D rill Co as b e ing applicable to

- .

th e o rd inary c o mme rc ial drills .A fee d pe r re vo lu tio n o f 00 4 .

" " "

t o 00 7 fo r drills i o r s ma lle r and fro m 00 7
. to 0 1 5 fo r large r
. .

is abo u t a ll tha t s h o u ld b e re qu ire d . Th is fee d is bas e d o n a

pe riphe ral s pee d o f a drill e qual to 30 fe e t pe r m in fo r s teel ; .

35 fe e t pe r m in fo r iro n ; a nd 60 fee t pe r m in fo r br as s
. . It .

may als o b e fo und adv is able to vary th e s pee d s o me what acc o rd

ing as th e mate rial to b e dr ille d is m o re o r les s re frac to ry T he .

s pee ds g ive n in t h e t a b le (F ig 1 0 2 4 ) s ho u ld no t b e e xc ee d e d
.

und e r o rd inary c ircums t a nces .

2 48 ENGINEERING AN D S HO P PRACTICE
1 0 3 2 . Th e F la t D rillrde r t hat t h e fla t drill m a y pro
. In o

duc e accurate work it is esse ntial t ha t th e cutting end b e s y m

,

metrical in e ve ry res pe c t I mpro perly fo rmed e dges te nd to

.

pro duc e holes t hat a re out of pos itio n ro ugh o b lique h o les t hat , , ,

a re large r t ha n in te nd e d and h o les no t ro und F ro m a g lanc e a t .

”
7
II I :
F IG . 1 0 32 .
-
Fla t D ill
r .

th e drawing (F ig 1 0 32 ) it w ill b e s ee n t hat th e planes re pres e nt

.

ing t h e c le arance ang les inte rs e c t in a line p e rpe nd icu lar to t h e

axis o f t h e d rill a n d t ha t whe n th e drill is ro tate d t he ac t io n
, ,

he re is a s craping ins t e ad of a cutting o ne It be c o mes ev id e n t .

t hat t h e bes t res ults w ill b e o bt a in e d wh e n t h is s craping e dge

is s h o rt ; t h e re fo re t h e t h inn e r t h e drill wh e n s u ffic ie nt t h ick
, ,

nes s is had t o s upp o rt t he cu tt ing edges t he be tte r , .

1 0 33 Th e Lippe d D rill
. I n t h is drill in o rd e r to pro duc e
.
,

kee nnes s and to g ive what in a lat h e to o l wo u ld b e ca lle d top

, ,

F IG . 1 0 33 . Lipped D ill r .

rake , cutt ing e dge is gro un d as s h o wn in th e draw ing What

the .

is s t ill be t te r is t o t w is t it as s h o wn in t h e o th e r draw ing ; t h is

produce s a s p iral t hat as s is ts in carrying t h e ch ips away fro m
 D RILLI NG 2 49

th e cutting e dge antic ipat ing , ,

in so me res pec ts , th e or d inary
t w is t drill .

1 0 34 . Th e S cra pin g E dge D rill T he po int . of t his

drill is
similar to t hat of t h e o rd inary fla t drill, wit h t h e e xc e pt io n t hat

F IG . 1 0 34 .
—S pi
cra ng Edg D rill
e .

it is ground fo r clea ranc e o n both s id es pro duc ing an edge s im ilar ,

t o t hat o f a c o ld ch is e l T h e o ne adva nt age o f t h is dr ill lies in

.

t h e fac t t hat it wo rks e qually w e ll backwa rd and fo rward .

1 0 35 .Th e Ha lf roun d o r H og n o s e D rill

- I n t h is drill o ne
- .

s id e of t h e cy lindrica l s t o ck o f wh ich it is mad e is cut away and

t h e ot h e r ha lf is lef t t h e fu ll s iz e o f t h e h o le to a ct as a gu id e .

T he cu tt ing edge s h o uld b e gro und p e rpen d icula r to t h e ax is

F IG . 1 03 —
5 H
. a 1 f roun
- d or H o g-nose Drill .

of th e drill and give n a c learanc e of

be I t is impo rt a nt t hat
t h is d rill as it po ss es s es n o ce n t ra l le ad ing po in t b e s t art e d
, ,

t rue ; whe n t h is is d o n e a ho le o f any d e pt h may b e b o red s moo t h

and t rue So me aut ho rit ies s tate t hat for boring parallel accu
.

rate h oles t h is drill is uns urpass e d Th is drill may a ls o be us ed .

fo r s quaring t h e bo t to m o f h o le s drille d w it h drills hav ing a c e n t ra l

lea d ing po in t .

1 0 36 Th e Mo d
. ifi e d H og No s e D D rill A m o d ificatio n
. .

of t h e h og n o s e drill is s h o wn in t h e figure
-
Th is drill in its .

s imp le s t fo rm c o n s is t s o f a ro und bar of t h e d iam e te r o f t h e

h ole re quired o ne s ide of t he endof wh ich is re lie ved cut away

,
2 50 EN I N G EERING AND S HO P P RA C TICE

Em . 1 0 36 .
—Mo difi ed H og N os e D Ds u .

to give c le arance ; in o t h e r res pe c ts t h is drill is s im ilar to t he

h og no s e dr ill d es cr ibe d abo ve
-
Th is drill in s o me o ne of its
.

m o d ificat io ns is ge n e ra lly us e d fo r bo ring lat h e s p indles h o llo w ,

s hafts guns and t h e like W ha t h as bee n s a id in re fe re nc e to

, .

t h e gr ind ing and o pe ra t io n o f t he h og n os e drill app lies w it h -

e qual va lu e t o t h is m o d ifica t io n o f it .

1 0 37 Th e Stra igh t flute d D rill

.
- T h e c o mm e rc ial d rill o f t h is
.

var ie ty is mad e of ro und s to ck ge ne ra lly w it h t wo s t ra igh t flutes ,

F IG . 1 0 37 a . S tra ig t S h h a nk h
S t ra ig t-fluted D rill .

F IG . 1 0 37b . Ta pe r S h a nk t i
S ra g t -
h
flute d D rill .

runn ing para llel to t he ax is of t he drill Th is dr ill is us ua lly .

g ro und s im ilar t o t h e t w is t drill o r fla t drill and p os s es s es a dva n

t ag e s o v e r t h e m fo r t h e s o ft e r m e ta ls s uch a s babb it t and t h e

c o ppe r a llo ys A s tra igh t flute d drill w ill b e fo und e xc e lle n t fo r
.
-

drilling t h in p la tes and s im ilar wo rk .

1 0 38 Th e T wis t D rill
. O rd inary t wis t drills a re made of
.

ro und s to ck and h elica l flu te d w it h a m illing cutte r T o pre ve nt .

2 52 ENG I NEERI NG A ND S H O P PRACTI CE

F IG . 1 0 39 a . C om bin e d D rill a n d C o un te rs ink .

F IG . 1 0 39 f . Ce n te r Rea m e rs .

DRI LL SH A N K S , SO C K E T S A ND CO LL E TS

1 0 41 . The re a re s e ve ral s tyles of drill s hanks

D rill Sh a nk s .

in o rd inary us e ; t h e m os t c o mm o n h o we ve r a re t h e s t ra igh t and

, ,

t ap e r s hank s T h e t ape r s hank drills wh ile m o re c os t ly t han

. .
,

t h e s t ra igh t s hank p o s s es s many advant ages o ve r t h e m ; wh e n

,

ins e rt e d in a s o ck e t t h e y will no t dro p o ut ; wear in t he drill

s pind le d oe s n ot n e c es s arily pro duc e a d e range m e n t of t h e cu t t ing

edges of t h e drill ; and in a pro pe rly fi t te d c le an s o ck e t t h e drill is ,

always t igh t At t h e endof t h e tape r s hank a t th e to p a fla t

.

po rt io n o r t ang fi ts in to a s lot in the s pindle and pre ve nts th e

drill fro m t urn ing in t h e s o ck e t T h e t ape rs in c o mmo n us e a re

”
.

t h e Mo rse t ape rs numbe re d fro m on e to s ix inc lus ive ly having

, ,

t h e d ime ns io ns g ive n in t h e fo llo w ing t ab le F

( g i . .

N ote T h e Mo rse t ape r wa s in te nd ed to b e 5 pe r foo t b ut

”
,
.

unfo rt unately t h e firs t s tandard s we re inc o rre c t and c o ns e que ntly ,

t h e d iff e re n t numbe rs o f t h e Mo rs e t ape rs a re n o t t h e s ame ,

and no one of t he m is e xac tly g pe r foot as was o rigina lly

in t e nd ed .
 D RI LLING
1 0 42 . Mo rs e Ta pe r Sh a nk s . Dim en sion s in In ch e s .

F m 1 0 42
. .
—Sta nda rd Mors e Ta pe rs .
2 54 ENG INEE RING AND S H O P PRACTICE
1 0 43 . D rill So ck ets an d Coll e ts . Be caus e a ll s i es z of drills
a re n o t made with t he sa me s ize of t aper s hank drill s o ck ets or ,

c o llets a re us ed D rill s o ck e ts a re t ape red bus h ings t h e outs ide

.
,

be ing mad e to fi t on e s ize of t ape r s hank drills and t h e ins ide ,

an o t he r s iz e of t ape r Colle ts a re us ed for ho ld ing tape r s hank

.

drills in s p indles inte nde d fo r s traigh t S hank s and vice versa , .

By ins e rt ing a drift o r c e nte r ke y wh o s e t ape r is p e r f o o,

t

(8
°
in a s u it ab le h o le pro v id e d in t h e s p ind le and s o ck e t s

th e d rill may b e fo rc e d o ut of t h e m (F ig s 1 0 4 3 a b c d and . .

, , ,

e ,
s h o w t h e var io us d rill s o ck e ts and c o lle ts and t h e met h od ,

o f re m o v ing t h e drill fro m t h e s p ind le o r s o ck et ) .

F IG . 1 0 43a . Ro ug hD rill S oc ke t .

F IG . F it t d Ta p
e er S h a nk D rill S o c ke t .

F IG . 1 0 4 3c . Slee ve or S h e ll S o cke t or Co llc t .

D R I LL CH U C K S

1 0 51 . Ligh t D rill malle r s t ra igh t s hank

Ch uck s . F o r t he s -

drills and fo r ligh t drilling s o me fo rm o f drill chuck aff o rd s an

, ,

e xc e lle nt me t h o d of h o ld ing t h e drill F o r t h e charac t e r of work .

e mp lo y ing t h e us e o f s e n s it ive dr illing mach in e s and s pee d lat h es ,

a ligh t chuck s imilar to t he A lmo nd is ge ne rally us e d This .

t ype of chuck is h e ld in t h e s p ind le by m e ans of a t a pe r s hank ,

wh ich is e it he r s cre wed o r fo rc ed in to a c o rre s po nd ing t hre ad or

t ape r in th e ch uck bo dy T h e chuck jaws o pe ra t e d by a s ing le
.
,

n ut mo ve in t hree h o les o r p as s ages wh ich c o nv e rg e t o ward t h e

,

c ente r line o f t h e chuck U po n any mo v e me n t o f t h e knurled

.
2 56 ENG I NEERI NG A ND S H O P PRACTI CE
c ollar in wh ich t he nut is he ld the jaws so s haped t hat t he y ,

a re a lways parallel a t t ha t po rt io n wh ich grips t h e drill o pe n

or c los e to acc o mmo d ate t h e vario us S izes of drills .

1 0 52 H ea vy D rill Ch u ck s
. T h e P ra tt and H art fo rd chucks
.

a re e xc e lle n t e xamp les of t he hea v ie r t ype o f dr ill chuck s T he .

Pra tt chuck c o n t a ins t wo ja ws o ppo s it e ea ch o t h e r c o n tro lle d by ,

a s ingle righ t and left s c re w Th es e jaws mo ve in a s lot o r guide

.

way c ut across t he lo we r po rt ion of t he chuck b ody A bo ve t he .

F IG . 1 0 52 .
— T h e Pra tt Drill Ch uck .

jaws and res ting o n t h e m is a p late c o n ta in ing a s lot into wh ich

, ,

t h e drill t ang may b e in s e rt e d ; t h is pre v e n ts t h e dr ill fro m s lip

p ing T h e fac es of t h e jaws a re a lways pa ra lle l and c o nta in
.

gro o ves to o bta in a un ifo rm d is tribut io n of t h e pres s ure Be lo w .

t h e jaw s cre we d t o t h e chuck b o dy is a p la te c o n ta in ing a c e n t ra l

, ,

ho le whos e diame te r ind icates t he max imum capac it y of t he

,

chuck .

1 0 53 Ta pping Ch uck s W h e re a gre at d e a l o f rap id accurate

. .
,

t app ing is t o b e d o ne a mach in e dr ill fit t ed w it h a s pe c ia l chuck

, , ,

is ge n e ra lly us ed; wh e n s uch is t h e cas e t h e s p ind le o f t h e mach ine

is fi t t e d w it h o ne of t h e s e v e ra l au to ma t ic re ve rs e t app ing chuck s
n o w o n t h e mark e t I n o ne fo rm o f t h es e chucks t h e t a p is
.

au to matica lly re ve rs e d and back e d o ut afte r it h a s run a d es ire d

d e pt h ; in an ot h e r fo rm t h e ta p c o n t inues to run fo rward unt il
,

a c e rtain res is tanc e is off e re d wh e n a re ve rs ing ge ar is t hro wn

,

in t o ac tio n and t h e ta p back e d o ut I n t h is s e c o nd t ype t h is

.
,

ac tio n o ccurs in eit h e r e ve n t wh e t h e r t h e ta p bo tto ms or

,

s t ick s .
 D RI LL ING 2 57

F IG . 1 05 3 . St . L o uis Re vers ing T a pping Ch uck .

 CH APT ER X I
G RI ND I NG

1 1 1 1 . G rin din g O pe ra tion s . Han d an d Ma chin e . The o pe r

a t io ns of grind ing may be d ivide d into t wo c lass es ,
hand an d
mach ine .

H a nd grinding d e fines s uch abras ive o pe rat io ns as a re pe r

fo rme d whe n t h e o bj e c t t o b e gro und is he ld and pre ss ed aga in s t
th e whee l o r s t o n e by hand I n t h e s ma ll m ach ine s h o p , s uch
.

grind ing c o ns is ts in t h e re mo val o f irregular it ies fro m cas tings in ,

t h e ro ugh rap id reduc t io n o f s ma ll are as and s o m e t im es in t he

grind ing of s ho p too ls .

M a c h in e grinding may b e d e fine d as t h e pro duc t io n us ing

abras ive pro c ess es of accura t e pla in cy lindrical and c o nical
, ,

s u rfac es by au t o ma t ic o r s e m i au t o ma t ic mach in es ; t h e accu racy

-

o f t h e s urfac es be ing d e pe nd e n t ra t h e r upo n t h e accuracy of t h e

,

mach ine t han upo n t h e S k ill of t h e o pe rato r T h e vario us c las s es

, .

into wh ich mach ine grind ing is u s ua lly d ivide d a re : s urfac e grind
in g dis c gr ind ing t o o l and cu t t e r grind ing and cy lin drical and
, , ,

c o n ica l grind ing .

1 1 1 2 Th e D ry G rin de r an d A tta ch m ent s

. A s imple fo rm of .

hand grind ing mach ine is th e c o mmo n dry grind e r T he o rd inary

-
.

t ype o f t h is mach in e c o n s is ts o f a c o lumn o r bas e s uppo rt ing t h e

bearings in wh ich re vo lves a s pind le d es igned fo r c a rry ing t he ,

driving pulle y and t wo e me ry wh ee ls o ne o n e ach e n d S uitable ,

.

adjus tab le re s ts o n wh ich t h e w o rk is s uppo rte d during t h e

,

o pe ra t io n and a wate r cup in to wh ic h it may b e d ippe d whe n

,

h ea t e d a re a ls o pro v id e d G rind e rs O f t h is t y pe a re made in a

,
.

w id e ra nge of s iz e s and carry w hee ls fro m t hre e inch es t o t hree

,

fee t in dia me te r D ry grind e rs a re s o m e t imes e qu ip pe d w it h

.

a t t a c hme n ts fo r t ru ing t h e wh e e l fo r h a nd s u rfac ing and fo r

,

bu ffing .
2 60 ENG I N EE RI NG AND S H O P PRACTICE
inh e re n t in me ry grind e rs t he charac te ris t ic d iff e re nc e be twee n
a ll e ,

t h is and t h e o rd inary dry grinde r be ing t h e s ub s t it u ting o f me t al

d is c s for e me ry whee ls T he grind ing is effe c ted by means of
.

e me ry c lo t h a tt ach ed t o t h e s id es of t h e d is c s ; t h es e d is c s vary ing ,

””
F IG . 1 1 13 . G o rto n U n ive rs a l Fl at f
S ur a ce Di
sc G rinder .

in t h ickn es s fro m Q t o j a re a c cura t e ly gro und para lle l and

, ,

t ru e and in s o m e in s t anc es carry o n t h e ir s id es s p ira l gro o v e s ;

,

t h e o bj e c t of t he groo ves b e ing (t h e e m e ry c lo t h c o nfo rm ing t o

t h e s urfac e ) t o pro v id e a s pac e in t o w h ich t h e p a rt icle s o f e m e ry
and me t a l may b e d e po s it ed t hus pre ve n ting s cra t c h ing and
,

s c o ring .

1 1 1 4 .Th e W et G rin de r W e t grin d e rs a re d e s ign e d t o pre

.

ve nt t h e h e a t ing a n d t h e c o n s e que n t los s o f te m pe r wh ic h is

lik e ly t o o c c ur wh e re t h e t o o ls a re gro und dry Th is t y pe of .

e m e rv grind e r is u s e d a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly fo r t o o l grind in g and ,

 G RI ND I N G 2 61

is milar to t h e dry grind e r with t h e e xc e pt io n t hat it is pro vided

Si ,

w it h a de vice fo r s upplying a d es ired quan t it y of wate r t o t h e

wh ee l and guards for pre ve n ting t he wa te r fro m be ing t hro wn
,

whe re it is n ot wan ted This grind e r is ne ve r us ed fo r ro ugh

.

wo rk and s h o uld b e k e pt t rue t o o bt a in t h e bes t res u lts Wet

, .

grind e rs a re s o me t imes d es ign ed w it h a un ive rs al too l h o ld e r fo r

F IG . 1 1 14 . Whit y W ne e t or W
a te r T oo l G rin de r .

h old ing la t he and plane r too ls a t c e rt ain des ire d angles w it h t h e

whee l By c o ns u lt ing t h e cha rt furn is h e d w it h s uch a mach ine
.

t h e h o ld e r may b e s e t and t h e to o l gro und w it h t h e c o rre c t ang les

,

o f re ak and c le aranc e t hus e lim in a t ing t h e p e rs o na l e qua t io n and

,

red uc ing t h e produc t to a s t andard .

1 1 1 5 Th e U nive rsa l Cutt e r an dR ea m e r G rin de r

. T h e adap t .

ab ilit y and e x te ns ive us e of ro ta t ing cut te rs in m illing and k indre d

o pe ra t io n s have led t o t h e d e ve lo pm e n t of a s pe c ia lly d es ign e d

mach ine un ive rs al w it h in its capac it y for t h e s harpe n ing of a ll

,

s o rt s o f cu t t e rs re ame r e t c T h e mach ine is pro v id e d w it h a

,
s
, .

full c o mp le me n t O f wh ee ls and at tachm e n ts for pe rfo rm ing t h es e

O p e rat io n s and is adapt e d fo r d o ing a limited am o un t o f bo t h
,

inte rnal and e x t e rn a l cy lindrica l and c o n ica l grind ing .

2 62 E NG I NEERI NG A ND S H O P P RAC TICE

F IG . 1 1 15 . B ro w n S h p U n iv
ar e e rsa l Cut t e r an d Rea m e r G rin de r
.

1 1 1 6
. Th e D rill G rin de r bv iate t h e n e c es s ity of e m
. To o

p lo y ing a s k ille d o pe ra to r wh o c o u ld c o r re c t ly pe rfo rm by hand

t h e d ifficu lt o pe ra t io n o f grind ing a drill t h e t w is t dr ill grind e r
,

was inv e n t e d I n t h is mach in e a h o ld e r o r t ro ug h is s o adjus te d

.

and s wung in its re la t io n t o t h e wh ee l t hat whe n t he drill is h e ld

’

in it t h e cu t t ing lips a re gro und a t a d e te rm in e d ang le and g ive n

,

t h e pro pe r am o un t o f c le aranc e .
2 64 ENG I NEE RING A ND S H O P P RACT I CE
U N I V ERS A L G RI N D ER
1 1 2 1 . F un ction s an d ch ief func t io n of the
Lim ita tion s . The
un ive rs al grind e r is t he au to matic produc t io n o f accura te cy lin
drica l and c o nica l s urfac es By t h e us e o f s pe c ia l a t t achm e n ts
.

furn is h ed wit h t hes e mach in es t h e o pe rat o r is no t o nly e nab le d

t o pro d uc e s uch w o rk and pe rfo rm a numbe r o f in te rna l grind ing
o pe rat io ns b ut a ls o acc o mp lis h a varie t y o f s uch in t rica t e grind ing

o pe ra t io n s as a re us ua lly p e rf o rm e d o n a un ive rs al cut t e r and

,

rea me r grinde r Re ame rs gear cutt e rs fac e s id e and e nd m ills

.
, , , ,

c e nte rs gages and chuck wo rk may b e gro und and fac ing o pe ra
,

t io ns pe rfo rm ed by t h e us e o f t h es e at t achm e n ts .

F IG . l l 2 la . B ro wn S h a rpe l
'

n iv e rs a l a n d T o o l G rin ding Ma c h ine (F ro n t ) .

 G RINDI NG

F IG . 1 12 1b . Rea r Vie w of F ig
. 1 12 1a .
2 66 ENG I NEERING AND S HO P PRAC TICE

9/
F IG . 1 12 1c . B ro wn h p M h in
Jr S ar e ac e, I nde x to Pa rts C o nt ro lling

Adj u t m nt nd M
s e s a o v e m e nt s .

I N D EX To P A RTS C O N T RO LL I N G A DJ U S T M E NTS AN D M O V E M E NTS

No . 7 . K n b fo cl m p ing El va t i g
o r a e n No 1 6
. . h
T um b S c re w fo r c la m ping
S c w H a n dW h l a ft
r e
t ee , er se H ea d s to c k S pindle
-
.

t in g . No 1 7
. . S ett in g P in .

H dW h
an ee l fo r C ro ss F ee d . No 1 8
. . L iv C t Pull y
e en e r e .

No . 9 . T h um b S c re w fo r co nt ro lling No 1 9
. . D d C t Pull y
ea en er e .

fi ne o r co a rs e C ro ss F ee d . No 2 0
. . Adj u t i g S w f F t
s n c re or oc

No 1 0 T h um b S c re w fo r fi ne C t k S p i dl
C l m p f F t—
. . ro ss s oc n e .

F ee d . No 2 1
. . a S t ck S pin
or oo o

No 1 1
. . Bo lt fo r c la m ping S wive l dle .

T a le b . No 2 2
. . Adj us ta ble T a ble D o gs .

No 1 2
. . S p ring Kn b o fo r e n ga gin g No 2 3. . S c re ws fo r fi ne a dj us t m e nt
fi ne a dj u t m
s e nt of S wiv e l of b Dg
T a le o s .

T a le b . No 2 4. . H dW h l f
an ee o r v e rt ica l a d
No 1 3
. . T hum b S c re w fo r fi n e a dj us t j u t m nt f W h
s e o ee l S lide .

m ent of S wiv e l T a le b . No 2 5. . Pin fo r lo ck ing Re ve rs ing

No 1 4
. . H dW h
an eel fo r T a le b F ee d . L e ve r .

No 1 5
. . Lv fe er o r co n t ro llin g T a le b
F d ee .
2 68 ENG I NEE RING AND S HO P PRAC TI CE
it s adj us t ing mec hanis m its wate r cas ings a n d d elivery ho s e ; 9
, .

s wiveling head stock m o un ted o n t h e t ab le

-
,
carrying t h e s pindle
, ,

its driving pulle y a ce nte r and d ead c e n t e r pulle y for rot at ing
,

t h e w o rk o n t h e c e n t e rs ; and a foot s toc k adjus t able on t h e t able

-
, ,

and pro vided wit h a le ve r adjus ted s pind le and c e nte r and a
c ente r relie ving n ut .

I n t h is mach in e t he wh eel re v olve d fro m an o ve rhe ad drive r

, ,

m o ves a lo ng t he ro ta ting wo rk du ring t he grind ing o pe rat io n ;

in s o me mach in es h o we ve r t h e re ve rse is t h e cas e
, ,
Bo t h c e n te rs .

in t h is c lass of grind e rs a re dea d cent ers be caus e s h o uld t h e w o rk ,

b e re vo lve d by a s p ind le it is fo und t ha t it pa rt ak es of any lack

,

o f ro undn es s and accuracy inh e re n t in t h e s p ind le A dea dcenter .

p u lle y p ro v id e s a m ea ns o f ro t a t ing t h e w o rk o n t h e c e n t e rs t hus ,

e lim ina t ing any e rro rs t ha t e x is t bec aus e of lack of t ru t h in t h e

s p ind le . Th e s pi ndle is t hre ad ed to re c e ive t he chuck and is

pro v id ed w it h a pu lle y by which it may b e rotated whe n d es ired ,

and a s to p pin to b e ins ert e d whe n o pe rat ing o n d e ad c e nte rs .

T h e foo t s to ck may b e like ned t o t h e t a il s to ck of an e ng ine

- -

la t h e and s e rv es t he s ame purpo s e

, I ts s p ind le carrying t h e
.
,

c e n t e r is pro v id e d wit h an adj us t ab le s pring te ns ion wh ich holds

,

t h e c e n t e r in t h e w o rk w it h a c e rt a in pres s ure t hus o bv ia t ing any

,

e rro r t ha t w o u ld b e d ue to s pring ing s h o u ld t h e O pe ra t o r jam

,

t h e c e n t e r ; and pro v id ing t h e m e an s of au t o ma tic adj us t m e n t

f o r any e xpans io n t ha t may t ake p lac e in t h e w o rk .

O rd inarily t h e whee l is fe d to t h e wo rk by hand by m e ans

o f a s u it ab ly gradua ted d is c and hand le b ut th e advan tage s o f
,

t he au t o ma t ic cro ss fee d a t t achm e n t w it h wh ich s o m e mach in es

-
,

a re pro v id e d ,a re o bv io u s I t n o t o n ly re lie ves t h e O pe ra t o r of

.

t h e ne ces s it y o f m o v ing t h e wh ee l up t o t h e w o rk a t t h e e n d o f
e ach t rave rs e b ut au t o ma t ica lly s t o p s fee d ing wh e n t h e d es ire d
,

d iame te r is re ached ; and furt he rm o re it e nab les o ne o pe rat o r to

t e nd t o s e ve ral mach in es . Co n t ras t ing t h e o pe ra t io n o f s uch a
cross fee d w it h t hat of t h e la t he we find it t o be e n t ire ly d iff e re n t
-
,

in c o n s t ruc t io n and o pe rat io n A grind e r fee d mus t advanc e t h e

.

wh ee l t o ward t h e ax is o f t h e w o rk a c e rt a in am o un t a t t h e end
of th e tra ve rs e and n o t co ns t a n t lv a s in a la t he I t mus t a ls o
,
.
.

pe rfo rm t h is o pe rat io n a c e rt ain pre d et e rm in e d numbe r of t imes

and s to p a ut o m a t ica llv S uch an a t tac hm e nt may b e purchas e d
.

fo r any of t h e le ad ing mak es o f grind e rs and o n acc o un t o f t h e ,

un ifo rm it y of it s o pe rat io n it n o t o n ly ma int a in s a pro pe r c o nd i

 G RIND I NG 2 69

tio n of t he wh eel increas ing its s iz ing po we r b ut als o by t h e s to p

, , , ,

pre ve nts t he pro duc tio n of wo rk t hat is too s ma ll .

1 1 23 Ch a ra cte ris ti c O pe ra tion s

. I t is impo rt an t t o un de r
.

s tand t h e f o llo w ing o pe ra t io ns and adjus t me n t s of t h e un iv e rs a l

g rind e r b e f o re s t art ing t o w o rk

1 H o w t o o bt a in aft e r its d e te rm inatio n t h e pro pe r e m e ry
.
, ,

whee l s peed; t h e c o rre c t wo rk s pee d i e t h e numbe r o f re vo lu

,
. .
,

t io ns n e c es s ary to s ecure fo r t h e part icu lar d iam e te r a p e rim e te r

s pee d o f abo u t o ne hundre d fee t pe r m inu t e t h is w ill vary ,

o f c o urs e w it h t h e m e t h o d and charac te r of t h e wo rk

,
and t he
c o rre c t rate of wheel t rave rse ; t h is latte r s h o u ld b e fas te r fo r
fin is h ing cuts wh ich s ho u ld b e always light t han fo r ro ugh ing
, ,

c uts ; if h o we ve r t h e fac e of t h e wh ee l is n o t s u ffic ie nt ly para lle l

, ,

wit h t he s urfac e of t h e wo rk a s lo we r t rave rs e S h o uld b e us ed

, ,

o t h e rwis e t h e w o rk w ill b e ridg e d .

2 . H o w to s tart th e e m e ry wh ee l ; t h is is e ff e c te d by pu lling
t h e we igh t ed c o rd wh ich s h ift s t h e be lt t o t h e driving pulle y .

H o w t o s t art t h e wo rk ; t h is is e ff e c te d by me an s of a s h ipp e r arm -

att ach ed to a c lut ch H o w ev e r d iff ere nt m et hod s o b t ain in e ff ec t

.
,

ing the s e o pe ra tio ns .

3 T h e me t h o d of adjus t ing t h e w o rk in t h e grind e r no t o n ly

.
,

fo r t h e o pe ra t io n of grind ing o n d e ad c e n te rs b ut a ls o f or s uch ,

ro ugh and chuck wo rk as re quires t h e us e of t h e live c e nt e r .

4 T h e vario us adjus t m e n ts o f t h e fo o t s to ck ; h o w to c lamp

.
-

it in its pro pe r po s it io n o n t h e t ab le ; t h e adjus t me n t of t h e c e n te r

re lie ving n ut to s e cure t h e ac t io n of t he s pring t e ns io n ; and h o w
t o re m o ve t h e w o rk wit h o ut a lt e ring t h e adjus t m e nt o f t h e foo t
s t o ck .

5 T h e adjus t m e n t of t h e t ab le by m e ans of t ap e r adjus t ing

.
-

and c lamp ing s cre ws fo r t a pe r and c o n ica l grind ing

,
.

6 T h e adjus t m e n t o f t h e wa te r guard s o n t h e t ab le o f t h e
.
,

d e live ry no zz le in its relatio n t o t h e wh ee l and wo rk and t h e ,

pro pe r quan t it y o f wate r fo r t he o pe rat io n .

7 T h e adj us t m e n t of t h e s t at io nary res ts and s lid in g ba c k

.

res ts ; t h e c lamp ing o f t he s t a tio nary res t o n t h e t a b le and t h e

S lid ing re s t o n t h e wh ee l carriag e .

8 T h e au to mat ic t rav e rs e me cha nis m and h o w t o s ec ure b y

.
,

me ans of t h e s cre w d ogs o n t h e t rave rs e whee l t h e pro pe r le ngt h ,

o f t rave rs e .

9. H o w t o in s t a n t lv s t art o r s t o p t h e t ra ve rs e e it h e r by ,
2 70 ENG I NEE RI NG AN D S H O P PRAC TICE
me ans of th e auto matic t rave rs e kno b th e t rave rs e le ve r or t he

”
,

s h ipp e r arm .

1 0 V a rio us adjus t m e n ts o f t h e s lide t h e whee l S p ind le and

.
, ,

t h e fee d me chan is m ; an ave rage fee d is abo u t 00 1 and feed ing .

S h o u ld o ccur o n ly a t t h e e n d o f e ach t rave rse .

Ca utio n A lways s to p t h is o r any o t he r mach ine fo r t h e tak ing

.

o f m e as ure m e n ts or wh e n it is n e c e
,
s s ary t o leave t h e mach ine b e ,

it jus t fo r a mo me nt .

G RI N D I N G H A N D A B R A S I V E O PE RA T I O N S

1 1 31 . Han d G rin ding . H and

grind ing as h as bee n s t ated , ,

de fines s uch abra s ive pro c es s es as a re pe rfo rmed whe n t he o bj ect

t o b e gro und is h e ld and pres s e d aga ins t t h e whee l o r s t o n e by
hand I n t h e s ma ll mach ine s ho p s uch grind ing c o ns is ts in t he
.
,

re m o va l o f irregu larit ies fro m cas t ing s in t h e ro ug h rap id rod no , ,

t io n of s mall a re as and s o me times in t h e grind ing o f s ho p t oo ls .

1 1 32 Han d Surf a cing T h e c o mm o n t ype of dry grind e r is

. .

s o m e t im es e qu ippe d w it h an adjus t able t ab le t hro ugh wh ich t h e

e m e ry wh ee l pro j e c t s ; t h is t ab le be ing p ro v id ed w it h a m o vab le

ga ge W it h s uch a d e vic e t h o ugh t h e s u rfac e produced b e o nly

.
,

app ro x imately fla t hand s urfac ing may be d o ne w it h pro fit

,
-
.

1 1 33 Bufi n g. B u ffing may be d e fin e d as t h e o pe ra tio n of

.

o b t a in ing by m e ans of rapid ly re vo lving c lot h o r fe lt d is c s

a c e rt ain grain less fin is h T h e t e rm po lis h ing may re fe r t o t he
.

produc t ion of any brigh t fin is h Bu ffing whee ls or bu ffs a re .

mad e of e it he r felt o r of s e ve ra l d is c s of c o tt o n c lo t h s e wed

,

t o g e t h e r s o as t o p res e n t t h eir edges t o th e w o rk By s ubs t it u t ing .

a b ufling whee l for o ne o f t h e e me ry whee ls o f a dry grind e r ,

many bu ffing o pe rat io ns may b e s ucc es s fu lly pe rfo rmed E me ry .

c a k e a m ix t ure o f ve r y fi n e e m e ry and t a llo w is s o m e t im es us e d

, ,

o n bu ffing wh ee ls t o fac ilit at e t h e o pe ra t io n .

G RI N D ING MA C H I N E A B RA S I V E O P E R A T I O N S
1 1 4 1 . P re pa ra tion of th e W o rk . C . H . No rto n mak es t he
fo llo w ing re mark s in t h e A m erica n Ma ch in is t
La te e xpe rie n ce s h o ws it t o b e prac t icab le t o re m o ve o ne
“

c ub ic inch of s tee l pe r m inut e fro m c y lindrica l w o rk by grind ing

wit h s u it a b le wh ee ls I t s h o u ld n o t b e infe rre d fro m t h is t ha t

.

it is m o re pro fi t a b le t o le ave a large a m o un t o f s t o ck o n purpos e

t o gr ind it o ff wit h e m e ry wh ee ls ; b ut t ha t in many c a s e s it
2 72 ENG INEE RI NG AND S HO P PR ACTI CE
Be cause of h fac t t h e d is t urbance o f t he axes of t he wo rk and
t is ,

the wheel is c o rres po nd ingly s ma ll ins u ring gre a t accuracy in

,

t h e w o rk .

I t is e vid e n t t hat if a t ru ly cy lindrica l s urfac e is des ire d t h e ,

grind ing wheel mus t t rave rs e alo ng t he s urfac e of t h e rot a ting

s olid in a s t ra igh t line para lle l t o its ax is o f rot a t io n I f t h e line

””
.

o f m o t io n of t h e wh ee l is a t an ang le t o t h e ax is of rot at io n of

t h e s o lid it w ill be gro und c o n ical

,
An e me ry whee l having a
.

d iame te r of 1 8 x 4 fac e whe n runn ing a t its o rd inary s peed

, ,

prese n ts approx imate ly cutting po ints to t he wo rk in

o ne m inut e ; t h o ugh e ach pa rt ic le is m inu te t h e aggre ga t e am o un t
,

is c o mparat ive ly larg e Tak ing in to c o ns ide ra tio n t h e fac t t hat

.

in mod e rn grind ing mach ines t h e cu tt ing po in ts pas s o ve r fro m

o ne t o fo ur s quare fee t of s u rfac e pe r m inu te it is re ad ily see n ,

h o w t h es e nume ro us c utt ing po in ts can re m o ve as re c e n t prac t ic e ,

s h o ws abo u t o n e cub ic inch o f s tee l pe r m inut e fro m cy lindrica l

,

wo rk t h is be ing abo ut 1 7 po unds pe r ho ur

,
.

T he advan t ages o f mach in e grind ing a re : firs t t h e e c o n o m ica l ,

pro duc t io n of fin is he d s iz e d w ork ; s e c o nd t h e gre at accuracy ,

o bt a inab le by t h is m e t h o d T h e fi rs t advan t a ge is t o day t h e

.
-

mos t impo rt ant o ne .

1 1 44 Dis cus s ion of S pe e ds Tra ve rs e a n d T em pe ra ture

.
, In .

t h e L and is un iv e rs al grind ing mach in e No 1 t h e e m e ry wh ee l, .

, ,

wh ich is 1 0 in d iame te r h as fi ve changes o f s peed fro m 1 5 2 9 to

"
,

330 1 re v o lu t io n s ; wh ile t h e S pe e d o f t h e wo rk h a s t we lve changes ,

fro m 40 t o 62 4 re vo lut io ns pe r m inu te T h e s pee d a t wh ich t h e

.

whee l ro tates varies w it h t h e hardnes s o f t he wo rk and t h e amo un t

o f s t o ck t o b e re mo v e d a t e ach c ut Th e t rave rs e o f t h e w h ee l
.

s h o u ld b e gre a t e r fo r fin is h ing cu ts (wh ich s h o u ld a lways b e ligh t )

t han fo r ro ugh ing cu ts W h ee ls s h o u ld b e o f s uch a grad e t ha t

.

t h e du ll part ic le s w ill bre ak away e as ily during th e grind ing

o pe rat io n ; if t h e dull part ic le s d o n o t bre ak away t h e y be c o me

dulle r and co lle c t me t al res ult ing in t h e g laz ing of t h e wh ee l

,

wh ic h caus es h e a t in g o r cha t t e ring A wh ee l t hat g laz es rap id ly

.

is e it h e r to o hard fo r t h e w o rk it is p e rf o rm in g o r it is runn ing ,

to o fas t .

T h e hard e r t h e ma te ria l t o b e gro und t h e s o ft e r S h o u ld b e

,

t h e gra d e o f t h e grind ing wh ee l ; fo r t h e hard e r ma t e ria l du lling ,

t h e wh e e l m o re rap id ly n e c es s it a t e s a fas t e r re m o va l o f t h e du lle d

part ic les .
 GRINDING 2 73

Th e peed a t wh ich t h e wo rk ro t ates may b e like n ed to the

s

feed of t h e wo rk in a m illing mach ine or t he tool in a la t he ; ,

while th e cutt ing po int s in t h e grind e r whee l m a y b e lik e ne d to

t h e cut t ing edg es I n o t h e r mach in es if t h e w o rk o r too l be fed
.
,

t oo fas t t h e re s u lt ing he a t draws t h e te mpe r o f t h e cutt ing

,

ed ges wh ich a re ra p id ly dulled in c o n s e que nc e of t h e e xces s ive

,

feed ; if fed t o o s lo wly th e cut ter may b e s a id to rub t h e wo rk

,

ins t e ad of t ak ing a d is t inc t ch ip t h is a ls o res u lt ing in a ra p id

dulling o f t he cutt ing edges .

If we ro ta te th e wo rk to o fas t wh e n t h e grind ing wh ee l is ,

runn ing a t t he pro pe r s pee d t h e re w ill be too much s t re ss upo n,

t he cut t ing po in ts caus ing t h e wo rk t o cha t te r and wh ich by t he ir

, ,

bre ak ing away rap id ly change t h e d iame te r o f t h e wh ee l and

,

c o nse que ntly t h e d iame te r o f t h e wo rk F o r t h is re as o n too .

,

gre at a s urfac e s pee d of t h e wo rk rap id ly des tro ys t he s iz ing

po we r of t h e wh ee l .

T h e wh ee l w ill a ls o du ll rap id ly in cas e we re v o lv e t h e w o rk

too s lo wly bec aus e th e re is no t e n o ugh s t re ss o n t h e cu tt ing
,

po ints to break t h e m I n o rd inary prac tic e t h e pe riph e ral s pee d

.
,

o f t h e grind in g wh ee l range s fro m fee t pe r m inute fo r hard

me tals to fee t fo r s oft o n es T h e ave rage pe rime te r s pee d .

of t h e w o rk is ab o u t 1 00 fee t pe r m inu te .

I t is es pe c ia lly impo rt an t t ha t n o change in t h e te mpe ra t ure

o f t h e w o rk oc cur as a change in t e mpe ra t ure pro duc es a re s u lt an t
,

change in th e ax is re nd e ring it imposs ible to produc e t rue wo rk

, .

T o o bv ia te t h is d ifficu lty t h e wo rk is fl o o d e d w it h wa te r .

1 1 45 Trial Se ttin gs T h e gradua t io ns o n a un iv e rs al grinde r

. .
,

t hose o n t h e t able e nd s t h e h e ad s to ck t h e S lid e and els e wh e re

,
-
, ,

s e cure appro x ima te s e t t ings o n ly n o t b e ca us e t h e y a re inaccura te , ,

b ut be cause of changes in te mpe rat ure and w e ar in t h e e me ry

whee l e tc T h e n ec es s ary t rial s e t t ings s h o uld always be mad e
,
.

as care fu lly a s p o ss ib le b ut a s s o o n as t h e e n t ire s urfac e be c o m e

,
s

brigh t t h e fee d ing s h o u ld s to p th e mach ine b e a llo wedto o pe rate

, ,

until th e s park ing c e as e s and t h e n s to ppe d fo r accurate meas ure

,

me nts w it h t h e m icro m e te r or gage I f t he s e tt ings a re ina c cu .

rate ot he rs s h o u ld be made and t he pro c es s re pe ated un t il fina l

,

c o rre c t s ettings a re had .

1 1 46 Ch a tte ring
. Cha t te ring is caus e d it t h e grind ing wh eel
.

is o pe rat ing a t t h e c o rre c t s pee d by ro t a t ing t h e wo rk to o rapid ly

,
.

O t h e r c o mm o n ca us es a re loo s e n ess in t h e wh ee l S p ind le la ck of ,

2 74 ENGI NEE RI NG A ND S H O P P RACTI CE
t rut h whee l too wid e a wh ee l fac e inhe re nt lack of s tiff ness
in t h e , ,

in t h e w o rk and too hard a wh ee l

,
T h e fo llo w ing re m e d ies a re .

s ugges t ed: S le nd e r wo rk s h o u ld b e s uppo rt e d by t h e s te ady res t ;

adj us t me nts s ho uld b e care fully ma d e and tes ted ; th e whee l

s h o u ld b e t rue d if n o t ro und re plac ed if t oo hard or too w id e
, ,

a lt ho ugh if too w id e it migh t b e t h inned do wn wit h t h e diamo nd ;

,

if t he w o rk b e ro t a te d t oo rap id ly it s ho u ld b e g ive n a s lo we r s pee d

,
.

1 1 47 R em a rk s a n d Re puta b le P ra cti ce
. T h e fo llo w ing e x .

t rac ts a re t ak e n fro m an art ic le by Mr No rt o n wh ich appe ared .

in t h e A m erica n M a ch in is t:
amo unt o f w o rk pro duc ed by grind ing h as incre as e d wit h
T he
t h e incre ase o f wat e r and n o w it is kno wn t hat s oda wa te r in
,

c rea s es t h e product fro m any g ive n whee l ; late r t he int ro duc tio n
o f o il in t o t h e s o da wa t e r h a s s t ill furt h e r incre a s ed t h e e ff e c t ive

n es s of whee ls and made t h e wo rk of t h e o pe rato r p leas ante r

, ,

o n acc o un t of gre a t e r ne a t nes s Re c e n tly t h e writ e r h as use d a

.

s o calle d drilling c o mpo und and fo und it e xc e lle nt whe n s uffi

‘ ’
-

c ie nt s oda is add ed to pre ve n t rus t .

A ll re a lly g o o d wh ee ls w ill grind in e it h e r so da wat e r s o apy

“
,

wate r o r o il I t is o nly ne c ess ary t hat t h e y b e grad ed righ t ly

. .

T h e po pu lar id e a t hat o il mus t no t b e a llo we d t o ge t n e ar any

grinding whee l is e rro n eo us I t wo uld be bad to s o ak s o me .

whee ls in o il or to a llo w o il to pe ne t rate in s po ts ; b ut no re ally

,

good wh ee l to day can b e inj ured by fl o w ing liquid o il o n to th e

-

work o r whee l wh ile t he whee l is re vo lving a t a s u ffic ie nt s pee d to

acc o mplis h its w o rk ; and s o me whee ls may be s o ak ed in o il
ind e finite ly w it h o u t t h e s ligh tes t injury .

A n o t h e r e rro n eo us impres s io n n o t h o we ve r S o c o mmo n is

“
, , , ,

t hat e me ry adh e re s to g ro und s urfac es caus ing cu t t ing of be arings , ,

whe n us ed I t wo uld s ee m c le ar to reas o n t hat S ho u ld th e e me ry

.

adhe re to t h e s tee l t he re c o uld b e n o grind ing b ut ins te ad t h e ,

wh eel w ould b e to rn away T h e fac t is t hat ne it h e r t h e m icro

.

s c o pe n o r ch e m ica l lab o ra t o ry re ve a ls an a t o m o f carb o n in any

fo rm adhe ring to t h e s tee l .

Th e re s till re main a fe w wh o s uppose t hat c o ppe r Babb it t

“
, ,

le ad and s o ft rubbe r cann o t b e gro und w it h e m e ry and c o rundum

,

whee ls be caus e t he ma te rial adh e res to th e cutt ing wh ee l ; whe n

”
,

t h e fac t is t h e re is n o s ubs t anc e o f wh ich t h e wr it e r h as any

,

kno w le dge that cann o t b e gro und s ucc es s fu lly wit h a wheel
s u it ab ly c o n s t ruc t e d fo r e ach cas e .
2 76 ENG INEE RI NG AN D S HO P PRAC TICE
be c o me bright s to p feeding and allo w th e machine to o pe rate
,

until t h e whee l ce as es to s park Sto p th e mach ine and me as ure

.

t h e d iame te r a t each e n d w it h t h e m ic ro me t e r ca lipe rs o r gage ;

if th e adjus t me nt is inc o rre c t t h e t ab le is re adjus te d and t h e
,

o pe ra t io n is re pe a ted ; a fe w t ria ls w ill pro bab ly b e ne c es s ary

be fo re t h e ex ac t adjus t me nt is o bta ined .

N ote T o avo id t h e pro duc t io n o f w o rk t hat is to o s ma ll it

.

is n e c es s ary in s iz ing t o us e th e ut m os t care bo t h in grind ing and

in t he t ak ing o f me as u re me n ts .

1 1 49 La ppin g
. La pp ing is an abras ive p ro c ess o f re fine me nt
.

and be ars t he sa me relatio n to t h e fin is h ing o f gro und wo rk t hat

s crap ing d o es t o t h e fin is h ing o f p lan e d w o rk A la p is co m .

pos e d o f s o me s o ft m e tal s uch as le ad bras s o r cas t iro n in wh ich , ,

a re imbe dd e d t h e gra ins o f t h e abrad ing mat e r ia l ; in g e n e ra l ,

o n ly t h e ve ry fin e s t numb e rs o f fl o ur e me ry a re us e d W he re .

neces s ary t hat e it h e r t he la p o r t h e wo rk be ro t ated a t a h igh

s peed during t h e lapp ing pro c e ss t h is may b e d o n e in a s pee d
,

lat he . I t is es s e n t ia l in o rd e r to s e cure a s ucc es s ful o pe ra t io n

, ,

t hat ple n t y of o il b e s upp lie d t o t h e la p .

Plan e s urfac es may b e lappe d in th e fo llo w ing man n e r : t h e fac e

of t h e la p wh ich is us ua lly cas t iro n is c o at e d w it h o il and e m e ry ;
, ,

t h e wo rk is t h e n rubbed o ve r it care be ing t ak e n t o change th e

,

d ire c tio n of t h e rubb ing fre qu en t ly in o rd e r to pre ve n t cro wn ing .

A B RA S I V E S A ND A B RA S I V E W H E E LS
1 1 5 1 . Ca rb o run dum S cal e of H a rdn e s s . Carbo rundum
(carb id e o f s ilic o n ) S iC, is an art ific ial abras ive
and is manu
fa ct ure d in an e le c t ric furnac e I n t h e fo llo wing s ca le o f m in e rals
.

t ak e n to re pres e n t t h e l Ode greeS o f hardn e ss t a lc rank ing l and th e ,

d iamo nd 1 0 carbo rundum w ill b e fo und be t ween t h e numbe rs

,

9 and 1 0 (1 ) Talc (eas ily s crat ch e d w it h t h e finge r na il) ; (2 ) G yp

.

s um ; (3 ) Calc it e ; (4 ) F luo rit e ; (5 ) B arit e ; (6) F eld s par ; (7 ) Q uart z ;

( )
8 T o paz ; ( )
9 Co rundum o r S apph ir e (a f o rm o f cry s t a lliz ed co

rundum ) ; (1 0 ) Diamo nd (t h e hard es t s ubs t anc e kno wn ) .

1 1 52 Alun dum
. Alundum a re c e n tly d e v elo pe d abras ive
.
, ,

is pro duc e d like carbo rundum in an e le c t ric furnac e a t an

, ,

e x t re m e ly h igh t e mpe ra t ure A lundum is c la im e d by t h e manu

.

fa ct ure rs t h e No rt o n E me ry W hee l Co t o b e t h e h a rdes t s h a rpes t

,
.
, , ,

and mos t durable abras ive mate ria l kno wn T h e raw mat e ria l .
,

Be a ux it e an am o rph o us hydrat e of a lum inum is t ran s formed

, ,
 G RINDING 2 77

at a mpe rat ure es tim a ted be t wee n 600 0 and 7000 degrees F a h
te
re n h e it in to a lundum a ma te ria l res e mb ling in che m ica l c o mp o
, ,

s itio u t h e pures t nat ura l c o rundum I n t he s cale o f ha rdn ess

.
,

whe re t h e diamo nd is 1 0 alun dum h as bee n fo und by t rial to ,

e xc ee d 9 5 .

1 1 53 Corun dum Co rundum is pure a lum ina o r o xide o f

. .

alumin um A l 0 I t is a nat ural m in e ra l crys t a llin e in s t ruc ture

, , , .
, ,

and in t h e s cale ranks n ex t to t h e d iamo nd in hardness .

1 1 54 Em e ry
. E me ry is a c o mpo und of c o rundum and
.

proto x ide of iro n I ts hardnes s is abo ut one d egree lowe r t han

.

c o rundum wh ile t he pres e nc e of iro n re nd e rs t h e grains s lightly

,

t o ugh e r and les s britt le T h e mos t impo rt an t e me ry m ines a re

.

t o b e fo und in t he n o rt heas t e rn portio n o f t h e U nite d S t at es .

1 1 55 G rin ds ton e s
. G rind s to n es a re na t u ral s ands to nes of a
.

s u it able te x t u re fo r grind ing Th e cut ting ma te ria l is quart z

.

s and o x id e o f s ilica S io
,
t h e gra ins o f wh ich a re bo und t o ge t h e r
, ,,

by a na tural calca reo us or s ilicate bo nd T h e s to ne is quarrie d .

and tur ned in to d is c s ; t hes e latte r a re t h e grinds to nes o f c o mme rce .

1 1 56 Ab ra sive Wh e els a n dW h ee l Spe e ds

. Co mme rc ia l abra .

s ive wh ee ls a re manuf a c t ure d fro m carbo rundum a lu n du m co , ,

run dum and e me ry by c o mbining th e c le an ed and s o rted grains

o f t h e cu t t ing ma te ria l w it h a s u it ab le ma trix o r b o nd T he .

whee ls a re press ed in to S hape and a re hard e ned by a pro c es s of

drying o r vit rificat io n as t h e nat ure of t h e bo nd re quires I t is .

es s e n t ial in a ll abras ive wh ee ls t hat t h e bo nd b e o f s uch a na t ure ,

whet h e r nat ural or a rt ific ial t hat it be so ft e no ugh to re le as e th e

,

gra ins afte r t heir pro j e c ting c o rn e rs have bee n wo rn ; hard e no ugh
t o re t a in t h e gra ins un t il t h es e c o m e rs have d o n e t he ir wo rk ;
and of s uch s t re ngt h t ha t t h e wheel will b e capable of res is ting
t h e c e n t rifuga l fo rc e due to t h e s pe e d a t wh ich s uch wh ee ls mus t
b e run t o s e cure t h e gre a tes t e flicie n cy .

Th e t ab le o f abras ive wh ee l s pe ed s (F ig 1 1 5 6) gives t h e .

numbe r o f re v olu tio ns pe r minu te fo r s pec ifi edd iame te rs of whee ls ,

to cau s e t he m to run a t t he re s pec tive pe riphe ry ra tes of 4 00 0 ,

5 000 60 0 0 and 65 00 fe e t pe r m inu te

,
A ra te o f 5 000 fe e t is .

us ually e mplo yed in o rd inary wo rk b ut in s pe c ial c as es and ,

whe re s afe ty c ollars a re us e d it is s o me times d es irab le to run ,

t he m a t a h ighe r o r lo we r rate acc o rd ing to t h e re qu ire m e n ts .

T h e s t res s o n t he wh e e l a t 4 000 fee t pe r m inu te is 4 3 po und s

p e r s quar e inc h ; a t 5 00 0 f ee t 75 p o und s ; and a t 6000 ,
f e e t 1 08 ,
2 78 ENGI NEE RING AND S H O P PRACTI CE
po und s W heels t hat a re to b e run we t lik e to ol grind e r wheels
.
,
-
,

a re u s ually run a t t h e lo w es t s p eed of 4 000 f eet pe r m inute as ,

t ha t is abo u t as fas t a S peed as wat er can b e k e pt o n t h e s ur

fac e of th e wh ee l W h ee ls wit h h oles 4 to 4 t h eir d iame te r a re
.

much w e a k e r than s o lid whe e ls of th e s ame s iz e and s hould no t ,

b e run fas te r t han 4 000 fee t Tub or cup whee ls if no t pro

.
,

te c ted in any manne r s ho uld b e run b e t w ee n 3 000 and 4 000 fee t

,

p e r m inu t,
e wh ile r ing wh e e ls in chucks may b e run fr o m 5 0 0 0
t o 6000 f ee t pe r minu te .

TAB LE or AB R AS I V E WH L EE S P E E DS

L
S OW OR D I NARY D
ME I UM A
M XI M U M
t on wE r A N D
'

c or ro rr G E ER L
N A s uor ro e W H EE LS wrru PO I! wH E ELs wrrH
WH EEL S
'
P RA C I IC B SA F ET Y CO LLA R S A rET v CO LLA R

F IG . “ 56 .
2 30 EN GI N EERING AN D S HO P PRACT I CE

Norton E m e ry Wh ee l Co . G ra de De s igna tio n Ca rborundum C0 .

M e dium S o ft

M e
dium

FIG . 1 1 58 .

T h e Safe t y E me ry W he e l Co .
’
s grad e lis t is an arb itrary o ne

w it h the fo llo w ing d es ignatio ns :

C . E x t ra So ft H . Ve ry Soft
A . So ft M . Me d ium Soft

P . Me d ium I . Med ium H ard

0 . H ard N . Ve ry H ard
E . E x t ra H ard D S pe c ial E x tra H ard

I n t e rm e d ia te figures be twee n th os e d es igna te d a s s oft m ed iu m ,

so ft , e tc .
,
ind ica te s o m any d egre e s hard e r o r s o fte r e g A } is , . .
,
 G RI ND ING 2 81

on e deg ree harder t han so ft A4 is t h ree degrees hard e r t han .

s of t o r o n e d egree s o ft e r t han m e d ium s o ft .

59 1 1 . Ab ra s ive W h e e ls
F a vo rite Num b e rs In a n dG ra de s of .

F ig l 1 59 a , a t ab le fo r t h e se le c tio n of grades , w ill b e fo und a co m

.

paris o n of th e grad ing us ed by t h e No rto n E me ry W h ee l Co and .

that of th e Carbo rundum Co F ig . . 1 1 5 9 b is t he grading lis t us e d

by t h e Safe ty E me ry W he e l Co .

NO R TO N E arne r WH EE L CA RRO RU N D U II Co .

Class Of Work N um b er G ra de Num ber G ra de

Us ua lly U s ua lly Usua lly U s ua lly
F urnis h ed F urnis hed F urnishc d F urnis h ed

L C tI
a rge dS t l C
as ro n a n ee as t in gs

S m ll C t I
a ndS t lC
as ro n a ee as tin gs
L g M ll bl I C ti
ar e a ea e ro n as n gs .

S m ll M ll b l I
a C ti a ea e ro n as n gs .

Ch ill d I C t i g
e ro n as n s

W ught I
ro ro n

Bra C t ings
ss as .

B Ca t i g
ro n ze s n s

R ugh W k in G
o l or en e ra

G l M h in S h p U
en e ra ac e O se

L t h d Pl n T l
a e an a er oo s

S m a ll T oo ls
W d-wo rkin g T oo ls
oo

T w is t D rills (H a nd G rinding)
T wis t D rills (S pe c ia l M a ch in es ) .

ps Milling Cutt
Re a m e rs , T a , e rs ,

t (H
e c n d G ind)
. a r 46 to N to P 50 to 80 K to N
Re m a T p Milling C utt
e rs ,
a s , e rs ,

t (S pe M h )
e c . c . ac . 4 6 to 60 H to K 50 t o 60 L to M
Edging a nd J inting Ag icult u l o r ra

I m pl m nt e e s

G indin g Pl w P int
r o o s

S urf cing Pl w Bo di
a o es

S t v M un t ing
o e o

Finis hin g Edg f S t v es o o es

Dro p F rgings o

C um m ing n d S ha p n ing S w a r e a s .

Pla ning Mill d P p Cutt ing an a e

r

30 to 46 J to K 2 02 — 60 to 80 Mt o R
Ca r Wh ee l G rin din g 2 0 to 30 O to P 1 6 to 2 4 H

FIG . 1 1 59 0 .
2 82 ENGINEE RI NG AND S HO P PRAC TICE

T HE G RA DI NG USED B Y TH E S A F ET Y E M E RY W H E E L Co . or S PRI N G F I E L D ,
O H IO

Grade

CO ARS E G RI N DI N G
Sto ve ca s t in gs

n
.

Agricultu ra l cas t in gs (m a llea ble a dg y ira ro n )

S ca le fro m so ft s tee l fo rging

Ro ugh in g o ut la rge m a c ine -s o too ls h h p
h f
Ro ug s ur a cin g o n w ro ug t iro n h
f f
S ur a cin g s o t s t ee l (coa rs e )
S urfa cin g ca s t i n ro ( a rs e )
co

S urfa cin g c hilled i ro n (coa rs e )

Edging s h v ls o e

J o int in g a nd edging a gricult ura l im le m e nts p

h edge h
T in s of ollo w-wa re
C hilled ca wh l g indin gr- ee r

Cas t iro n ca wh l grinding

- r- ee

G inding c wh l t i (st l)
r a r- ee res ee

Edges f wro ught i n but ts a nd h ing s

o -
ro e

Ro ugh grindin g on m llea bl ca up lin gs a e r co

G inding edges f ca s t iron ra dia to

r o -
rs

G inding w d pulp
r oo

Ro ugh s urf in g n d iro ns

ac o sa

G inding ends f i n o r t l ro ds
r o ro s ee

J int ing w ugh t i n b idge w k

o ro - ro r or

S u fa cin g ca st iro n m ld boa rds

r -
o

B ronze ca ting s

Ro ugh m a hin h p us e
c -
e s o

Edging s heet t l s ee

W ught i n w gon w k
ro - ro a or

G inding nd f
r e i g les
s o ca rr a e ax

I te rna l grinding ( ughin g o ut )

n ro

S u fa ce w rk n di
r o o es

S urfa ce wo rk o n ca rria ge a x les

f
Sa e wor k
Edging sa d iron s

M E DI U M G RI N DI N G AN D CO A RS E TOO L W O RE
Sa ddl ry ha dw
e r a re ca s tin gs (m a llea le )b 2 4 t o 36 N or E
 84 ENG INEERI NG AN D S H O P P RACT I CE

G RA D I N G U S E D BY S A F ET Y EM E R Y W H E E L Co . contin ue
( d) .

Ki d n of Work G ra de

FI N E G RI N D I N G A N D T O O L FI N IS H I N G
C O NT I N U E D
S ha rpe nin g a m e rs nd t a ps
re a

S ha rpe n in g m illin g utt rs c e

G rinding chilled ll ro s

Fi is hing ch ill d roll

n e s

G i ding pea l
rn r

G ri di g l th plittin g kn ives
n n ea er s

Brass fi i h ing
n s

D n ta l a nd s u gica l ins t um ent

e r r s

G indi g nd c vi g ra zo rs
r n a co n a n

G inding s h kniv s
r oe e

Fine ha rd n ed s t l to l
e ee o s

G rm a n ilv
e s er

S hoe cutt in g dies

I n te rna l grindin g (fin is ing) h

G rin d h
in g la t e ce nte rs

F IG . 1 1 59 b .

T o get a fi ne fin is h us e t he fine r numbe rs and so ft grades .

F or fas t wo rk t h e c o ars e numbe rs and hard grades .

 CH APTER X II
P L A NI NG

P LA N I N G MA CH I N E S
1 2 1 1 . Cla s s e s of Pla ning Ma chin e s
Th e re a re t hree d is tinc t
.

c las s es of planing mach in es in c o mmo n us e viz : t h e s hape r fo r ,

.

ligh t wo rk ; t he S lo tte r for fin is h ing fla t o r curved s u rfac es a t ,

righ t ang les to s o me ot her s urfac e of t h e wo rk and th e pla ne r for ,

he avy wo rk The re a re s e veral varie ties of each o f t hes e c lass es

.
,

t h e d es ign o f e ach c lass vary ing acc o rd ing t o th e id e as o f t h e

man ufac t ure r and t h e w o rk fo r wh ich th e mach in e is inte nd e d
,
.

S ha pe rs a re us ua lly c rank o r g ear drive n wh ile p lan e rs a re ,

s pur or s p ira l ge a re d t h e adj e c t iv es hav ing re fe re nc e to t h e m e t h o d

-
,

o f driv ing t h e plat e n .

T H E S HA P E R

1 2 2 1 . F un ction an d func tio n of t h e s hape r

Lim ita tion s . The ,

lik e t ha t of th e p lan e r is to pro duc e fla t s u rfac es

,
I t is d es igne d .

fo r ligh t w o rk and w o rk o f s uch charac te r a s may b e h e ld in a

,

vise w it h which it is us ually e qu ippe d I n c o nt ras t w ith t h e

,
.

plane r t he too l mo ves o ver th e wo rk ins te ad of t he w o rk unde r

,

t h e t oo l I n t h e p lan e r th e too l is fe d s id e wis e during t h e re t urn

.

s t ro k e of t h e wo rk wh ile in t h e s hape r t h e w o rk fee d s s id e w is e

,

during t h e return s t ro k e of t he t oo l I n t h is mach ine t he h e ad is

.

fas te ned t o o ne e nd of a re c ipro cating ram wh ich caus es t h e too l ,

t o b e m o v ed back a nd fo rt h h o riz o nt a lly o v e r t h e s u rfac e o f th e

wo rk T h e carriage t o wh ich th e v is e and wo rk a re fas t e ne d is
.
, ,

s o arrang ed as to m o v e s id e w is e a d is t anc e e qua l t o t h e w id t h of

t h e out wh ile t h e to o l is pe rfo rm ing t h e re t urn s t ro k e

,
.
2 86 ENG I NEERI NG AND S H O P PRACTI CE

F IG . 122 1 . H e nde y G e a re d S h a pe r
.

1 2 2 2 . D e s c ription . A st and a rd
pe o f t he m o d e rn c rank
ty
s hap e r c o n s is t s o f a body o r co lu m n wh ic h s up po rt s t h e driv ing
m e chan is m t h e v is e and vario us s t a t io n a ry and m o vable part s
,

o f t h e ma c h in e ; a lo n git ud in a lly m o v a b le ra m a t th e e n d o f ,

wh ic h is fas te ne d t h e hea d s lide tool boa: a n d tool po s t; t h e c o lumn

, ,
- -
2 88 ENGI NEE RI NG AN D S HO P PRACTI CE
c o lumn a t any d es ire d height T h e table wh ich carries t h e m ov
.

a ble v ise is T s lo t t e d -
s o t ha t large w o rk may b e b o lt e d t o it
, .

T h e driving m e chan is m e nc lo s e d in t h e c o lumn c o ns is ts o f a

, ,

forke d bloc k c lampe d in a s lo t in t h e ram by m e ans o f a ha ndle ;

a h e avy s lotted le ver is fas te ne d a t its lo we r e nd to t h e c o lumn it s ,

uppe r e nd engaging t h e fo rk e d blo ck Th is le ve r is mo ved back

.

and fo rt h by m e ans of a cra n k pin wh ich is ca rrie d o n t h e large

-

g e a r ; t h is g e ar is dr iv e n e it h,e r by a pin io n k e y e d o n t h e s am e s haf t

wit h t h e c o ne pulle y o r th ro ugh back ge ars A s t h is ge ar re
,
.

vo lves t h e crank pin wh ich carries th e blo ck s lid ing in t h e le ve r

,
-

caus es t h e le ve r t o mo ve back and fo rt h I t is o bvio us t hat if we

.

a lte r t h e d is t anc e fro m t h e c e n te r of t he crank pin to t h e c e n te r

-

o f t h e g e ar carry ing it we pro duc e a c o rre s po nd ing change in

,

t h e s t ro k e o f t h e ram Th is is acc o mplis h e d by hav ing t he

.

crank pin att ache d to a qua dra nt wh ich can be ro tate d abo ut a
-

c e nte r ne ar t h e rim o f t h e ge ar ; t h e quadrant is m o ved by m e ans

o f a rac k a nd pin ion ; th is p in io n is s o arrange d t ha t it may b e

o pe ra t e d by hand ; wh e n t h e quadran t is in t h e d e s ire d p o s it io n

it may b e c lampe d t h e re .

1 2 2 3 Ch a ra cte ris tic O pe ra tion s

. I t is impo rt an t to und e r
.

s t and t h e fo llo wing o pe ra t io n s and adjus t m e n ts o f t h e s hap e r

befo re s t art ing to wo rk :

1
. T h e c o rre c t me th o d o f s e t t ing t h e t o o l and th e adj us t me n t
,

o f th e t o o l b o x s o a s to g ive t h e n e c e s s ary re lie f to th e t o o l o n t he

-

re t urn s tro ke .

2. T h e qu ick re t u rn m o t io n by m e a n s o f wh ich t h e m o v e me nt
o f t h e ram is c o n t ro lle d .

3 T he adjus t m e n t of th e back g e a rs t o s e cure t h e pro p e r

.

cutting s pee d .

4 T he d e v ic e fo r re gu la t ing t h e le ngt h of t h e s t ro ke
. .

5 T h e d e v ic e fo r re gula t ing t h e po s it io n o f t h e s t ro k e
. .

6 T h e me t h o d of ra is ing o r lo we ring t h e cros s ra il a n d t h e

.
-

mo ve me nt o f t h e t able .

7 T he m e t h o d o f adjus t ing th e au to mat ic fee d m e chan is m ;

.

h o w t o o bt a in a d es ire d w id t h o f c ut .

8 T h e m e th o d o f re ve rs ing th e d ire c t io n o f t h e fee d and h o w

.

t o t hro w it in t o o r o ut o f ac t io n .

9 Th e m e t h o d o f adjus ting s o a s to mak e th e fe e d ing t ak e

.

plac e du ring t h e re t u rn s t ro k e .
 PLAN INC 2 89

SL O I
' '
rE R S A ND K EY-
W A Y CU TT E R S

1 2 3 1 . D e s c ription of ng ma
Slottin g Ma chin e s . T he s lo t t i

ch in e is a m o d ifica t io n of th e s hape r and m igh t in fac t b e t e rme d

,

a ve rtica l o ne as t h e ac t io n of t he ram is ve rt ica l A c o mmo n

,
.

F IG . 1 2 31 . Be tt s S lo tt ing M hiac ne .

type O f s lo t ting mach in e c o n s is ts o f th e fo llo w ing e ss e n tial d eta ils

A r ig id fram e carry ing t h e ram and it s driv ing m e ch a n is m t he ,

c a rriage and pla t e n w it h it s auto ma t ic fee d me chan is m ; a ve rt ica l

,

ram S it u a t e d d ire c t ly abo ve t h e p la te n carries t h e t oo l ; a cir

, ,

on lar p la t e n m o un te d o n a carriage s im ilar to a lat he carriage

, ,

is pro v ide d w it h ro t ary au to ma t ic lo ng it ud ina l and cro s s f ee d s

, ,
.

Po we r is t ran s m itte d t hro ugh a c o n e p ulle y and back ge a rs t o

a crank o n t h e driv ing s haft s it uate d back o f t h e ram T h e
,
.
2 90 ENG I NEE RI NG A ND S H O P PRACT ICE
ro ta ry m o t io n o f t h e cran k is t ra n s fo rme d in to a re c ipro ca ting
mo t io n o f t h e ra m t hro ugh adj us t a b le crank and wris t p in s and
a c o nne c t ing ro d; t h e ram is c o un t e rba lanc e d and pro vide d w it h
bo t h ve rt ic a l and h o rizo nt a l t o o l c la mps .

1 2 32 Slott e r Tool s
. S lo t t e r t oo ls t ha t a re us e d wit h t h e ir
.

s hank s in a v e rt ica l p o s it io n a re e ss e n t ia lly d iff e re n t in S hap e

fro m e it he r th e o rd inary plane r o r s hape r to o ls in t h a t t h e cut

t ing e dge is f o rme d a t t h e e nd o f t h e bar The y res e mble to .

s o m e e x t e n t a part ing t oo l w it h t h e e xc e pt io n t ha t th e e nd fac e

,

t urn s t h e ch ip S ee Se c 455
. . .

1 2 33 K e y wa y Cutt e rs
.
- A ke y way cu tt e r may b e d e fin e d
.
-

a s a ve rt ic a l dra w c ut s h a pe r t h e d
- ra w cut s h a pe r b e in g o n e d
, e -

s igne d t o cut o n wh a t w o u ld b e t h e re t urn s t ro k e o f t h e o rd inary

s h a pe r AS t h e n a m e imp lie s t h is fo rm o f S lo t t e r is d e s ign e d

.
,

prim a rily fo r t h e cutt ing o f ke y wa ys in t h e hubs o f pulle ys -

,

gea rs and s imila r wo rk .

T H E PL A N E R

1 2 4 1 . F un ction an d func t io n o f t h e plan e r

Lim ita tion s . Th e
is t o pro d uc e a fla t s u rfa ce ; t h is is a cc o mp lis h e d by fa s t e n ing t h e
wo rk t o a m o v a b le p la t e n wh ich is mad e t o re c ipro c a t e h o riz o n
t a lly be n e a t h th e t o o l t h e la t t e r be ing m o v e d a f te r e a c h f o r wa rd
,

F IG . 1 2 41a . W h it co m b 26 ”
B D
e lt rive , B e lt-
driv e n Pl
a ne r
.
292 EN GI NEERI NG A ND S HO P PRACTI CE
hand by m eans of a feed rod T h e pla te n is re c ipro ca ted by
.

me ans of ge aring c o nne c ted to driving a nd reversing pulleys .

T h e le ng t h o f t h e s t ro k e and t h e d ire c t io n in wh ich t h e p la te n

m o ves a re go ve rn ed by adjus table ta ppets or dogs wh ich e ngage
a revers ing lever c o nnecte d in t urn to belt sh ifting levers S cre ws - .

wit h in h o us ings a re us e d t o ra ise and lo we r t h e cross ra il .

-
.

F IG . 1 2 42 . Cin ”
c in na ti 36 S pu ge red M oto d iven Pla ne
-
r a r- r r .

Thes e s cre ws a re made to o p e ra t e s imu lt an eo us ly by me an s of

be ve l gears .

43
1 2 Ch
. a ra c te ri s ti c O pe ra tion s . I t is imp o rt an t t o und e r
s t and t h e f o llo w ing o pe ra t io ns and adjus t men ts of t he p lane r
befo re art ing to wo rk :
st

1. T h e me t ho d o f ra is ing and lo we rin g t h e cro ss ra il and -

,

t h e adjus t m e n t s o f t h e s lide ; t h es e s h o u ld b e c lo s e to t h e w o rk
t o avo id t h e s pring ing o f th e t o o l .

2 . T h e c o rre c t me t h o d o f s e t t ing t h e t oo l and t h e adju s t m e n ts

,

o f t h e t o o l b o x s o a s t o give t h e t oo ls th e n e c e s s ary re lie f o n th e

-

re turn s t ro k e .

3 T h e adjus t me n t o f t he t a ppe ts o r d ogs to g iv e th e re qu ire d

.
 PLANI NG 293

4 . met ho d of s to pp ing th e plate n or table a n d s tarting

The
it in e it h e r d irec t io n w it h o ut s to pp ing t h e mach in e Ca ution . .

Th is me tho d S ho uld o nly be res o rted to in cas es of acc ide nt or

e m e rg e ncy A lwa ys s to p t h is o r a n y othe r ma ch in e fo r t ak ing
.
,

t h e m e as ure me nts or whe n it is n ec ess ary t o leav e th e ma ch in e

, ,

if o nly for a mo me nt .

5 T h e met h o d o f adjus t ing t h e auto ma tic feed me chan is m ;

.

h ow to o b ta in a des ire d w id th o f c ut .

6 H o w to ins tan tly t hro w t he h o riz o n t al o r ve rt ica l feed in t o

.

or o ut of ac tion .

P LA N I N G

1 2 5 1 . Pre pa ra tion W ork . Prio r to

fas te ning planer work in
of

t h e v ise o r to th e plat e n it s h o uld b e laid o ut to t h e draw in g in

acc o rdanc e wit h t h e ins t ruc tio ns g ive n unde r the s ubj e c t Laying
O ut , Sec 7 1 1 in Chapte r VI I
.
,
A fte r t h e prepa ra t o ry pro c es s of
.

lay ing o ut th e wo rk a s uit able me t h o d of fas t e n ing t h e wo rk o r

,

piec e fo r t h e planing o pe rat io n s ho uld b e se le cte d I f t h e wo rk .

b e large it may be fas te ned in s o me of t he fo llo w ing ways : it may

b e bo lt ed d ire c tly t o t h e pla te n ; it may b e fas te ne d by m eans o f
U c lamps and bo lts ; or it may b e s ecure d by means of plane r
p ins and toe d ogs or a c o mbinatio n of t h ese m et ho ds Wh en
, .

c lamp ing work it is impo rtan t t hat t h e points of c lamp press ure
b e lo cated d irect ly o ve r t he po in ts o f s uppo rt and t hat t h e wo rk
b e se cu rely bac ke d up and fas te ne d to pre ve nt s ubs e que n t s lip
page Le veling w edges planer jack s and vario us o t he r d e v ic es a re
.
,

us ed to eff ec t a wo rkmanlike jo b of fas t en ing The s u rfac e gage .

is us e d in bring ing lines or s u rfac es para llel w it h t h e table W he n .

t h e line on t h e w o rk is t o b e s e t paralle l w it h t he line o f motio n

o f t h e t ab le it may s o m e t imes b e n e c e
,
s s ary to plac e t h e s u rfac e

gage a t s o me c o nve n ie n t pos it io n o n t h e s lid e or in t h e pos itio n ,

of t h e to ol ; and t h e n m o ve t h e t able and t h e wo rk und e r t h e

cros s ra il The m o ve me nt t he n of th e p late n and wo rk und er

- .

th e cros s rail w ill ind icate a t th e s cribe r po in t t h e c o nd it io n of

-

t he s e tt ing Wo rk tha t is n ot to o far fro m the edge o f t he p la te n

.

may b e calipe red fro m t he ne t a ra gh t edge plac ed aga ins t

li o s t i -

t h e s id e of th e pla te n .

Ligh t s mall w o rk of c o nve n ie nt s hape is ge ne ra lly h eld in a

,

vise W h et he r he ld in a v is e o r n ot t h e wo rk s h o uld b e s o plac e d

.

t hat t h e to ol w ill trave l lengt hw ise o ve r its larges t s urfac e If .

294 ENG I NEERI NG AND S HO P P RACTICE
the wo rk is to o t h in to pro j e c t abo ve t h e jaws of th e vis e parallel ,

b lo cks of s u ffic ie nt t hickness a re us ed W h ile t igh te n ing th e vis e .

t h e w o rk s h o uld b e s t ruck light ly w it h t h e c o ppe r hamme r to

kee p it firmly s eated .

1 2 52 Cuttin g S pe e ds
. T h e cutting s pee d o f p lan e r t o o ls is
.

go ve rne d by t h e s ame laws t hat go vern t he cutt ing s pee d of too ls

in ge n e ra l a nd s h o u ld vary n o t o n ly w it h th e charact e r and
,

te x t ure o f t h e m e ta l b ut a ls o wit h t he k ind of c ut

,
W it h t h e .

plane r wh ich is d es igne d and s peed e d fo r t ak ing ve ry heavy

,

cuts o n hard ma te rial afte r t h e cutt ing s peed h as o nc e bee n ,

d e te rmine d it canno t b e alt e red unles s s o me variable s peed

, ,

d e vic e is pro vid ed The fixe d rate of s pee d a t wh ich p lane rs

.

o pe ra t e e xc e p t t h o s e f o r h igh s pee d s t e e ls
,
is abo u t 2 4 fee t pe r
-
,

m inu te wh ich t h o ugh mak ing it an adm irable to o l fo r h e avy

, ,

cuts o n hard mat e rial put s it a t a d is advant age fo r light cu ts

,

and s uch s o ft ma te rial as bras s T h e crank s hape r ho we ve r is .

, ,

pro vid e d wit h c o n e pulle ys and back ge ars wh ich wit h t h e , ,

adjus table s t ro k e pro v id e a s uit able range of cut ting s pee ds

, .

W it h t h e be lt o n any part icular s te p o f t h e c o ne t he ram makes ,

a c o ns t ant numbe r o f s t ro kes pe r m inut e wh e t h e r t h e s t ro k es ,

b e 1 inch o r 1 f o o t in le ngt h I f t h e s t ro k e b e 1 fo o t lo ng and

.

t h e numb e r o f re v o lu t io n s 60 pe r m inut e we hav e o ne s t ro ke ,

fo rward and o n e s t ro ke backward of t h e ram fo r e ach re volut io n , ,

wh ich gives in a 2 to 1 qu ick re t urn s hape r a vary ing cut t ing

s pee d appro x ima t ing 9 0 fe e t pe r m inu t e W it h t h e o t he r c o nd i .

t io n s una lte re d if t h e s t ro k e b e s h o rt e n e d to 2 inch e s we hav e

, ,

t h e ram m o v ing 2 inch es fo rward and 2 inch es backward o ccupy ,

ing t h e s am e t im e a s t h e pre v io us o pe ra t io n and s e curing a cu t t ing

S pee d o f b ut 1 5 f ee t pe r m inut e .

O wing t o th e c o ns t ruc t io n of t h e s hape r and t h e lack o f

rigid it y in t h e wo rk to ol and ram th e cutt ing s pe e ds for plan ing
, ,

o pe ra t io n s w ill b e fo und s o m e wha t lo w e r t han t h os e fo r t urn ing ,

m illing and drilling F o r t h is and o t h e r re as o ns t he cu tting s pee d

”
.

for p lan ing is abo u t 3 t ha t fo r t urn ing o p e ra tio ns T h e wo rk .

man is adv is ed to c o ns u lt t h e t able and chart in Sec s 4 2 4 and 42 9 .

,

chapte r I V on Cutt ing T o o ls fo r furt he r info rmatio n o n t h is

“
,

s ubj e c t .

53 1 2 . Pla ning P ra cti ce Rough ing an dF ini sh ing Side an d

Down Cuts . S u rfac es to b e

plane d a re us ually finis he d in t wo
c u ts , o ne h e avy ro ugh ing cut and o ne ligh t fin is h ing cut F in .
2 96 ENG I NEE RING AND S H O P P RACT I CE
lo ngp ie c es Thes e e rro rs . a re augme nted by any loose ness in t h e
gibs and c lamp ing bolts .

59
1 2 O rd e r of O pe r
.a tion s f o r Sh a pe r O b s e rve t h e . fo llowing
o rd e r of pro c e du re wh e n o pe ra t ing t h e s hape r :

1 . P lace the work . Plac e t he

w o rk in t he vis e s o that th e
t o ol w ill t rave l le ng t hw ise o ve r it s larges t s urfac e s lip und e rn e at h ,

it parallel b lo cks of s u ffic ie n t t hicknes s to ra is e t h e s urface a

lit t le abo ve t h e jaws of t h e v is e W h ile t igh te ning t h e vis e t h e .

wo rk s h o uld be s t ruck ligh tly w it h t he c o ppe r hamme r to k ee p ,

it firmly se ate d o n t h e b lo cks .

2 .A dj us t th e ta ble B ring t h e cross ra il to t h e pro pe r h e igh t

.
-
,

mo ve th e t able o ve r unt il t he wo rk is in its pro pe r relat io n w it h

t h e t ool t h e t oo l mus t jus t e xte nd o ve r o ne e dge of t h e s u rfac e
to b e p lane d and c lamp th e c ross ra il -
.

3 A dj us t th e tool
. See t hat t h e to o l is s harp and pro pe rly
.

gro und t he n adj us t and fas te n it in th e too l pos t

,
-
.

4 A dj us t the too l box

. Se t t h e to o l b o x o v e r ab o ut 1 0
- .
- °

n o t t h e h e ad ; t h e t o p o f t h e b o x away fro m t h e w o rk to o bt a in
t h e n e c es s ary re lief o n t h e ret urn s t ro k e .

5 A dj us t th e s tro ke
. Lo os e n th e kn o b lo ck ing t h e quadran t
.

in p o s it io n ; w it h t h e crank hand le o n t h e p in io n S haf t t hro ugh

t h e kn o b m o ve t h e po in te r t o t h e d e s ire d s t ro k e and t igh t e n t h e
,

kn o b Pull o ve r to d eterm ine t he pos it io n of t h e s t ro k e ; if in

.

c o rre c t loo se n t h e hand le o n to p of t h e ram and pus h fo rward ,

o r back un t il c o rr e c t t h e n t igh t e n t h e hand le

,
.

6 D eterm in e th e cutting s peed Ca lcu la te it fo r t h e p ie c e in

“

. .

hand and t h e n adjus t th e be lt and back ge a rs to s e cure t h is

s pee d Co ns u lt t h e paragraphs o n cut t ing s pee d s for p lan ing
.

o pe rat io n s S ec s 4 2 4 and 42 9 ,
. .

7 A dj us t th e feed A djus t t h e fee d m e chan is m

. .
— ge ne rally
c o ars e for ro ugh ing and fi ne for fin is h ing cu ts ; wh e re accuracy
,

may b e s acrific ed to s peed a Co ars e fee d may b e us e d fo r fin is h ing ,

— t ak ing care t hat t he fee d m o ve m e n t o ccurs during th e re t urn

s t rok e D o wn fee d ing mus t g e ne rally b e d o n e by hand
. .

8 P ull over by ha nd
. W it h a ll t h e adjus t me nts mad e and
.
,

t h e t o o l in its p os it io n o ve r on e e dge o f t h e w o rk pu ll o ve r by ,

hand to as c e rta in t h e ir c o rre c t n es s .

9 S ta rt the m a ch in e D e pth of cut St a rt t h e mach in e and fee d

. . .

t h e t o o l d o wn by hand un t il t h e d e s ire d d e p t h of c ut is o b t a in e d .

10 Th row i n the feed Thro w in t h e au to ma t ic fee d and

. .
 PLANI NC 297

wat ch th e wo rk carefully to de te c t any irregularit y in t he wo rk ing

of t h e mach in e Be re ady t o t ak e advan t age of e ve ry o ppo rt un it y
.

t o sa ve t ime .

1 2 59 4 O rd. e r of O pe ra tion s f or Pla n e r O bse rv e t h e fo llo w ing

.

o rd e r of pro c edure wh e n O pe rat ing t h e plan e r

1. A dj us t the work I f t h e wo rk b e la rge it may b e fas te ne d

.
,

always s e curely in s o me o ne of th e fo llo wing ways to t he

p late n : I t m a y b e bo lte d d ire c t ly to t he p la te n ; or it may b e ,

fas te ned by me ans of U c lamps and bo lts ; o r it may b e s e cure d

-

by me ans of p lane r p ins and toe dogs o r a c o mb ina tio n of t h es e

met ho ds If t h e wo rk be s m a ll and of c o nve nie n t S hape it may
.
,

b e h e ld in a p lane r v is e ; p lac e t h e wo rk in t h e v is e s o t ha t t h e
too l w ill t rave l le ngt hw is e o v e r its larges t s urfac e S lip unde rn ea t h ,

it para lle l b lo ck s o f s u ffic ie n t t h ickn es s to ra is e t h e s urfac e a

lit t le abo ve t h e jaws o f th e v is e W h ile t igh te n ing th e v is e a s
.
,

alre ady no te d t h e wo rk s ho uld b e s t ruck ligh tly w it h t h e c o ppe r

,

hamme r to k ee p it firm ly s e ate d o n t h e blo cks

,
.

2. A dj us t th e to ol See t ha t t h e t oo l is s harp and p ro p e rly

.

gro und t h e n adj us t and fas te n it in t h e too l b o x

,
- .

3 A dj us t th e tool box
.
-
Se t t h e t oo l b o x o ve r abo ut 1 0
.
-
°

th e to p o f t h e b o x away fro m t h e w o rk to o b t a in t h e n e c es s ary

relief on t h e ret urn s t ro k e .

4 S et th e cros s ra il a nd s a ddle
.
-
B ring t h e cros s-ra il and
.

s add le in t o t h e ir pro pe r re la t io n w it h t h e wo rk ; t h e t oo l jus t

”
o v e r o n e ed ge of th e s urfac e to be plane d

”
.

5 A dj us t for tra vel

. Se t t h e t appe ts o r d o gs to g ive t h e
.

d es ire d le ngt h of s t ro k e ; t h is s ho uld b e abo u t 4 lo nge r t han t h e

out . I n t h e e x t re me fo rward po s it io n g ive abo ut 4 o v e r t rav e l .

6 A dj us t th e feed A djus t th e fee d me chan is m

. . c o ars e or -

fi n e a s t h e wo rk in hand d e mand s — t ak ing ca re t ha t t h e fee d

m o v e m e n t o ccurs during t h e re t urn s t ro ke .

7 P ull over by ha nd W it h a ll o f t h e adjus t m e n ts mad e and

. .

t h e t oo l in its p o s it io n o v e r o ne edge o f t h e wo rk pull o ve r by ,

hand to as c e rta in t h eir c o rre c t ness .

8 S ta rt th e m a ch ine
. St art t h e mach ine and fee d t h e too l
.

do wn by hand until t h e des ired d e pt h o f cut is o b t aine d .

9. Th row i n the feed Thro w in t h e au to ma t ic fee d and wat ch

.

t h e wo rk care fu lly to d e te c t any irre gu larit y in th e wo rk ing o f

t h e mach in e Be re ady t o t ak e advan t age o f e ve ry o ppo rt un it y
.

t o s av e t im e .
 CH APTER X III
MI LLI NG
MI LL I N G MA C H I N E S
1 3 1 1 .Ordina ry T ype s .A n y mach in e t ha t , wh ile h o ld ing t h e
wo rk , o pe ra te s up o n it w it h a re vo lv ing cut t e r o r m ill, may b e

te rme d a m illing machine T h e t hree c o mmo n t ypes of m illing

.

m ach in e s a re t h e p la in t h e v e rt ica l and t h e un ive rs a l

,
.

1 31 2 Plain Millin g Ma chin e s

. .P la in m illing mach ines a re
d es igne d fo r fin is h ing s u rfac es t h a t may b e fed to t h e cutte r in
a s t ra igh t lin e . Th e y a re us ua lly arrange d s o t hat t h e w o rk m a y
be fe d to t h e t o o l ve rt ically and in t wo h o riz o n tal d ire c t io ns a t
righ t a ngle s t o e a ch o th e r I n t h is t ype of mach in e t h e s p ind le
.

a n d t h e a x is o f ro t a t io n o f t h e cu t t e r a re g e n e ra lly h o riz o n t a l.

1 31 3 Ve rtica l Millin g Ma chin e s Vertica l m illing m ach ines

. .

a re s o d es igna t e d b e c a u s e t h e s p ind le and t h e ax is o f ro t at io n o f

t h e cu tt e r a re ve rtical . Su c h mach in es u s ua lly hav e in add itio n

,

t o t h e v e rt ica l a n d t wo h o riz o n t a l fee d s o f t h e p la in m illing

m a ch ine a m e t h o d o f re vo lv ing t he wo rk in a h o rizo n tal plane
,

f or fin is h ing c ircu lar s u rfa ce s .

1 31 4 H o rizon ta l Millin g Ma chin e s a n d Rota ry Pla n e rs

. .

H o rizo n t a l m illin g m a c h in es a re ge n e ra lly bu ilt fo r h e avy s t ra igh t

wo rk and re s e mb le in a wa y t h e c o nve n t io n a l p lan e r w it h its
dee p b e d and lo ng pla t e n o r ta b le a n d its chara c t e ris t ic h o us ings ;
h o we ve r t h es e ma c h in e s p a rt a k e o f t h e id e as o f t h e ir o rig ina t o rs
,

a n d t o t ha t e x t e n t a re m a d e in w id e ly vary in g s hape s and d e

s ig n s a c c o rd ing t o t h e c la s s o f w o rk t h e v a re t o pe rf o rm
, Th es e
.

ma c h ines ge ne ra lly hav e t wo t hree o r fo ur s p ind les e a ch o f

, ,

w h ich carrie s its o wn m ill and is ind e p e nd e n t in adjus t m e n t .

A s t h e c o ns t ruc t io n wo u ld ind ica te in m o s t ins t a n c es t h e t ab le

a n d w o rk a re m o vab le in o n e d ire c t io n o n ly t h e m ills o pe ra t ing

”
,

s imu lt an e o u s ly o n t h e s e v e ra l s u rfac e s o f t h e wo rk . I n a t yp ica l

m a c h in e t h e tab le h a s a qu ick po we r mo ve me nt o f 2 0 fee t pe r
m inu te and is e qu ippe d w it h p o we r fee d s o f fro m 1
"
to 1 2 in
e it h e r d ire c t io n pe r m inu t e
,
.
 ENG I NEE RI NG A ND S HO P P RAC TICE

F IG . 131 3 . B ro wn S h a rpe V e rt ica l Milling Ma ch ine .

 MI LLI NG 30 1

F IG . 1 3 1 4a . I ngerso ll Fo ur hea d H ori on ta l M illing Ma ch ine

- z .

T he rotary plan ing m a ch in es o n t he marke t a re a cc o rding to ,

de fin it io n n o t h ing m o re o r le ss t han a t ype of h o riz o n ta l m illing

,

ma ch ine T h e d ee p rig id b e d in s te ad o f c a rry ing t h e tab le

.
, , ,

c arrie s t h e cut te r h e ad a n in s e rt e d t o ot h m ill a n d its o pe ra

F IG . l 3 l 4b . Ne wto n Ro ta r y Pl
a ne r, M o to d
r- rive n .

in
t g m e c h a n is m T h e w o
. rk is g e n e r a lly s t a t io n a r y wh ile t h e ,

cu t te r h ea d wh ich is o fte n v e ry large (84 in d iame te r) is m o ve d

,
"

o v e r t h e s urf a c e o pe ra te d up o n .
30 2 ENG I NEE RING AN D S HO P P RACT I CE
1 3 1 5. U n iv e rsa l M illin g Ma c hin e s m illing m a. U n ive rs a l
ch in es a re ge n e ra lly e qu ipp e d wit h s uch
a varie t y o f at tachme n ts
t ha t t h e y can b e us e d f o r a lm o s t e ve ry c o nc e ivab le m illing o pe ra
t io n w it h in t h e capac it y o f t h e mach in e A n ind e x ing o r un iv e rs a l
.

d iv id ing h e ad is a lways furn is h e d wit h th e un ive rs a l mach ines .

T H E U NI V E RS A L MI LL E R A ND AT TA C H M E NT S

1 32 1 . F un ction s a nd Lim ita tion s .bee n s t ate d uni

As h a s ,

ve rs al m illing mach in es a re ge n e ra lly e qu ipped w it h s uch a

varie ty o f at t achme nts t hat t he y can b e us ed for almos t e ve ry
c o nc e ivable m illing o pe rat io n w it h in t h e capac it y of th e mach in e .

A s p e c ia l a t t achm e n t mak es it p os s ib le t o ro ta te t h e wo rk wh ile

it is be ing fe d lo ng it ud ina lly in a h o riz o n t a l d ire c t io n t h us pro ,

ducin g h e lica l o r s p ira l wo rk T h e h o riz o n t a l fee ds in add it io n

.
,

t o w o rk ing a t r igh t ang les t o e ach o t h e r can b e mad e to o pe ra te ,

a t any d e s ire d ang le w it h in t h e lim it s o f t h e mach in e T h e table .

m a y s o m e t im e s b e c o mple te ly re v o lve d t hro ugh 360 d e grees .

Re gard ing lim it a t io ns and e rro rs it may b e s ta te d t ha t w it h

,

t h e us e o f a s harp cu t t e r and a h igh grad e m illin g mach in e o p e ra

-

t in g und e r fav o rab le c o nd it io n s w o rk may b e t urn e d o ut w it h t h e

,

s m a ll lim it o f varia t io n o f o n e o n e t h o us and t h o f an inch

-
T he .

us ua l lim it wh ic h o bt a ins in t h e o rd inary m illing prac t ic e for

s uch ro ugh w o rk a s t h e s quare e nd s o f rea m e rs and t ap s and

t h e f a ces o f b o lt h e a d s and n ut s is a b o u t fo ur o n e t h o u s and t hs -

o f a n inch a n d fo r a fin e r c la s s o f w o rk s uch as t h e vario us parts

, ,

o f fi re arm s s e wing m a ch in e s and t y p e wr ite rs

, t h e parts a re ,

fin is h e d w it h in a lim it of varia t io n o f t wo one t ho us and t hs of an -

inch .

1 32 2 D e s c ription of Pa rt s
. A n advanc e d t yp e o f un ive rs a l
.

—
m illing m a ch ine th e Cin c inna ti h a s t h e fo llo w ing c o n s t ruc t io n
a n d p a rt s : A fra m e o r colum n t ha t s upp o rt s t h e mach in e t h e in ,

s ide o f wh ich is o f t e n u s e d a s a c lo s e t T h e s pin dle fo r ro ta t ing

.

t h e c utter a rbo r is h o llo w and h a s a t its fro n t e n da B ro wn S harp e

t a pe r h o le ; t h is e n do f t h e s p ind le is a ls o t hre a d e d t o re c e ive a un i
ve rs a l chu c k T h e s p ind le carries a cone p ulley wh ic h re c e ives its
.

m o t io n fro m a s im ila r c o n e o n a double s pe ed c o un te rs haft Many

-
.

m a c h in es a re e qu ippe d w it h bac k gea rs o pe ra t e d s im ila rly to t h os e

,

o f t h e o rd inary la t h e f o r incre as in g t h e nu m b e r o f s pe e d chang es

, .

T h e un ive rs a l chuck pro v id e d fi t s b o t h t h e s p in d le a n d t he

,

d iv iding h ea d a nd m a v b e us e d o n th e s p ind le for h old ing s t ra igh t

30 4 G EERING
EN I N A ND S H O P PRAC TI CE
s haft wh ich
,
h as on the o u te r
a det achab le c lut ch hand le
e nd .

Th e s addle is p lac ed o n to p of t h e knee and is o pe ra te d by t h e

t ra ns v e rs e s cre w in a line parallel t o t h e ax is of t h e main s p ind le .

Th e s wivel carria ge c ircular in fo rm o n to p of t he s add le

”
,

pro v ides a s ubs t antial s uppo rt for t he ta ble a t whate ve r angle it

may be plac ed ; t h is s wivel me mbe r is firmly bolted to t h e s add le
by me ans of eas ily acc es s ible T head bolts T he po we r for “
-
.

driving t he t able is o bta ined fro m a s mall c o ne pulle y o n t he

re ar e nd of t h e ma in s pindle F o r t h e s lo we r feed s t h is p ulle y
.
,

is c lut ch ed d ire c t ly to t h e s p ind le ; and fo r t h e fas te r feed s runs

lo os e on t h e s pind le Wh ile loose on t h e s p ind le t h is c o ne is
.

drive n by a gear arra nge m e n t which inc re as es t he rate of feed

be t wee n t wo and t hree t imes F o r t h is h eav ie r duty of rap id
.

fee d ing a h ighe r belt s peed is obta ine d By ra is ing t h e hand .

le ve r t h es e ge ars a re t hro wn o ut and a t t h e s ame t ime t h e c lut ch

”
o n t h e s ma ll c o n e pu lle y is e ngag e d w it h t h e c lu t ch o n t h e e n d o f

t h e s p ind le o r vice vers a

, E igh t changes of fee d varying fro m
.
,

00 4 to 0 70 t rave l of t h e t ab le t o o n e re vo lu t io n of t h e cutte r
"
. .

a re pro v id e d wh ile a p la te n e ar t h e fee d m e chan is m le v e r ind ica tes

,

t h e rat e a t wh ich t h e mach ine is fee d ing .

T h e rap id in t roduc t io n of h igh s pee d s t ee l cutte rs h a s re nd e re d

-

impe rat ive h igh e r and mo re p o we rfu l fee d me chan is m and m o s t

m illing mach ine s a re no w e qu ipped w it h pos itive feed d e vic es .

O n t h e mach ine b e in g d es cribe d t h e po s it ive fee d me chan is m

c o ns is ts es s e n tially of two parts an uppe r gea r box a t t h e rear
,

e n d of t h e s p ind le and a lo w e r ge ar b o x a t t h e re ar o f t h e c o lumn .

Thes e two a re c o nne c ted by m e an s of a ve rtica lly inc lin ed s h a ft .

T wo s pee ds a re imparte d t o t h is s haft fo r e v e ry s p ee d o f t h e

s p ind le by m e ans o f a s lid ing gea r in t h e uppe r b o x Th is s haft .

in t urn drives t wo feed gea rs in t h e lo w e r g ear b ox Thes e fee d .

ge ars drive t h e t wo n es ts o f cone gea rs whic h run lo os e on t h e ir

s haft ind e p e nd e n t o f o n e an ot h e r ; t h e larg e r fee d g e ar e ngag ing
,

t h e s ma lles t ge ar on o n e c o n e and t h e s ma lle r fee d g ear e ngag ing

t h e larges t ge ar o n t h e o t h e r c o ne t hus impart ing w ide ly d iff e re n t
,

s pee ds t o t h e t wo c o n es F ro m t h es e c o n es m o t io n is t ran s
.
,

m it te d t o t h e vario us fee d s cre ws t hro ugh an int e rme d iat e ge ar

, ,

wh ich is made to s lid e o n t h e s h a ft by m ean s of a ra ck and s ector ,

and plac e d in to c o rre c t pos it io n fo r e ngag ing any o ne o f th e c o ne

gears by me ans of t he le ve r wh ich ac tua tes t h e s e c to r T h e .

pos it io n of t h is le ve r a t any time ind ica tes t h e ra te a t wh ich

, ,
 MI LLI NG 30 5

the mach in e is feed ing in t h ous and t hs of an inch per re vo lut io n

, ,

o f t h e s p ind le by me ans of rais ed figures o n th e lever qua dra nt

, .

O n a No 1 ; U n ive rs al Ma ch ine t h e re a re 1 2 fee d changes : 0 0 5

. .
,

.00 8 0 1 1
, . 0 1 6 0 2 3 0 30
,
.
,
. 042 , 063 0 9 5
.
, . 1 36 , 1 9 0 and 2 53
.
, .
, .
,
. .

inch pe r re vo lu t io n of t h e s p ind le .

T h e lo we r le ve r hav ing bee n p lac e d in pos it io n t o o bt a in t h e ,

des ire d rate o f fee d t h e in te rmed iate ge ar is bro ught in to mes h

,

wit h t h e p ro pe r c o ne gear by t h e upper lever (o n lo we r gear b ox ) ,

wh ich mo ves t he e nt ire lo we r po rt io n of t h is me chan is m Th is .

is acc o mp lis h e d by m e a ns o f a h e lical groo ve in th e hub o f th e

le ve r wh ich e ngages a pin in t h e s lid e upo n wh ich a re m o unt e d ,

t h e lower lever s e c t o r ra c k and in t e rme d ia t e ge ar

, ,
I t is e v id e n t .

t hat t h is me chan is m mak es pos s ib le a larg e numbe r o f fe e d

s pee d s and t ha t t h e chang es t o s e cure a g ive n fee d can b e mad e

in t h e s h o rt s pac e o f time re qu ire d t o s h ift t h e le ve rs .

Th e m o t io n is t rans m it te d fro m t h e lo we r s ma ll fee d c o ne o r ,

t h e lo w e r ge ar b o x by me ans o f a unive rs al j oin te d te les c o pe

, ,

s haft t o t h e s tem gea r wh ich h as its b e aring in t h e back o f t h e kn e e ,

and t h e nc e t hro ugh a s pline d s haft to t h e cros s feed screw Th e -

.

d ire c t io n of t h e po we r fe ed is changed by o pe rat ing t he tum bler

g e a r t hr o ugh t h e crank T h e o p e ra t
. io n o f th e au t o ma t ic p o we r
cross -feed is a s follo ws : t he s pline d s haft h as a c lutch p inn ed to
its o u te r e nd for e nga g ing an ot h e r c lu t ch a tt ach e d to a p in io n
o pe rat ing t h e fee d s cre w T he cro ss fee d is o p e rate d by a hand
.
-

le ve r and may b e t hro wn o ut au to mat ica lly by me ans of t rip

dogs ; it may also b e o pe rate d by hand .

T h e mo t io n fo r fee d ing t h e t ab le is impart e d fro m t h e s am e

s p line d s haft as t ha t o pe ra t ing t h e cro ss fee d s c re w S lid ing o n -
.

it is a be ve l ge ar wh ich t ran s m its its m o t io n t hro ugh a ve rt ica l

s haft a p in io n and ge ar t o an o t h e r ve rt ical s haft c e n t ra lly lo ca t e d
,

w it h in th e carria ge O n th e uppe r e n d of t h is s haft a be vel

.

gear mes hes w it h a c o mpan io n gear o n t he le ad s cre w Th is .

ge ar is j o urna led in t he carria ge and h as c lut ch t ee t h fo r e ngaging

a fea t he re d c lut ch s lid ing o n and o pe ra ting th e le ad s cre w T h e
, .

hand le ve r e ngages and d is e ngages t h is c lu tch fo r s tarting and

'

s to pp ing t h e au to ma t ic t ab le fee d O n t h e fro n t o f t h e t able in

.
,

T s lo ts wedge s urfac e d t rip d ogs a re pro vid e d fo r uto mat ica lly
,
- a

dise ngag ing t h is fea t h e red c lutch T wo ha nd les o ne at each .

,

e nd o f t h e t ab le a re pro v id e d fo r fee d ing by h and

,
Th e hand le .

o n t h e le f t e n d o f t h e t ab le is us e d fo r fi n e fe e d ing ; t h e o n e o n t h e
306 ENG I NEE RING AND S HO P PRACTICE
righ t e nd a c lu t ch crank is use d for rap id feed ing and quick
, ,

re t urn This c lut ch crank is als o us ed o n t h e s haft c o n t ro lling

.

t h e ve rt ica l m o tio n of t h e kn ee A ll a dj us tm ent s i ndicated on .

,

the dia ls , a re in th ous a ndth s f

o an inch .

1 32
3 . Th e U nive rsa l Dividing H ea d un iv e r s a l d iv id ing . T he
h e ad find s its gre ates t us e in th e d iv is io n of th e c ircumfe renc e of
cylindrical wo rk into a larg e range of e qual part s I t is als o .

us ed fo r h elical (s p iral) wo rk s uch as t w is t drills s p ira l t ee t h o n

, ,

cylindrical and c o nical m illing cutte rs ; als o t he teet h of s p ira l s pur ,

and be vel gea rs .

N ote I t is t o b e d e plo red t ha t t h e w o rd s h e lix and s p iral

.

a re s yn o ny m o us t e r m s t o many me chan ic s G ro o ves and gear .

t ee t h t hat a re in re a lit y h e lica l a re e rro n eo u s ly te rme d s p ira l

, ,
.

I n acc o rdanc e w it h t h e ma t h e mat ica l de fin it io ns o f t h e t erms ,

t h e m os t fam iliar e xample of a h elix is a s cre w t hre ad ; o f a pla in

s p ira l a c lo ck s pr ing ; of a c o n ica l s p ira l a c o n ical b e d s pring
, ,
.

By c o mm o n acc e p tanc e t h e w o rd s p ira l wh e n app lie d t o m illing

, ,

o pe ra t io ns g e ar t ee t h and cutte rs
, mea ns he lical ,
.

Th is d ivid ing head is an att ac h me n t s o d es igned t hat wh ile ,

h o ld ing th e wo rk it w ill rot ate it t hro ugh any des ired angle o r
,

f rac t io n of a re vo lu tio n An e xample will b e fo und in t he ro ta

.

t io n o f a ge ar b lank t hro ugh an ang le c orres po nd ing t o t h e p it ch ;

t hus is t h e blank m o ved fo rward s o t hat t h e cut t e r may form a
ne w t oo t h W he n cutt ing s p ira ls s u it able ge ars m o unt ed o n a
.
,

s e gme n t pla te a re a tt ach e d fro m t h e le ad s cre w to t h e d ivid ing

,

he ad fo r rot a ting t h e d iv id ing he ad s p ind le T wo to ngues in the .

bas e o f the he ad h o us ing fi t in t h e T s lo t of the table to wh ich

it is bo lted That t h e s pind le may b e inc line d a t any d es ired
.

angle it is carried o n a s wiveling blo ck fi tted in th e h ous ing

,
.

T h e s am e arb o r and chuck wh ic h fi t t h e ma in s p ind le w ill fi t

t h e h e ad s p ind le wh ich is lik e w is e h ollo w
,
T h e h e ad s p ind le can .

b e firm ly lo cke d during t he cu tt ing o pe rat io n s t hu s re lie ving t h e ,

wo rm wo rm whee l and ind e x po inte r o f a ll s tra in F o rmed o n

, .

t h is h e ad s p ind le is a w o rm ge ar hav in g 40 te e t h wh ich arrang e ,

me nt nec es s itat es for o ne re vo lut io n o f t h e s p ind le 40 c o mplete

, ,

re vo lut io ns o f t h e ind e x po in te r s h a ft wh ich is us ed in c o nn e c t io n ,

w it h an ind e x plate a s e c t or and a po in te r fo r d ivid ing th e

, ,

wo rk Thus o ne t urn o f t h e cran k o n t h e ind ex p o in te r s haft

.

gives 31 5 o f a re vo lution of th e s p ind le ; t wo t urns 9 16 ; fo ur t urns , ,

1
1 5, e t c F o r o t
. h e r d iv is io n s t h e ind e x p la t e o v e r ,
wh ich t h e ,
30 8 ENG I NEERING AN D S HO P PRACTICE
1 342 . I n dex many
D rum mach. in es t In
o fac ilit a t e t h e ,

d iv id ing of t h e wo rk in to parts less t han 40 and to admit of ,

s t a rt ing t h e d iv is io ns a t any d e s ire d po in t aft e r t h e w o rk h as

be e n s e t an inde x drum adjus t ab le o n and bo lted to t he s pind le

, , ,

is o f te n us ed .

1 32 5 Tail-s to ck
. T h e t a il s t oc k furn is h ed w it h t h e mach ine
.
-

may b e brie fly d es cribed as fo llo ws : I t is fas te n ed to th e tab le in

t he s ame mann e r a s is t h e d iv id ing h e ad and c a rrie s t wo c e n te rs
wh ich a re adjus t able ve rt ically and lo ng it ud inally by s pe c ial
adj us t ing kno bs Clamp ing bo lts a re pro v id e d for ho ld ing t h e
.

c e n te rs firm ly in po s itio n aft e r t h e y have bee n s e t O ne ce nte r .

h a s t h e t o p m illed o ff to a llo w s ma ll w o rk s uch as t aps and ,

reame rs to be m ille d ; t h e o t he r e n d is lef t as full a s pos s ible fo r

,

he avy wo rk Th e change fro m o ne c e n te r to t he ot h e r is eas ily

.

e ff e c ted .

1 32 6 Ra is ing Blo ck
. F o r s pe c ial wo rk ge ne ra lly chucked
.
,

o n t h e h e ad it is s o m et im es re qu ired t ha t t h e ax is o f t h e h e ad
,

”
s p ind le b e a t an ang le in a h o riz o n t a l p lan e t o t h e lin e o f m o t io n
, ,

of t h e t ab le F or s uch cas e s a ra is ing b lo ck a p la t e hav ing t wo

.
,
“
T s lots a t righ t angles to e ach o t h e r is us ed Th is b lo ck is , .

bo lted to th e t able s o t hat o ne o f its T s lo ts fo rms t h e d es ired

angle and in t h is s lo t t he h e ad is bo lte d
,
.

1 32 7 Swive l Vis e
. F o r h o ld ing a c e rta in c las s of s ma ll w o rk
.
,

a s wive l o r m illing mach ine v is e is us e d Th is v is e is s o arran ge d .

t hat it can b e ro t a ted and c lampe d in any d e s ire d p os it io n o n

t h e t ab le .

1 32 8 Stea dy Re s t a n d Oth e r Atta ch m en ts

. T o p re ve n t .

s pring ing and cha t t e ring in s uch t h in and s le nd e r w o rk as is

h e ld b et wee n t h e c e nte rs a s te ady o r c e nte r res t is pro vid ed
,
.

T h e o il tank and drip cup s h o u ld a lways b e pro pe r ly adjus te d

and us e d fo r a ll m illing o pe rat io ns in wro ugh t iro n and s tee l .

T h e o t h e r m illing a tt achme n ts n o t furn is h ed w it h t h e ma ,

ch ine b ut wh ich m a y be purchas e d a re t h e c ircular or rot ary

, ,

at tachme nt t he ve rt ical milling a ttach m e n t t h e pro fi ling o r cam

, ,

c utt ing att achme n t t h e rack cu tting at tachment th e h igh s pe e d

,
-
,
-

at tach m e nt and th e s lo tting attachme n t .

1 32 9 Ch a ra cte ris ti c O pe ra tion s

. I t is impo rt an t to und e r . .

s t and t h e f o llo w ing o p e ra t io n s and adj us t m e n ts of t h e m illing

mach ine befo re s tart ing to wo rk

1 .H o w t o adj us t t h e w o rk in its re la t io n to t h e c utte r s o
 M I LLI NG
t hat wh e n pos s ible a ll t h e milling o pe rat io ns may b e pe rfo rme d
, ,

upo n it w it h o ut d is t urb ing t h is adj us t me nt whet he r it b e place d ,

be t wee n cen te rs o n t h e table in t he vis e o r in t h e chuck

, , .

2 . H o w t o s e le c t and as s e mb le th e pro p e r cu t te rs and arbo rs .

Th e ca re and t h o ugh t e xpe nded h e re is s ure t o be fru itful .

3 T h e ca lcu lat io n and adjus t m e n ts o f t h e be lts a n d ge ars

.

t o s e cure t h e pro pe r cu tt ing s pee d s and fee ds .

4 T h e means by wh ich t h e vario us mo t io ns o f t he t able a re

.

e ffe c t ed .

5 T he m et h o d of ra is ing and lo we ring t h e s add le and t h e

.

me ans o f c o n t ro lling t h e mo ve m e n t o f th e table .

6 H o w to re ve rs e t h e d ire c t io n of t h e fee d and th e m e th o d

.

of in s t an tly s t o pp ing it .

7 T he m e t h o d of d e te rm in ing by me an s o f t h e vario us d ia ls
.
, ,

jus t t ha t re lat io n of th e wo rk to th e cu t te r t hat w ill ins ure its

o pe rat ing wh e re d e s ire d .

8 A fundam e n t a l kn o w le dg e o f t h e princ ip le inv o lve d in th e

.

me t h o d o f div id ing with th e d ivid ing he ad us ing e it he r t he d ia l ,

o r in d e x dru m .

9 . H o w to mak e t h e n e c es s ary ge ar ca lc u la t io n s and adjus t

men ts fo r t he vario us k inds of he lica l o r s piral m illing .

1 0 T h e us e of t h e ra is ing blo ck s w iv e l v is e and s te ady res t

.
, .

MI LLI N G
1 33 1 . P re pa ra tion of th e W o rk
cas e in t he o t he r
. As was t h e
mach in ing o pe rat io ns be fo re plac ing m illing wo rk in th e mach ine
in its pro pe r re lat io n t o t h e cu t t e r it s h o uld b e la id o ut t o t h e
,

dra wing in acc o rdanc e w ith t he ins t ruc t io ns give n in S ec s 7 1 1 .

and 7 1 2 Cha pte r V I I Of t he varied s t o ck wh ich c o mes to be

,
.

o pe ra t e d upo n in t h e m illin g mach ine una nne a le d to o l s tee l is ,

lik e ly t o g ive t h e m o s t t ro ub le o n acc o un t of its lia b ilit y of be ing

e it h e r ha rd in s po t s o r a ll o ve r F o rg in gs t oo ofte n o ff e nd in
.
, ,

t h is ma n n e r t h e hardn es s in any cas e res u lt in g in a rap id du ll

,

ing o f t h e cu tte r Bo t h iro n and s t e e l cas t ings us ua lly poss es s

.

a t h in s k in o r s ca le wh ich bec a us e o f its hardn es s and imbe dd e d

,

pa rt ic les of s and mus t b e re m o ve d be fo re a m ill can o pe rate

,

s ucc es s fully up o n it T h e acc e p te d m e th o d o f re m o v ing hard

.

s po t s fro m to o l s t ee ls is by ann e a ling S c a le may b e re m o ve d .

t o le rab ly w e ll by t umbling t h e s ma lle r cas t in gs in a fo undry ra t

tle r
. A be tt e r me t h o d and o n e a dap t e d t o large r cas t ings and
,
3 10 ENG INEE RING A ND S HO P PRACTICE
s caly fo rg ings as we ll is to p ick le th e c as tings the pro cess of
, ,

pick ling be ing as fo llo ws : t h e p ie c es s o trea te d a re was h ed w ith ,

o r im m e rs e d in a s olu tio n o f 1 part of c o mme rc ial s ulphuric

,

ac id to fro m 4 to 1 0 parts o f wate r Afte r t he ac id h as had .

t ime t o a c t te n t o fiftee n m inut es t h e p ie c es a re t h o ro ugh ly

was hed in c lean bo iling wate r to re move a ll t rac es of t h e ac id ,

which wo u ld o the rw is e caus e t he m to rus t rap id ly T h e crum

‘

bling s ca le w ill no w be fo und to b e eas ily re mo ve d by me ans of

w ire brus hes and old fi les If afte r p ick ling t h e p ie c es a re s till
.
, ,

too hard t h e y s h o u ld be h e a ted to a du ll red h e a t and a llo we d

,

t o c ool s lo w ly t h is ann e a ling pro c e ss te nd ing in add it io n t o

, ,

s o f te n ing t h e p ie c e to re le a s e any s hrink ing and w o rk ing s t ra in s

,

t hat a re inh e re n t in it .

1 332 Nom en cla ture

.
— T e rm s an dOpe ra tion s D efi n e d W h e n .

me tal is re mo ve d by me an s o f a cu tting t ool ro ta ting abo u t its

ax is and having o ne o r mo re cut ting edges t h e o pe ratio n is ,

te rme d m illing and t h e cu t t ing t o o l is ca lled a m ill o r cu tte r .

O rd inary m illing o pe ra t io n s adm it of t h e f o llo wing c las s ificat io n

F a ce m ill ing mach in ing a plane s urface para lle l to t h e ax is o f
ro ta tio n o f t h e cutte r ; s ide m illi ng mach ining a plane s u rface
pe rpe nd icu la r to t he ax is of ro t at io n of t h e cutte r ; a ngula r m ill
i ng t h e mach in ing o f a p la ne s u rfac e a t an a ng le t o t h e ax is

”
o f r ot a t io n o f t h e cu t te r ; fo rm m illin t h mach in ing f irregu
g e o

la r o r curve d s u rfac es hav ing a pro fi le s im ilar to t ha t of a cros s

se c t o n o f t h e cu t te r ; groo vi n g
i — t h e mak ing of s t ra igh t T ,
“
,

irregu lar o r h e lical s lo ts o r gro o ves ; profiling refe rring to s uch

m illing o pe rat io ns as re qu ire th e us e o f a te mple t fo r guid ing the
w o rk in any des ire d d ire c t io n ; ro uting refe rring to s uch mill
ing o pe ra t io ns as requ ire t hat t h e w o rk o r t h e t o o l b e fe d by
h a nd .

1 33 3 I n fluen ce of Cutte r Dia m e te rs

. T h e d iam e te r o f t h e
.

m illing cu t te r s h o u ld be a s s ma ll a s t h e s t re n gt h and c o nve n ie nc e

will pe rm it If it b e d es ire d to re m o ve t h e amo un t o f s t o ck

.
,

1 2 3 4 by o ne o f t h e t wo cu t te rs s h o wn in F ig 1 3 33 it is
, , , , .
,

o bv io u s t h a t t h e large cut t e r L C mus t t rave l t h e d is ta nc e X

during t h e o pe ra t io n wh ile t he s m a ll cu tte r S C trave ls t hro ugh

,

t h e d is t a n ce Y in pe rfo rm in g t h e s am e o p e ra t io n ; t h e s ma ll
cu tte r t h us e ffe c t ing a s a v ing in t ime e qu iva le n t t o t h e ratio
wh ic h Z be a rs t o X I f t h e le ngt h o f t he cut b e s h o rt t h e d is ta nce
.
,

Z t h e p e rce n t age sa v e d fo rm s n o in co ns id e ra b le po rt io n o f X
, , ,
31 2 G EERI NG
EN IN AN D S HO P PRACT I CE
th e cutte r w ith its t e nd e ncy to ret ard t h e feed reduces t o a
, ,

m inimum th e dange r r es ulting fro m t h e drawing ac tio n of t he

ligh te r c ut with t h e cu t te r .

1 33 7 Cuttin g A ction of Fa ce Side a n dEn d Mills

. Co n t ras t
, .

ing t h e ac t io n o f fac e s id e and e n d m ills we find t hat t h e te n

, ,

de n e y to s pring and d is t o rt t h e wo rk is gre a te r w it h t h e fac e

cu tte r t h o ugh th e pres s ure is largely d o wn or a t r igh t angles to
,

t h e c ut wh ile w it h t h e s id e and e n d m ills t h e gre at es t pres s ure is

,

in t h e d ire c t io n of t h e fe e d F ac e m ills pro duc e s mo o t h e r s ur

.

fac es and re qu ire less care and g rind ing to k ee p t he m in goo d

c o nditio n .

1 33 8 Swivel Vis e A dj us tm en ts
. W h e n n o ze ro m ark is .

plac e d o n t h e bas e of t h e v is e it may b e adj us te d t o ze ro by ,

plac ing be t wee n t h e c e nt e rs a t rue cylindrical piec e o f wo rk and ,

adjus t ing th e v is e s o t hat th e e n tire le ngt h of t h e jaw res ts a gains t

t h e wo rk By t h e us e o f t h e t ry s quare w it h t h e be am aga ins t
.
,

t h e w o rk and t h e b lad e aga in s t t h e ins ide o f t h e jaw a righ t ,

angle to t he firs t s e t ting is o bta ine d Ca ution F o r t h es e o pe ra . .

t io ns care s h o u ld b e t ak e n t o s ee t ha t t h e t ab le is s e t a t th e ze ro
mark o n t h e s wive l carriage .

1 33 9 O rde r of O pe ra tion s
. O bs e rv e t h e fo llo w ing o rde r o f
.

pro c edure wh e n o pe ra ting t h e m illing mach in e fo r p la in milling

o pe ra t io ns

1. A dj us t th e work A djus t t h e wo rk be t wee n t h e c e nte rs o n

.
,

t h e tab le in t h e v is e o r in t h e chuck us ing t hat f o rm o f d e v ic e

, , ,

fo r h o ld ing it wh ich s ee ms afte r due c o n s id e rat io n t o b e t h e bes t

, ,
.

Mak e s ure t hat t h e wo rk is immo vab le and se cure ly fas te ne d ,

and if be t wee n c e nt e rs t hat t h e tail of t he do g is c lampe d wit h

,

t he s e t s cre w and a ls o t ha t t h e t a il c e n t e r c lamp ing bo lts a re

,

t igh te n e d I f t he w o rk b e he ld in t h e chuck a llo w t ha t p o rt io n

.
,

to b e m ille d t o pro j e c t away fro m t h e jaws .

2. S elect c utter Se le c t t hat m illing cut te r bes t adap te d as

.
,

t o k ind and d iame t e r fo r t h e w o rk in hand

,
P lac e it o n t h e arbo r .

a s c lo s e to t he s p ind le as po s s ib le and s o t ha t wh e n runn ing ,

n o rm a lly t h e t ee t h c ut d
,
own Be fo re ass e mb ling t h e arbo r c o llet
.
, ,

o r s o ck e t cu tt e rs b us h ings and be arings s h o u ld b e w ipe d dry w it h

, ,

c le an was te I ns e rt t h e arb o r in t h e s p ind le o il t h e o ute r e n d

.
,

and adjus t it in t h e o ve rhang ing arm c lamp ing t h e arm whe n in ,

pos it io n .

3 A dj us t ta ble a nd ca rria ge
. I n o rd e r t o bring t h e w o rk int o
.
 MI LLING 31 3

its pro pe r relatio n wit h t he cutte r adjus t the t able and t h e ,

carriage so t hat t he wo rk fee ds a gains t t he cutte r i e t he wo rk , . .

,

t o t h e righ t o f t h e cu tt e r whe n t h e la tt e r is rot at ing t o t h e left

F
( gi T .o av o id acc id e n t o r irre gu lar it y w it h t h e c ut t ak e ,

up a ll back las h of t h e le ad and cro ss fee d s cre ws As a ll t he

- - .

adj us t me nts are give n on t h e d ia ls in t ho usa nd t hs of an inch we

'

m a y us e t he m in s o me in s t anc es a t leas t for d ete rmin ing a p

, ,

F IC . 1 339 .

pro x imate dimens io ns and c ut d e pt hs I n wo rk ing fro m t h e ce n .

t e r t h e tab le is adjus t e d un t il t h e cu t t e r o r t h e s id e o f t h e
, ,

cutte r is c e nt ral ; in t h is pos itio n th e po in ter is se t to t he z e ro o n

,

t h e d ia l wh e n t h e s cre w is t urned a d is t anc e e qua l t o ha lf t h e

,

w id t h of the p ie c e As t h is met ho d o f se tt ing is s o mewhat inac

.

curate it is bet te r to e rr on t h e s afe s ide and to che ck a ll me as

,

ure m e nt s w it h t h e s ca le .

4 D eterm in e s peeda ndfeed A fte r hav ing s e le c te d t h e pro pe r

. .

s pee d and fee d by ca lcu la t io n o r fro m t h e t ables in Se c s 4 2 4 .

,

4 2 8 and 4 2 9 Chapte r I V wh ich d e a l w it h m illing s pe e ds and fee d s

, , ,

adjus t bo t h t he driv ing and fee d ing be lts o r feed b o x .

5 A dj us t th e s to p
. Adjus t t h e t rip dog o r s to p s o as t o dis
.

e ngag e t h e aut o ma t ic fee d be fo re t h e cut t e r m ee t s any o bs t ruc t io n ,

i . e .
,
at t he en d of t h e c ut .

6 .
f
A scerta in n
correctn es se c e s soary lo
a w e r
dj us tm ents . If ,

t h e knee and run t h e wo rk pas t t h e cu tt e r bo t h t o d e t e rm in e t h e ,

c o rrec t ness of t h e adjus t me nts and to s ee whe t h e r any o bs t ruc t io n

t o t h e out w ill be m e t w it h dur ing t h e o pe ra t io n If t h is b e .

d o ne t he wo rk mus t b e bro ugh t back to its o rig ina l pos itio n t he ,

knee raise d and a ll back las h t ak e n up .

7 P ull over by ha nd Wit h a ll adjus t me n ts mad e pull o ve r

. .
,

by hand to as c ert ain their c o rrec tness and to avoid bre akage .
31 4 ENGI NEE RI NG A ND S H O P PRACT ICE
8 . D eterm ine cut depth . De te rm ine th e d e pt h of a
t h e tri l cut
by m ea s urem ent .

9 A dj us t drip pa n a nd oil ta n k
. F o r wrought i ron or s tee l .

adj us t the oil t ube o ve r th e cutt ing s id e o f t he m ill and p lac e t he

drip pan wh e re it will cat ch t he was te o il and ch ips ; lard o il
s h o u ld b e us e d O pe n t h e o il va lve to a bo ut t h irt y d ro ps per
.

m inu te F lo o d ing is gen e ra lly be ne fic ia l

. .

1 0 S ta rt th e m a ch in e
. D o n o t fee d by hand as any carele ss
.
,

nes s may res ult in pus h ing t h e w o rk in d e eply be t wee n two

adjac e nt cutt e r tee t h wit h t h e re s ult t ha t th e wo rk will be s po iled ,

t h e cut t e r bro k e n o r bo t h ,
.

11 Th row in th e feed Thro w in t h e auto ma t ic fe e d and allo w

. .

t h e w o rk t o fe e d up t o t h e cu tt e r ; wa t ch t h e w o rk care fu lly t o
det e c t any irre gularit y in th e wo rk ing o f th e m a ch ine Be re ady .

to t ak e advan t age o f e ve ry o pp o rt un it y t o s a ve t im e .

E X A MP LE S or MI LLI N G
1 3 4 1 . Fa ce Milling . F igs . 1 34 1 a and b illus t ra te th e o rd inary
m e t h o ds of milling he xago n nu ts o r b o lt h e ad s . In t h e firs t

FI G . I 34 h F IG .
1 34 1:
1

F GS
I . l 34l a , b . F a ce M illi ng N ut an d B o lt H ea ds .

illus t ra t io n a face m ill is us ed a n d o ne s urfa c e is fin is he d a t a ,

t ime . T h e s t radd le m ills o r cu tt e rs in t h e o t h e r e xamp le a re

s id e m ills arrange d for fi n is h ing t wo s id e s a t o n e o p e ra t io n In .

e it h e r cas e a numbe r o f nu ts may b e s t rung o n an arbo r o r man

drel and a ll fin is h ed a t o ne t ime .

F ig 1 34 1 c illus t rat es t h e m e t h o d of m illin g a numbe r of

.

s ma ll p ie c es a n d accura t e ly fin is h ing t h e s id e s and bo tt o m a t

”
o n e o pe r a t io n .

1 3 42 Slot Millin g
. F ig 1 34 2 a illus t rate s th e fin a l o pe ra t io n
. .

in t h e m illing o f a T s lo t t h e pre lim in a ry o pe ra t io n c o n s is t ing

“
,

in t h e re m o va l o f a ll me ta l po s s ib le by m e an s o f a fac e cu tt e r ,

I f a face cut te r canno t b e us e d t o advan t age t h e s t o ck may b e ,

31 6 ENG I N EERI NG AN D S H O P P RACTICE

FIG . l 3 42 b . M illing D ov
e ta il S lots .
 MI LLI NG 31 7

re mo ved w it h an e n d m ill wh o s e d iamete r is so me what s malle r

,

t han t h e w id t h of t h e s lo t

”
.

F ig 1 342 b illus t ra tes th e fina l o pe rat io n in t h e m illing of a

.

d o vet a il s lot th e prelim inary o pe rat io n be ing t h e s ame as t ha t

,

fo r m illing t h e T s lo t .

1 3 43 Bo rin g a n d F a cin g
. F ig 1 34 3a illus t rat es t h e met h o d
. .

o f m illing t h e be aring of an e ng in e fin is h in g bo t h t h e s ides and

,

t h e b ot to m a t o n e o pe rat io n T h e figure is s ugges t ive o f t h e

.

variet y of wo rk t hat may b e pe rfo rme d o n a m illing mach ine w it h

o n e chuck ing and cut .

F ig 1 343b is s ugges t ive o f t h e var io us b o ring fac ing and

.
,

m illing o pe ratio ns wh ich may b e pe rfo rme d to advan tage by

e it h e r b o lt ing t h e w o rk t o t h e t ab le h old ing it in th e vis e or ,

be twee n t he ce n te rs F o r lo ng h o les it is we ll t o s uppo rt t h e

.

o u te r e n d of t h e b o ring bar a rbo r in t h e o ve rhang ing arm It .

may b e n ote d fro m t h is s ugges t io n t ha t by us ing t h e ve rt ical and

lat e ral adjus t me n ts wo rk may b e re ad ily and s pee d ily s e t in
,

any des ire d pos itio n fo r bo ring para lle l holes I n a ll s e tt ings of .

t h e t able care s h o u ld be t ak e n t o e lim ina te a ll e rro rs t ha t m igh t

,

b e due t o back las h in t h e vario us adjus t ing s cre ws I n t h is .

o p e ra t io n a t w is t drill or re am e r may advan t ageo us ly t ak e t h e

p lac e of a cutte r o r bo ring bar .

1 3 44 K e y s ea tin g a n d F lutin g
.
- F ig l 3 44a illus t rates t h e
. .

met hod o f milling s e ve ra l key se ats w it h a s ingle pie c e t h is may

-

b e d o n e by h o ld ing t h e s haft in a vise or be t wee n t h e ce n te rs .

F ig 1 344b illu s t ra tes t h e m e t h o d o f fluting cu t t ers t aps and

.
,

re ame rs I n th e cas e of t ape red wo rk th e t ail c e nte r is ra ise d

.

e n o ugh t o g ive t h e pro pe r d e p t h of c ut a t each e n d o f t h e flu te s .

1 3 45 . G ea r Cutting, S e gm en t an d Spot F in ish ing. F ig .

1 344 b is a ls o illus t rat ive me t h o d of cutting a ge ar o r numbe r

of th e
o f ge ars ; wh e n t wo o r m o re gea rs a re to b e cut t h e y a re s t rung

o n a n arb o r o r mandrel and p lac e d be t wee n t h e c e n t e rs t he ,

t ab le hav in g pre v io us ly bee n adjus te d s o t hat t h e c e n t e r lin e of

t h e ge ar b lank s is d ire c t ly und e rne a t h t h e c e n t e r lin e o f t h e
cu tt e r T h e d ivid ing h ead is t h e n adjus te d to give t h e c o rre c t
.

numbe r of div is io ns and the table ra is e d un til t h e cut te r jus t

t o uch e s t h e rim of t h e ge ar blank Se t t h e gradua te d d ial o n
.

t h e e le va t ing s c re w t o z e ro run t h e b lank s o ut fro m und e r t h e

,

cutte r to t he pro pe r s id e and ra is e th e t able an amo un t e qua l to

t he re qu ire d d e p t h o f t oo t h (t h is la t te r is ge n e ra lly mark e d o n
31 8 EN IN G EERI NG AND S HO P P RACTI CE

F IG . 1 3 43a . F a ce a n d S ide Milling E ngi e Beari

n ngs .

F IG . 1 3 43 b . B o ring a n d F a c ing O pe ra t io ns .
32 0 E NG I NEE RING A ND S H O P PRACT I CE

F IG . 1 3 45 a . M illi ng Clut ch Tee t h .

the cut te r) By bringing t h e ind e x o r d iv id ing h ead s p ind le

.

in to a ve rt ical po s it io n we have a me ans wh e re by s pur gea rs

, ,

and wo rk too large to b e s wung be t we e n t he c e n t e rs may b e ,

o pe ra te d upo n . T h e b lanks a re carrie d o n a v e rt ica l arbo r in

s e rte d in t h e s p ind le ; t h is p lac ing o f t h e b lank s in a h o riz o n t a l

po s itio n ne c es s it ates t he d e t e rm ina t io n o f t h e too t h d e p t h by

mea ns o f t h e le ad s cre w and o f t h e w o rk b e ing fed by t h e ve rt ical
,

fee d o r e le va t ing s cre w F ig l 345a illus t ra tes t he me t h o d of

. .

m illing c lut ch tee t h .

F ig 1 3 45 b illus t ra tes t he m e t h o d
.
— w it h a ve rt ic a l m illing
—
m a c h ine o f e nd and s ide m ill fi n is h ing a h o rizo n ta l p lane
-

s u rfac e and a v e rt ic a l s e gm e n t a t o n e o pe ra t io n .

F ig 1 3 45c illus t ra tes t h e m e t h o d

.
— w it h a ve rt ic a l m illing
—
mach in e of fin is h ing s po t s o n t he ins id e s u rfac e o f a fe e d
brack e t cas t ing w it h an e nd m ill T he s ame cut te r a ls o fin is hes
.

t h e upp e r e dge o f t h e cas t ing Th is g ives an e c o n o my o ve r

.

c o un te rbo ring o f te n to o ne .
 M I LLI NG 32 1

F IG . l 3 45 b . S e gm e n t Milling .

F IG . l 3 45o . S p tF
o a c ing
.
32 2 ENG I NEE RI NG A ND S HO P PRACTI CE
1 346 . H obb in g a W o rm W h e el rates th e
. F ig
. 1 3 46 illus t
me t ho d o f h o bb ing a w o r m whee l aft e r t he te e t h h a ve bee n
gas h ed Th e gas h ing o f t h e wo rm blank is acc o mp lis hed by
.

p lac ing it o n an arbo r be t wee n t h e c e n te rs and t re a t ing it as if

it wa s an o rd inary ge ar w it h t h e e xc e p t io ns t ha t s uch a gear
,

cu tte r b e s e le c te d a s to le ave jus t e n o ugh s to ck fo r t h e fin is h ing

c ut w it h t h e h o b ; and it is n e c e s s ary t o s w ive l t h e t ab le t hro ugh

F IG . 1 3 46a . H bbing W
o a o rm Wh ee l
.

an a ngle wh o s e m a g n it ude d e pe n ds upo n t h e p it c h a n d d iame te r

o f t h e wo r m O w ing t o t h e s h a pe o f th e fac e o f t h e wo rm gea r
.

it cann o t b e fe d t o th e cu t te r in a m a nn e r s im ilar t o th a t us e d
fo r s pur ge ar o pe ra tio n s b ut mus t b e fe d to t h e cu t te r t o t h e
-
,

d es ire d d e pt h a n d t he n dro ppe d and inde x e d fo r e ach s ucc eed ing

,

c ut . S w iv e l t h e t ab le t o t h e r igh t fo r a righ t hand e d wo r m -

F IG . 1 3 4G b .

t hre ad and to t h e le f t fo r t h e le ft h a nd ed th re ad F o r t he fina l

-
.

o p e ra t io n o f h o bb in g th e c a rr ia ge a n d t a b le a re bro ugh t back to

,

z e ro .T h e d e t e r m in a t io n o f t h e a ngle t h ro ugh w h ich t h e t ab le is

s w ive le d is a s f o llo ws : L a y o ff th e d is t a nc e A B e qu a l to t h e p it ch

and t h e d is t a n c e A C a t righ t a ngles to A B (F ig 1 346b) A C is . .

t h e re s u lt o b t a in e d by m u lt iply in g t h e pit c h d ia m e t e r o f th e wo r m
by Co nn e c t t h e po in ts C a n d B w ith a s t ra igh t lin e ; t h e n
t h e ang le A C B giv es t h e nu m be r o f d egre es t hro ugh wh ich t h e
t ab le m us t b e s w ive le d .
32 4 E NG I NEERI NG AND S HO P P RACTI CE
te e th s o cut a re s u ffic ie n tly e xac t fo r o rd inary purpos es th ough ,

be ing of b ut appro x ima te ly c o rre c t o u tline F o r a g ive n p it ch

.
,

in be v e l and m ite r ge ars t h e d e pt h and w id t h a t t h e o ute r e n d

,

of t h e t oo t h is t h e s am e as f o r s p ur ge a rs A s t h e c o nve rge nc e o f
.

t h e t ee t h re nde rs t h e inn e r e n d o f t h e t oo t h p o rt io n narro we r t h e,

cu tte rs fo r be ve l ge ars mus t b e t h inn e r t han fo r s pur ge ars ; he nce

th e fo re g o ing ru le fo r s e lec ting cut te rs of c o rre c t t h ickness .

F I G 1 3 47 b
. .

W it h nd e x po inte r s e t fo r t h e pro pe r numbe r o f tee th

t he i ,

t wo c e n t e r cu ts a re t ak e n ; t h e b lank is t h e n m o ve d o ff c e n t e r a
fe w t h o us and t hs of an inch (s a y 1 4, t h e t o o t h t h ickn ess ) and t h e
ind e x p o in te r advan c e d u n til t h e cu tt e r w ill e n te r t h e s ma ll e n d
o f o n e o f th e c e n t ra l cu t s
. T h e o bj e c t o f t h is la tt e r s e t t ing is t o
re m o ve s t o ck fro m t h e s id e of t h e to o t h t a k ing m o re a t t h e o u te r
,

en d th an a t t h e in n e r . T o t a k e t h e cut o n t h e o p po s it e s ide o f
t h e t o o th t h e b lank is m o ve d back d o ub le t h e am o un t it h a d
,
 MI LL I NG 32 5

bee n mo ved o ut and th e po in te r se t back t wic e t h e numbe r of

h o les it had bee n advanc ed If upo n m eas uring t h e t h ickness
.
,

o f th e toot h a t t h e o ut s id e it is fo und to b e m o re t han t h e u

, q o

t ie n t o bt a ine d by d iv id ing t h e c ircu m fe re nc e of t h e p it ch c irc le

by t wic e t he numbe r of tee t h t h e blank mus t b e s et farthe r o fl
,
'

c e nte r I t may b e well to s t ate t hat no e mp irical r ule e xis ts for

.

t h e s e se t t ings and t ha t t h e t o o t h mus t b e m e as ure d afte r e ach

,

t ria l s e t t ing is t ak e n A tte n t io n is ca lle d t o an A S M E pape r

. . . . .
,

Dece mbe r 1 8 9 6 in wh ich F o rres t R J o nes and A rt hur L G oddard

, ,
. .

re la te s o me e xpe rime n t a l inves t iga t io n s t o find a graph ica l me t h o d

o f d e te rm in ing th es e o pe ra t io n s Th is paper was pub lis hed in

.

t he A m eric a n M ach in is t o f January 2 1 1 89 7 H o we ve r afte r t h e

, .
,

pro pe r se tt ing for any pa rticular gear is b a d t h e c e nte r cut is ,

unne c es sa ry as t he too th may b e fin is hed by t he two s id e cuts

, .

A re c o rd of t he s uccess fu l s e t t ing s h o u ld a lways b e ke pt fo r

fut ure refe renc e F or a mo re co mple te d es crip tio n of t h e pro
.

c es s es of cut t ing be ve l ge ars th e s t ud e n t is refe rre d to th e Bro wn

S harpe Tre a tis es o n G e aring .

1 3 48 . H e lical G roo ving F ig 1 348a and 1 348b illus t ra te th e

. .

m et h od of cutt ing he lical groo ves s uch a s t h ose of t w is t drills o r

s p ira l m illing cu t t e rs I n t h is o pe ra t io n it is n e c es s ary t o impart
.

to t he wo rk ro ta ry m o t io n a s w e ll as lo ng it ud ina l ; t h is is a e c o m

p lis h e d by c o nn e c t ing t h e le ad s c re w w ith t h e d iv id ing h e ad

s p ind le by m e an s o f change ge ars A t ab le o f chang e ge a rs fo r
.

s p iral m illing is always furn is h e d w it h t h e mach in e T h e dis .

t anc e t h e h e lix (s p ira l) advanc es in o ne re v o lut io n is ca lle d t h e

le ad (p it ch ) . T h e fo llo w ing da t a a re re qu is ite be f o re wo rk o f
t h is charac t e r may b e und e rt ak e n : t h e le ad o r p it ch of t h e s pira l ,

t h e s p iral ang le and th e numbe r o f t ee t h o r groo ves t o b e c ut

, .

A fte r t h e wo rk is p lac e d b e t wee n t h e c e n te rs t h e change ge ar ,

-

t ab le is c o n s ult ed and t h e change ge ars adj us t ed ; t h e t ab le is

t he n s wung t hro ugh an ang le e qua l t o t ha t o f t h e s p ira l ang le .

Righ t hand e d s p ira ls re qu ire t ha t t h e ro t at io n of t h e d iv id ing

-

h e ad s pind le b e righ t handed and vice versa ; a change in th e

-

d ire c t io n o f ro t at io n be ing e ffe c ted by ins e rting o r o m it ting an

id le r ge ar in t h e change ge ar m e chan is m
- -
I n flu t ing t wis t dr ills
.

it is ne c es s ary to e le va te t h e po in t in o rd e r t ha t t h e we b be t wee n
t h e flutes may b e t h ick e r to ward t h e s hank as is t h e cas e in o rd i ,

nary prac t ic e .
32 6 E NG INEERI NG AND S HO P PRACTICE

F IG . l 3 48 a . M illi
ng a p
S ira l C ut te r
.
 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S H O P P RACTICE
D iame t ra l pitch of t h e ge ar is t h e numbe r o f tee t h to each
inch o f its p it ch d iame t e r I f a ge ar h as 40 tee t h and t h e p it ch
.

d iame te r is t h e re a re 1 0 t ee t h t o e ach inch o f t h e p it ch d iame te r ,

and t he d iam e t ra l pit ch is 1 0 o r in o t h e r wo rds t he gear is 1 0

,
‘

d iam et ral p it ch .

Circular p it ch is t h e d is t anc e fro m t h e c e n t e r o f on e t o o t h t o

t h e c e n t e r o f t h e ne x t t oo t h m e as ure d a lo ng t h e p it ch c irc le If

”
.
,

t h e d is t anc e fro m t h e c e n t e r o f o n e t o o t h t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e
ne xt too t h m e as ure d alo ng t h e pit ch c irc le is
,
t h e ge ar is ,

5 c ircu lar p it ch .

T h e d iame t ra l pit ch g ive n t o o bt a in th e c irc ular p it ch d iv ide

, ,

by th e d iame t ral p itch I f t h e d ia me t ral p it ch is 4

.
,

d ivid e by 4 and t h e quo t ie n t

,
is t h e c ircu lar pit ch
, .

T h e c ircu lar p it ch g ive n to o b t a in t h e d iam e t ral p it ch d ivid e

, ,

by t h e c ircu lar p it ch I f t h e c ircular p itch is

. d ivid e
by 2 and t h e q uo t ie n t is t h e d iam e t ra l p it ch
,
.

T h e n umbe r o f t ee t h and t h e diam e tral p it ch g ive n t o o b t a in ,

t h e p it ch d iam e t e r d iv id e t h e numbe r o f tee t h by t h e d iam e t ra l

,

p it ch I f t h e numbe r o f tee t h is 40 and t h e d iame t ra l p it ch 4

.
,

d ivide 40 by 4 and t h e quot ie n t 1 0 is t h e p it ch d iam e te r .

T h e n umbe r of t ee t h and t h e d iame t ra l pit e h g ive n t o o b t a in -

,

t h e wh o le d iam e te r o r s ize o f b lank o r ge ar add 2 t o t h e numbe r ,

o f t ee t h and d iv id e by t h e d iam e t ra l p it ch I f t h e numbe r of .

tee t h is 40 and t h e d iame t ral p it ch is 4 add 2 t o t h e 40 mak ing , ,

4 2 and d iv id e by 4 ; t h e qu o t ie n t 1 0 5 is t h e wh o le d iame te r o f
, , ,

t h e ge ar o r blank .

T h e numbe r o f t ee t h and t h e d iame t e r o f t h e b lank g ive n to ,

o b ta in th e d iam e t ra l p it ch add 2 t o t h e numbe r o f t ee t h and

, ,

d iv ide by t h e d iame te r o f t h e blank I f t h e numbe r o f tee t h is .

40 and t h e d iame t e r o f th e b la nk is
, ad d 2 to th e numb e r
o f tee t h ,
mak ing 42 a n d d ivid e by , t h e qu o t ie n t 4 is t h e , ,

d iame tral p itch .

T h e p it ch d iam e te r and t h e d iame t ral p it ch g iv e n t o o b t a in ,

t h e numbe r o f t e e t h mult ip ly t h e p it ch d iame te r by t h e d iam e t ra l

,

p itch I f t h e d iame te r o f th e pitch c irc le is

. and t h e d iame t ral
pit ch is 4 m ultiply 1 0 by 4 and t h e pro duc t 40 w ill b e t h e
, , , ,

n umbe r of tee t h in th e ge ar .

T he wh o le d iame te r o f t h e b lank and d iam e t ral p it ch give n ,

t o o b t a in t h e n umbe r o f t e e t h in t h e ge a r mu lt iply t h e d iame t e r ,

by t h e diame t ral p it ch and s ubt rac t 2 I f t h e wh o le d iame te r .

is 1 0 5 ”
and the d iamet ral pitch
produc t 42 less 2 o r 40 is t he numbe r o f tee th
, , ,
MI LL I NG
multiply 1 0 } by 4 and t he
is 4 ,
.
,
32 9

T h e t h ickn ess o f a too t h a t t h e p it ch lin e is fo und by d iv id ing

th e c ircu lar p it ch by 2 o r by d iv id ing,
by t he d iamet ral
pitch If t h e c ircular p it ch is
. o r t h e d iam e t ra l p it ch is 3 ,

d iv ide by 2 o r , by 3 and t h e quo t ie nt

,
is t h e ,

t h ickn es s o f t o o t h .

T he wh o le de p t h o f a t o o t h is fo und by d iv id ing by t he
d iame t ra l p it ch If t h e d iame tra l pit ch o f a ge ar is 6 t he who le
.
,

d e pt h is d ivided by 6 o r 35 9 5 T h e wh o le d e pt h of a too t h

”
. .
,

is abo ut H o r e xac t ly 68 66 o f t h e c ircular p it ch

. I f t h e c ircu lar
.

p it ch is 2 t he who le d e pt h of too t h is ab out H o f 2 inch es or

,

nearly 1 g .

T h e d is t anc e be t wee n th e c e n te rs o f t wo gea rs is fo und by

add ing t he numbe r of tee t h t oge t he r and d ivid ing half t he s um ,

by t he d iamet ral p it ch I f t wo ge a rs have 50 and 30 tee t h

.

res pe c tive ly and a re 5 pit ch add 50 and 30 mak ing 80 ; d iv ide

, , ,

by 2 and t he n d ivide t he quo tie nt 40 by t h e d iamet ral p it ch 5

, , , , ,

and t h e res ult is t h e c e n t e r d is t anc e

, .
330 ENG I NEERI NG AND S H O P P RACT I CE

1 35 2 . Ta ble of G ea r Tooth Parts .

Add en dum
D
Wgg
Th rea ds Circular Circular 1 e pth of
h l and '
Di m t
. .

or T ee th Pitch Pitch in a e ra l ofT ooth P S pa ce Be

D f
1 In . in Inch es a nd Pi tch on Pi tch co th
H eigh t lo w Pi tch
.

a bo ve th e
°

nea r
Pitch Line

F IG . 1 352 .
332 ENG I NEE RI NG AN D S HO P PRAC TICE
1 3 54 . Ta b le fo r Cycloida l Te eth .

F O R O N E D IA u z r nAr Prrc rr
. . R R
F O R O NE l uc rr C I CU L A Prrc n .

For A N Y orn u Pu t s D rvw s B Y F0 : AN Y o m e n Prrc rr M us

Tgn TH AT Prrc u nu T H AT P1 1 0 1
N un s ! or n n.
1 8 ! G u n

F a ces F la nk: F a ce s Pla nks

Dis . Ra d.

FIG . 1 354 .

1 3 55 . G
’
ra n t s Involute Sys tem draft the to o t h la y off
. To
t he pit ch ,
adde ndum roo t , and c le aranc e lines and s pace t he ,

pit ch line for t he teet h .

F IG . 1 355 . G ant
r
’
s I nvolute La yout .
 MI LLI N G 333

D raw t h e bas e line xtie th

o ne s i of t he pit ch d iamete r ins id e
‘

the pit ch line .

Tak e t h e tabu lar fac e rad ius on t h e d ivide rs afte r mu ltiplying ,

o r d iv id ing it a s re qu ire d by t h e t ab le (F ig and draw in .

a ll t h e fac e s fro m t h e p it ch lin e t o t h e add e ndum lin e fro m c e n t e rs

o n t h e bas e line .

Se t t h e d ivid e rs to t h e t abu lar flank rad ius and draw in a ll ,

t he flanks fro m t h e p it ch lin e t o t h e bas e line .

D raw s t ra igh t rad ia l flank s fro m t h e bas e lin e t o t h e ro ot line ,

and ro und int o th e c learanc e line .

1 3 56
. La yin g Out th e In volute Ra ck D raw t h e s id es o f t h e
.

rack too t h as st raigh t lin es inc line d to th e lines o f ce n te rs a t an

a ngle o f fiftee n d egrees w h ich is bes t fo und by quarte ring th e
,

angle a t s ixt y d egrees .

D raw t h e o u t e r h a lf of t he fac e o ne quarte r o f t h e who le

'

le ngt h o f t h e t oo th fro m a c e n t e r o n t h e p it ch line w it h a rad ius

, ,

of

inch es d iv id ed by t h e d iamet ral pit ch .

67 inches m u lt ip lie d by t h e c ircu lar p it ch .

1 3 57
. La yin g Out In te rnal In volute G ea rs W h e n t h e in te rna l .

ge ar is to be drawn t h e o d o n tograph s h o u ld b e us ed as if t he
,

ge ar wa s an o rd inary e xte rnal ge ar ; b ut ca re mus t be tak e n t hat

t h e t o o t h o f t h e ge ar is c ut o ff t o a vo id int e rfe re nc e
,
Th e po in t .

o f t h e t oo t h may b e le ft o ff altog e t h e r o r ro und e d o ve r to ge t

t h e appe ara nc e of a lo ng t o o th T he p in io n t o o t h nee d n o t b e

.
(

ca rrie d in to t h e us ua l ro o t lin e b ut may jus t c lear t he t runcate d

,

to o t h o f t h e gea r T h e curves of t he in t e rna l t oo t h and o f its

.

p in io n may bes t b e drawn in by po in ts for t he o do nto graph ic ,

c o rre c t ed to o t h is n ot as we ll adapted to t h e plac e as t h e true

t oo t h and no c o rre c t io n fo r in t e rfe re nc e is nee d e d o n t h e po in ts
,

o f t h e p in io n t ee t h o r o n t h e flank s o f t h os e o f t h e ge ar .
3 34 E NG IN EE RI NG AN D S HO P P RACTI CE

1 3 58 . Ta b le fo r I nvolute T e e th .

Dm nn B Y 1 1 1 1 :
“
Du n m r
. Prrcrr Mum m y mt rm : C u e nt An PM

F a ce Ra dius F la nk Radius Fa ce Ra dius F la nk Ra dius

F IG . 1 358 .
336 E NG INEERI NG AND S H O P P RACTI CE

udr ]

m
 M I LLI N G 337

7’ dra X re v pe r m m
2 6 l 8 dX and we have
. . .

,
v . re v re p. m in .
,

d s pig X re v .
pe r m in .

AR B O Rs A ND MI LLI N G CU TT E R S
AL IN G EN ER

1 3 61 . A rb o rs D e s c ription a n d U s e T h e fun c t io n o f t he .

milling mach ine arbo r is t o ho ld and rot ate the m illing cutte r .

T h e o rd inary d es ign h a s a t o n e e n d a B ro wn S harpe t ape r

s im ilar in s hap e t o a t w is t dr ill s hank and gro und t o fi t a c o rre ,

s po n d in g t ape re d ho le in t h e s p ind le That po rt io n o f t he arbo r .

F IG . 1 36 1 . Milling M a chine A bor r .

pro j e c ting fro m t he s pind le a nd des igne d to carry the cut ters is
cylindrica l and carries a numbe r of d iff e ren t w id t h re mo vab le
,

c o llars o r was he rs be t wee n wh ich t h e cut te r is c lampe d in any

,

des ired po s it io n A t e it he r en d o f t he s t ra igh t po rtio n ca rrying

.
,

th e was h e rs is a t hre ad e d po rt io n and n ut ; t h e n ut ne are s t t h e

,

t ape red po rt io n is us e d in re mo v ing t h e arb o r fro m t h e s p ind le ,

t h e o t h e r n ut fo r c lamp ing th e was h e rs and c utt e r O rd in arily .

t h e cu t te r is driv e n by t h e fric t io n t ha t e x is t s be t wee n it and t h e

w as h e rs wh ic h is cre a te d by t igh te n ing th e n ut on th e o ute r e nd
,

o f t h e arbo r A was h e r of o rd inary wr it ing pap e r p lac e d o n

.
,

e it h e r s id e o f a cu t t e r t ha t pe rs is t e n t ly s lips w ill in m os t cas es , , ,

re m edy t h is d ifficu lt y F o r h e avy wo rk t h e cut te r s ho uld b e

.

k e yed to t h e arbo r I f t h e t hre ad o n t h e o ute r e n d o f t h e arbo r

.

b e righ t h and e d a righ t hand e d cu tte r s h o u ld b e us e d s o t hat

-
,
-

a n y te n d e ncy in t h e cu tte r t o s lip w ill t igh te n th e n ut .

1 362 . Sh e ll Mill a n d S c re w A rb o rs S h e ll m ill and s cre w .

arbo rs a re d es igne d fo r h o ld ing s h e ll e nd m illing c utte rs By .

th e ir us e a s av ing in t h e c o s t o f c utt e rs is e ff e c t e d f o r o n ly t hat ,

po rtio n of t h e c utte r d es igne d fo r cut t ing nee d b e o f fi ne t o o l

s te el
. Th is c las s o f arbo rs a n d a ll s te m o r s ha n k ed cut t e rs mus t
b e s e cure ly s e a te d in t h e t ape r in t h e s p ind le .
338 ENG INEERI NG AN D S H O P PRACTI CE

F IG . 1 3 62 a . A bo
r r for S hell E nd Mills .

F IG . l 3 62 b . M illing M hi ac ne S cre w A r bo r
.

1 3 63 . Colle ts . Co lle ts , s im ilar to

drill c o lle ts a re use d in t h e ,

s am e mann e r and fo r t h e s ame purp o s e o n m illing mach in e ar b o rs

and s t e m o r s hanke d cut te rs B ro wn S harpe t ape rs (y pe r.

foo t ) a re in ge n e ral us e for m illing arbo rs and c o llets .

F IG . 1 363 . Co ll ts e .

1 3 64 . Cla s s ifi ca tion an d D e s ign of Cutte rs an d Mills . Cut

te rs a re ge ne ra lly c las s e d acc o rd ing to t h e milling o pe rat io ns
,

wh ich t he y pe rfo rm in to fac e o r ax ial s id e o r rad ia l angular

, , , ,

e n d and fo rm m illing cut t e rs ; and aga in acc o rd ing t o t h e ir co n

s t ruc ti o n in t o s o lid in s e rt ed t o o t h s te m o r s hank e d and e n d o r

, , , ,

s h e ll e n d cu tt e rs Cu t t e rs a re a ls o s a id t o b e righ t o r le ft hande d
.
-

in acc o rdanc e w it h t h e ir d ire c t io n o f ro t a t io n whe n cu tt ing .

Th is la tte r c la ss ifica tio n has re fe re nc e in ge n e ral to s hanked o r

s te m cu t t e rs t h e maj o rit y o f arbo r dr iv e n c ut te rs be ing re ve r
,
-

s ible . Wit h t h e o p e ra t o r in fro nt o f and fa c ing t h e mach ine ,

and t he cu tte r adjus te d if in o rd e r t o cut it mus t ro t ate in t h e

, , ,

d ire c t io n o ppo s it e t o t he hands of a c lo ck it is a righ t hande d ,

-

cutte r and vice versa

,
.

Th e p it ch of a cu t te r is th e d is tanc e be t wee n t wo adjac e n t

cut t ing e dges O rd inarily t h e fro nt fa ce o f t he m illing cut ter is
.

cut rad ia l ; t h e t o p fac e is gro und w it h fro m 3 t o 5 c le a ra nc e

° °
,
340 ENGI NEE RI NG A ND S H O P PRACT ICE
or at an angle of 85 to 87 wit h t he fro nt fac e The back fac e is
° °
.

us ually cut a t an angle of 52 wit h th e fro nt fac e °

.

1 3 65 . Ca re of Cutte rs The re a re t wo ge n e ral c o nd itio ns

.

wh ich go ve rn t h e e ffi c ie nt o pe ra tion of a milling cutte r : (1 ) I t is

abs o lute ly es s e n t ial t ha t it b e k e pt s harp (2 ) That its cutt ing .

e dges a re e qu id is t an t fro m t h e ax is o f ro t a t io n Ne v e r run a .

cut te r backward ; a n e nd e avo r to do s o ge n e ra lly res u lts in bro k e n

tee t h . T h e d is advan t ages o f d uln es s may b e s umm e d up as
fo llo ws : poo r wo rk mo re po we r re qu ired t h e add it io nal loss of
, ,

te mpe r in t h e cu t t e r and e ls e wh e re and a ge ne ra l d iss a t is fac t io n

,

t o a ll c o nc e rn e d.

MI LL I N G CU T T E R S S P E CI F I C

1 37 1 . F a ce Milling Cutt e rs A x ia l cu tt e rs t ha t a re in te nd e d
.

for m illing s urfac es para lle l t o t h e ir axes o f ro t a t io n a re te rme d

fac e m illing cut t e rs I n ge n e ral cutt e rs o f th is c las s u n de r o ne
-
.
,

inch in wid t h have s t ra igh t c utt ing e dg es i e para lle l t o t h e

, , . .
,

axis o f rot a tio n Wide r cu t te rs us ua lly have h e lical c utt ing

.

e dge s wh os e ac t io n may b e c o n t ras t e d as fo llo ws w it h th at o f

t h o s e hav ing s t ra igh t cutt ing e dge s W it h t he s t ra igh t edge d

.
-

F IG . 1 37 1 . F a ce M illi g C ut t
n e rs .

cut te r e ach cutt ing e dg e s t rik es a d is t inc t b lo w o ve r t h e e n tire

wid t h wh ile w it h t h e s pira l t o o t h cut te r t h e a ct io n c o m m e nc ing
, ,

a t o n e c o r n e r a n d pro c e e d ing a c ro s s t h e s urf a ce o f t h e wo rk

.
is ,

mo re t h a t of s h a v ing t h a n ch ipping W id e c ut te rs us ua lly ha ve

.

n ic ke d tee t h (cu t t ing ed ges ) fo r bre a k ing up t h e ch ip ; fo r t h is

re a s o n a cu t te r w it h n icke d t ee t h re qu ires le s s po we r t o drive it ,

and c ns e q ue n t ly wit h a give n a m o un t o f po we r h e a vie r cu ts

o , ,

may b e ta ke n wit h a n icke d c ut te r .

 MI LLI NG 34 1

1 3 72 . Side Millin g Cutte rs . Sid e

r dd le m illing cu tte rs or s t a

a re d e s ign e d fo r m illing s urfac es pe rp e nd icu lar t o t h e ax is o f

rota tio n of t h e cutte r and d iff e r fro m t h e fac e m ills in t hat t h e y

,

F IG . 1 3 72 . S ide or S tra ddle M illing Cutter .

have cutting e dges fo rmed on t heir s ides in add it io n t o t hos e o n

t h e pe riph e ry Wit h t h is c las s o f cutte r t h e w o rk may b e fed
.

e it h e r aga ins t t h e fac e te e t h o r aga ins t t h e s id e tee t h as d es ired .

1 3 73 Angula r Milling Cutte rs

. A ngu lar m illing cu tt e rs a re
.

d iv id e d into s ingle and d o ub le angle cu t te rs acc o rd ing a s t h e y

po ss ess o ne o r t wo cutt ing edges and a re d es igned fo r m illing
°

s urfac e s a t an angle to t h e ax is o f rot a t io n of t h e cu tt e r If t he .

angle inc luded be t wee n t he pe rpe nd icu lar to th e ax is of rot a t io n

and th e inc line d edge is a 45 o r 60 angle t he cutter is d es ignated
° °
,

F IG . 1 3 73 .
—Ah M
la r illing Cutte r . No 1
.

Rig t , h an No 2 , e t
. Lf H d an .

as a 45 o r 60 cutter If t he angle on o ne s ide of th e pe rpe nd icular

° °
.

of a d o ub le angle cu tt e r b e 1 2 and t h e angle on t h e o t h e r s id e

°

he t h e cu t t e r is d es igna t e d as a 40 d o ub le ang le cu t te r ; ° -

s uch a cu tt e r is us ed for cu t t ing t h e t ee t h groo ves o f a s p iral

(h e lical) cu t t e r .
342 EN ING EE RING A ND S HO P PRACTICE

3 74
1 . E nd Millin g Cutte rs m i
.ll h a T h e te rm
s re f e re nc e e nd

in ge n e ra l t o s uch s te m o r s hank ed cutte rs as a re held d irec t ly in

t h e s p ind le and us ed for e n d and s lot m illing I n c o ns t ruc t io n .

t he y a re a c o mb ina t io n o f t h e s ide and fac e m illing cutt e rs The .

large r e nd m ills a re mad e ho llo w and a re s cre w e d o r o t he rwis e

fas te ned to t he tape r s hank ; t hes e a re t e rmed s he ll e nd mills .

”
F IG . 1 374 . Rig t- h ha nd End M ill .

T
T ” s lot cutte rs as t he ir name ind icates a re us ed
,

s lo ts and a re s hank e d s im ilar t o e nd m ills

F o rm Millin g Cutte rs an d
,

F o rm e d Cutte rs
fo r cutt ing

F o rm
375
1 . .

m illing cut te rs a re des igned

m illing irregular o r curved s ur
fo r
fac es T h e te rm j orm cutter is us ua lly applied to s uch cutte rs a s
.

have cut t ing edges of irregular o ut lin e and tee t h cut s imilar to
t h os e of an o rd inary m illing cu tt e r Th is c lass o f cu tte rs can .

'
rare ly b e gro und w it ho ut changing t he ir pro file A form cutte r .

may b e a c o mbinat io n o f s e ve ral cut te rs as is t h e ea s e wit h gang

m ills F orm ed cutters h o we ver a re fo rm m illing cutt e rs s o de
.
, ,

s ign ed and back e d o ff t hat t h e y may b e gro und and s t ill re t a in

t he ir o rig inal pro fi le G e ar cutt e rs and cu t t e rs fo r groo v ing t aps

.
,

reame rs and drills a re c las s ed a s fo rmed cutte rs .

1 3 76 F ly Cutte rs
. A cu t t e r hav ing a s ingle cut ting e dge
.

s im ilar t o t ha t o f a bo ring t o o l gro und t o any d e s ire d pro file

, ,

and ins e rt ed in a t a per s hank lik e t hat of an e nd m ill is t he ,

s imples t of a ll fo rm m illing cutt e rs

- S uch a c o mb ina t io n is calle d
.

a fly cutte r and is adapted to s uch wo rk as t h e mak ing o f to ols

fo r s cre w mach in es ge a rs w it h o dd p it ch t ee t h and s uch w o rk
, ,

a s d oes n o t warran t t h e e x pe ns e o f a regu lar fo rm cut t e r .

1 3 77 In s e rte d Tooth Cutte rs

. O wing t o t h e e xpe ns e of ma
.

t e ria l and pro duc t io n s o lid cu t t e rs a re s e ld o m mad e larg e r t han

,

8 in d iame t e r o r w id e r t han 6 in fac e

" "
W h e n large r cu t t e rs a re .

des ire d t h e y a re ge ne rally bu ilt up i e having t ool s tee l blad es ,

. .
,

or t ee t h in s e rt e d and c lampe d in a bo dy o f s o m e in e xpe n s ive

mate ria l in s uch a manne r a s t o adm it of t h e ir be ing e as ily re mo ved

in cas e o f injury o r we ar Th e re a re s e ve ral s t yles of ins e rted
.
344 ENG I NEERI N G AN D S H O P PRACTI CE

F IG . 1 3 77 . I ns e rted Bl a de or T oo t h M illi ng C utt er .

to o t h o r built up cu tt e rs no w on t h e mark e t and many a re t h e

-

”
, , ,

d es igns and d e vic es fo r ho ld ing t h e te e t h o r b lad es .

1 3 78 Slitting Sa ws an d S cre w Slotte rs

. A x ia l cu t te rs wh o se .

wid t h of fac e is less t han i a re te rmed e ith e r s litt ing sa ws or

F IG . 1 3 7 8a . M e ta l S litt ing S a w or C utt er .

scre w s lo t te rs acc o rd ing to t h e ir c o ns t r uc t io n and

, us e . Slitt ing
sa ws a re gro und h o llo w o n t h e s id es fo r c le aranc e .
 MI LLI N G 345

F IG . 1 3 7 8b . C ut t er fo r K e y sea t in g a n
-
d S lo tt ing .

1 3 79
. Stra ddle a n d G a ng d m
Mills i ll
. ing W hen
c ut t wo s i e-

te rs a re p lac e d o n t h e arbo r and s e para t e d by a was h e r in s uch ,

a manne r t hat t wo O ppo s ite s id es of a p ie c e may be mach ined a t

F IG . 1 3 79 . A Ga ng M ill .

o ne o pe rat io n t h e y a re te rme d s t radd le m ills If in t h e abo v e

,
.
,

arrange me nt a face m ill b e us ed ins t ead of t he was he r bet w ee n

,

t h e s id e m ills t h e c o mb ina t io n is t e rme d a gang m ill

,
.
 C H A PT ER X I V

MI SCE LL A NE O U S MA CH I NE T OO LS A ND
A CCE S SO RI ES

PR E S S E S

1 4 1 1 . Cla s sifi ca tion . c o mm o n c las s es of press es wit h

T h e t wo
wh ich t h e mach in is t is fam iliar a re a s s em bling and die pres s es .

A sse mbling pres s e s a re us e d fo r as s e mb ling pres s o r fo rc ing fi ts

and t h o ugh ge ne rally hydraulic a re s o met imes o pe rated by hand
, ,

o r p o w e r ; wh ile pres s e s us ing d ie s for punch ing and s t amping

s h ee t m e t a l a re t e rm e d d ie press es .

1 41 2 A s s em b ling P re s s e s
. A rb o r H ydra uli c A n arbo r .

pres s is a s ma ll b a nd as s e mbling pres s us e d ch ie fly fo r pres s ing

,

arbo rs in t o t h e hubs of t h e vario us bo re d pie c es to be t u rne d .

I n brie f t h e es s e n t ia l parts o f t h e hydrau lic as s e mb ling press

,

a re : a h yd ra ulic cyli nd er c o n t a in ing t h e m o vable ra m wh ich latte r

,

d oes t h e pres s ing by being fo rc ed o ut ward ; a s lid ing head aga ins t
wh ich t h e pres s ing is d o ne ; tie ba rs wh ich ho ld t h e s lid ing h ead ,

cylind er and ram in t he ir re lat ive po s it io ns ; a h ydra ulic pum p for

pumping t h e wate r into t h e cylind e r ; and a ba s e wit h a guide wa y
fo r s upp o rt ing t h es e d et a ils .

”
1 41 3 Die Pre s s e s
. D ie pres s e s o r punch ing and s t amp ing
.
,

press es may b e hand o r po we r ma c h in es ; t he hand pre ss es a re

,

us ua lly s cre w pre s s es wh ile t h e po we r pres s es a re ge ne rally

“
,

press es wit h a re c ipro ca to ry ram Th is lat te r c las s may b e

.

brie fly d es cribe d as h a v ing t h e fo llo w ing es s e n tial parts : A ba s e

o r le gs s upp o rt ing t h e bedo r pla te n and t h e o pe ra t ing m e chan is m ;

a bols ter fo r h o ld ing t h e die block; hous ings carrying th e guide fo r,

t h e ra m and t h e be ar ing fo r th e crank s haft ; a re c ipro ca t ing ra m ,

in t h e h e ad e n d o f wh ich is fi t t e d t h e pu nch s h a n k; and t h e

o pe ra t ing m e c han is m c o n s is t ing o f a cra n k s ha ft a clutch and a
, ,

hea vy driving wh eel .

 ENG INEER ING AN D S H O P P RACT ICE

FI G . l 4l 2 b .
—Sp ir n gfi e ld Be n ch h
St ra ig te nin g P ess
r .

F IG . 1 41 2 0 . 2 00 -To n H ydra ulic A s se m bling Pres s .

M I SCELLANEO US MACH I NE T OO LS 34 9

1 41 3 . Bli
ss b Pow
I nc lina le er D ie P re ss .
350 ENG IN EE RI NG AN D S HO P P RACTI CE

DI E S A ND DI E MA KI N G
1 4 2 1 . Die s . made p lain multiple gang and co m
D ies a re , ,

po und as t h e wo rk s ee ms t o re quire and s o me a re ve ry c o s t ly

”
,

a n d c o mp le x in c o ns t ruc t io n D ies a re mad e o f a s pe c ia l t o o l

.

s tee l and a re hard e n ed and t e mp e re d T h e die b lo ck is g iv e n .

c le aranc e of 1 to t h e c le aranc e c o mme nc ing abo u t Q be lo w

°

t h e cut t ing edge of t h e die I n g e n e ral t h e die b lo ck is fi rs t

.
,

fin is hed and t h e n t h e punch b lo ck la id o ut fro m and fi tte d to it , .

D ie mak ing re quires much s k ill t im e and pa t ie nc e as much of , ,

t h e me t al is re mo ve d large ly by t h e hand pro c esses of ch ipp ing

and fi ling broach ing and grind ing and many a fi ne die h as bee n
, ,

ruin e d by crack ing during t h e pro c ess of harde n ing .

1 42 2 Die Ma kin g
. D ie mak ing fo rms an impo rt an t d ivis io n
.

o f t o o l mak ing and s k ille d die mak e rs a re we ll pa id and in c o n s t ant

de mand Th e o pe rat io ns kno wn a s bending form i ng press ing

.
,

s h ee t me t a l in t o a ca vit y o f a s imp le fo rm ; d ra wing a fo rming

p ro c es s of draw ing th e m et al t hro ugh rigid fla t s urfac es in o rde r
to pre ve n t its wr in k ling o n t h e e dges ; em bos s i ng — a fo rm in g

pro ces s wh ich lea ves s o me d e s ign in re lief o n t he metal ; and

curli ng t h e f o rm ing o f a h o llo w cylindrica l ring a t th e e n d o f
a piec e a re a ll acc o m plis h e d in pres s es by t h e us e of vario us
,

s ha ped d ies a n d punch es .

W h e n us e d c o lle c t ive ly t h e t e rm die re fe rs t o t he die block

,

and t h e punch ; t h e e s s e n tia l parts of t h e die b lock be ing th e

harde ned and t e m pe re d p ie c e c o n ta in ing t h e o pe n ing o r cav it y ,

and te rme d t h e bloc k; t h e s tripper pla te wh ich s t rips t h e s to ck

fro m t h e punc h ; t he ga ge pin and guide s trip wh ich h o ld t h e s t o ck ,

in its pro pe r re lat io n t o t h e pun ch and die Th e punch c o ns is t s .

o f t h e punc h bloc k o f t h e d e s ire d s h a pe wh ich d oes t he s hap ing ,

o r cu t t ing ; t h e co lla r wh ich t ak e s t h e t hru s t ; a n d t h e s ha n k by ,

m ea ns of wh ich it is h e ld in t he ram .

T U RR E T MA C H I N E S
1 43 1 . Turret La th e s . T h e t urre t la t h e is
nt ially a m anu es s e

fa c t uring la t h e and is u s e d fo r t h e pro duc t io n o f a large numbe r

o f s im ilar t urn e d p ie ces T h e charac t e r is t ic fe a t u re o f t h is la t h e
.

is t h e t urre t d es ign e d t o brin g in rap id s ucc e s s io n a numbe r of

,

varie t ies of too ls wh ich a ct o n t h e s t o ck pa s s e d t hro ugh t h e

,

s p ind le and h e ld in t h e chuck T h e t urre t carry ing t h e t urn e rs

.
, ,
3 52 ENG IN EE RING A ND S HO P P RACTICE

F IG . 1 43 2 u . H a rt n e s s Re gula r B o x T o o ls or T urn e rs .
 M I SCELLAN EO US MACH I NE L
T OO S 35 3

F IG . 1 43 2 b . P ra t t W h it y ne S ingle T urn e r wit h

Ta ng nt C ut t
e er .

F IG . l 43 2 o . P ra t t d
r Wh it y S ingl
ne e T urne r wit h
R di l C ut t
a a er .
3 54 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S HO P P RACT ICE

F IG . l 43 2 d . P ra tt Wh it ney U niversa l Tur ne r.

F IG . 1 43 2 c . P ra t t W h it ney Mult iple T urn e r w it h Ra dia l C ut te rs .

3 56 ENG INEE RING AND S HO P PRACTI CE

F IG . 1 432 h . P ra tt z W h itn e y T a pe r T urne r w it h

d L ea din g B a ck Re s t .

F IG . 1 43 2 i . P ra tt 6: W hit y B
ne e ll M o ut h P oin ting T ool .
 M ISCELLANEO U S MACH I NE T OO S L 35 7

F IG . 1 432 j . P ra t t 8: Wh itney B e ll M o ut hP o in t ing T oo l

.

F IG . 1 432 k . P ra t t a n dW h itn ey E nd F o rm ing a nd P o in ting T oo l .

3 58 EN G IN EE RI NG AN D S H O P PRACT ICE

F IG . 1 432 l . P ra t t W h it n y E d F m ing
6
1
e n or an d Po in t
in g T oo l wit h F m i g C utt
or n er .

F IG . 1 43 2 m . P ra tt an d Wh it y ne E nd Fo rm ing an d
P oin tin g T oo l .
360 ENG INEE RING A ND S H O P P RACT ICE

F IG . 1 43 3 . P ra tt St W h itne y
« A ut o m a t ic S c re w M hiac ne .

w ill pro duc e a s m a n y a s a t h o us a nd s imple s c re ws in an h o ur ;

a n d s uch w o rk a s b ind ing po s t s kn urle d t hu m b s cre ws and
,

s im ilar s h a p e s is c o n s id e re d it s le git im a t e pro du c t .

1 43 4
. Monito r La th e s Mo n it o r la t h es a re us e d e x te ns ive ly
.

in t h e m a nufa c t ure o f bra ss go o ds a n d fo r a gre a t v a r ie ty o f

o t h e r a rt ic le s w h e re s e ve ra l o pe ra t io n s a re requ ire d to fin is h t h e

p iece Th is fo rm o f turre t la t h e is d e s ign e d fo r fi n is h ing fro m

.
,

t h e ro ugh c a s t ings v a lve s p ind les a n d p a rt s o f g lo b e and angle

,
 M ISCELLANEO US MACH I NE L
T OO S 361

va lves T h e wo rk is us ua lly held in an auto ma t ic chuck wh ich

.
,

may be o pe rated by a le ve r w it ho ut s to pp ing th e mach ine Many .

mo n ito r lat hes a re e quipped w it h an a tt achme n t fo r chas ing

s cre w th re ad s T h e ess e n t ia l part s of t h is d e v ic e a re th e mas te r
.

t hre ad h o b o r le ad e r wh ich fi ts o v e r a s t ud o n t h e h e ad s t o ck ;
,
-

th e chas e r arm carry ing a ha lf n ut t o fi t t h is h o b ; and t h e chase r

,

F IG . 1 43 4 . Am e rica n M on ito L the

r a .

bar a t th e back of t h e lat he to wh ich t h is arm and t he s lide a re

,

a t tach ed T he O pe rat io n of chas ing t hread s it w ill b e see n is a

.
, ,

ve ry s imple o ne indee d .

1 43 5 . F orm in g La th e s Th is t ype o f turret lat he is us ed

.

e x te n s iv e ly fo r fin is h ing brass and o t h e r s o ft m e ta l cas t ings and ,

is a fo rm of t h e m o n it o r la t h e I t e mbod ies a d e part ure fro m

.

t h e o ld s ys te m of t urn ing irregu lar s hapes and is e x t re m e ly

s imp le in o pe ra t io n wh ile th e qua lit y of wo rk is s uch t ha t for
, ,

a c e rt a in c lass o f wo rk it is rap id ly s u pe rs e d ing o t he r mach in es

,
.

T h e m o s t charac t e ris t ic fe a t ure of t h is mach ine is t h e fo rm ing

t o o l and its s lid e T he fo rm ing t o o l is a t o o l ha v ing a cut t ing
.

edge , t h e o ut lin e of wh ich is s im ilar t o t ha t o f t h e p ie c e t o b e

t urn e d . F a s t e n e d in t h e cros s s lid e it is b ro ugh t up t o t h e w o rk ,

and by me a ns of a le ve r o r s cre w t h e to o l is fed acro s s o r und e r

t h e p ie c e wh ich w it h t h e o ne m o ve me n t it t urn s to its pro pe r
, ,

s hape and d iame te r O il cup s c o ck s h o s e n o z zle s and s im ilar

.
, ,

s hapes a re pro duc e d in t h is mach in e .

364 ENG I NEERI NG AND S HO P P R ACTI CE
and e lim inate t he e mp lo yme nt of s k illed labo r J igs m a y b e .

d ivid ed acc o rd ing to t he ir us e int o vario us c las s es s uch as

, , ,

align ing filing and d rilling j igs W h ile j igs a re used for lat he
, .
,

plane r and a variet y of w o rk drill j igs use d a ls o fo r re aming

,

and tapp ing a re by far t he m os t c o mmo n t ype .

1 44 2 . i
Jg C h a ra c te ris ti c s an d D e s ig n Th o ugh e x is t ing . i n a
variet y of fo r m s and s hapes t h e es s e n t ia l parts of a j ig a re : T h e
,

body o n o r in wh ich t h e wo rk is h e ld and wh ich s upp o rts t h e

,

guides ; t h e guides o r bus hin gs fo r t he c utt ing to o ls ; t h e s tops wh ich

s e cure t h e a lignme n t of t h e w o rk in re fe re nc e t o t h es e guid es ; t h e

cla m pi ng d evice fo r h o ld ing t h e w o rk ; a n d a s u rfac e o n which

t he j ig res ts wh ich ins ures t h e para lle lis m and a lignme n t during t h e
,

cutt ing o pe ra t io n T h e gu id es a re us ually hard e n e d and g ro und

.

s t ee l bus h ings wh ich a re ins e rt e d in t h e j i bo dy t h e in s id es o f

g ,

wh ich a re mad e t o fi t t he d rill reame r or ta p s hank ; t he ir le ngt h

,

is ge n e ra lly t w ic e t h e d iame t e r of t h e h o le t h e e nd re c e iving t h e ,

drill be ing ro un d e d ins id e and o ut Clamp bus h ings a re t hre aded.

o n t h e o ut s id e and a re use d t o ass is t in c lamp ing t h e p ie c e in t h e

jgi b o dy .

I n t h e d es ign o f a j i g acc o rd ing t o J o hn T U s h e r t h e s pac ing

, .
,

and t h e a lignme nt of s u rfac e s ho les part s e t c s ho uld b e s o

, , ,
.
,

c o mb in ed as to e xpe d ite t h e proc ess t he j ig is in te nd e d t o fac ilit ate ,

w it h h o we ve r an en t ire abs e nc e of c o mp licat io n T he des igner

, , .

s h o uld a lways a im to mak e t h e j ig in s uch a mann e r t ha t it w ill

re quire no e ffo rt what e ve r o n t he part of t h e o pe rato r to pe rfo rm

t h e w o rk t h e j ig h a s t o b e use d upo n So s ucc ess fully have t h es e
.

o bj e c ts be e n acc o mp lis h e d in m o d e rn prac t ic e t ha t by t h e us e , ,

o f j igs s k ille d labo r h as bee n e n t ire ly d is pe n s e d w it h in many

in s t anc es and in o t he r ins t anc es w it h s k ille d h e lp t h e produc t io n

, ,

h a s bee n incre as e d t o a s urpris ing e x te n t .

1 443 .Tem ple ts T e mp le ts a re us e d in t he mach ine s h o ps

.

and als o in t he b lack s m it h and bo ile r s h o ps to fac ilitate lay ing

o ut o pe ra t io n s The y a re ge ne ra lly mad e o f s h ee t me t al and
.

lo ca te t h e c e n t e rs and o ut lin es wh ich may b e s cribe d fro m t h e m .

A te mp le t s h o u ld b e s o arrang e d a s t o b e us e d fo r lay ing o ut a s

m any s u rfa c e s a n d po in t s a s can b e prac t ica lly c o v e re d by a
s ing le t e mp le t a n d wh e n p o s s ib le it s h o u ld b e mad e w it h a v ie w
, ,

t o us ing it a s a t es t g a g e aft e r t h e v a r io u s o pe ra t io n s hav e bee n

pe rfo rmed .
 C H APT ER X V

SH O P PROCE SS E S A N D K I NKS

ME T H O D S OF W O R KI N G IRO N A ND ST E E L

1 51 1 . An n ea lin g O rdina ry D ry W a te r . A nn ea ling

may b e de fine d a s t he pro c ess of res to ring t o n o rmal c o nd itio n
iro n and s tee l t ha t have bee n une ve n ly w o rk ed t h e une ve n ,

w o rk ing produc ing in te rna l s t ra ins and n o n un ifo rm it y o f s t rue -

t ure .

Ordin a ry a nn ea ling may b e d o ne by he at ing t h e p ie c e t o a

che rry re d and allo wing it t o c ool s lo wly to b lack heat Cutt ing .

t oo ls may b e ann e a led in t h is manne r be fo re harde n in g .

D ry a n n ea lin g is acc o mp lis h e d by h ea t ing t he p ie c e t o a

me d ium red and pack ing it in h ot as hes hot s and or po wd e re d ,

a ir s lack e d lim e t h e n a llo w ing it t o c o o l s lo w ly

-
,
.

Wa ter a nn ea ling is acc o mplis he d by he at ing t h e s tee l to a

dull red allo wing it to c o me a lmos t to a black he at in hot as hes
,

and t he n que nch ing it in wate r brine o r s t ro ng s o ap s ud s , .

1 51 2
Q u en c
.h ing Ba th s B rin e Z in c C hl o ride S olution

Me r cury I t is a we ll es t ablis h e d fac t t ha t t he hard e n ing of

.

s t ee l d e p e nd s primarily o n t h e rap id it y w it h wh ich h e a t is e x

t rac t e d f ro m it ; and s e c o nda rily o n t h e t e m pe ra t ure rang e

,

t hro ugh wh ich it is c o ole d B rin e s ince it h a s a much gre a te r

.
,

c o nduc t ivity t han wate r w ill abs t ract heat much m o re q uick ly
,

fro m art ic les que nched in it ; t hus a gre a te r de gree o f hardnes s

may b e o btaine d by que nching fro m a give n h e at .

St ee l may b e mad e ve ry hard indee d by que nch ing fro m a ,

che rry red in a ne ut ra l s olut io n of z inc ch lo rid e

-
,
.

Me rcury be ing a g oo d c o nduc to r of he at fo rms an e xc e lle n t

, ,

quen ching bat h .

1 51 3 .
—
Tem pe ring Air Oil e tc As an in troduc tio n to , , .

t e mpe ring t h e r e ad e r is re f erre d to Se c tio ns 2 75 2 7 6 and 2 7 7

, ,

wh ere t he s ubj e c t is treate d a t s o m e le ngt h .

Blad es and t h in p ie c es of s tee l a re s o me t imes te mpe red by

365
366 ENG I NEE RING AN D S HO P PR AC TI CE
que nch ing t h e m in a c old blas t of a ir T h e elas tic it y O f Damas .

c us b lad es is s a id t o hav e bee n d ue t o t he ir hav ing bee n a ir t e m -

pe red .

O il is us e d t o t e mpe r s prings and tools hav ing grea t e la s t ic it y ;

lin s ee d is t h e bes t o il for t h is purpose Q u e nch ing in O il does .

n o t ch ill t h e p ie c e as d oe s que nching in wa te r and t he fu m es ,

fro m t h e o il s urro und ing it poss es s a h ighe r te mpe rat ure t ha n

t h e s te am wo u ld have w ith t h e re s ult t ha t t he hard e n e d t oo l is
,

le s s britt le and m o re e las t ic t han wh e n t re a te d o t h e rw is e .

L ins ee d oil ign ites a t c o ns e que n t ly if a hard ene d s pring ,

b e c o ve re d w it h o il and t h e lat t e r burn ed O ff t h e res ult ant te mpe r ,

w ill b e equivale nt to t hat o bt aine d fro m a te mpe rat ure of ne arly

Ba t h s o f a ir, le ad
and and o il he a ted to t he pro per te mpe ra
, s

t ure a re o ft e n us e d fo r draw ing t h e t e mp e r of hard e ne d p ie c e s .

Th is is th e s c ientific me th od of se curing u nifo rm ity in t h e pro

duc t fo r a ll p iec e s are c o o led thro ugh the s am e te mp e rature
range i e fro m th e critical po in t t o t h e te mpe ra ture of the
,
. .
,

ba th .

1 51 4 Ca s e h a r de nin g an d Oth e r P ro c e s s e s
.
- F o r inf o rma .

t io n re la t iv e t o cas e hard e n ing and t h e o t h e r pro c e s s es and

-

t re at m e nt s of iro n and s te e l t h e re ad e r is re fe rre d t o Chap te r I I

, ,

in wh ich add it io na l ma t te r m a y b e fo und Cas e hard e n ing is .

t re a te d in Se c 2 34 . .

CO LO R I N G I R O N A ND ST E E L

1 5 2 1 . P r e pa ra to r y P ro ce s s e s
c o lo ring iro n or s tee l th e
. In
fo llo w ing pre caut io ns a re n e c ess ary t o ins ure s ucc ess
T h e p ie c es to b e c o lo red s h o uld b e fin is h e d and p olis h e d t h e ,

brilliancy of t he c o lo r d e pe nd ing upo n t he fin is h .

Th e p ie c es s h o uld b e s crupulo us ly c lean and free fro m O il .

I f t h e c o lo r b e an o x id e o b ta in e d by h e a t ing t h e ma t e ria l in
, ,

wh ich t h e p ie c e is p lac e d s h o u ld be h ea t e d un if o rm ly t hro ugh o ut ,

and b e j us t h o t e no ugh to ch a r a dry s o ft p ine s t ick , , .

H ard e n e d p ie c es cann o t b e c o lo re d by a pro c es s o f h e at ing

wit h o u t h a v ing t h e te mpe r dra wn .

1 52 2 Bluin g
. A s imple m e t h o d o f blu ing t h e fin is h e d o r
.

po lis he d s urfac es of iro n o r s te e l is to pla ce and allo w t h e m to ,

re m a in in h ot s and po wde re d charc o a l or woo d as h es un t il t h e

, ,

d es ire d c o lo r is o bt a in e d Sand a n d wo o d as h es a re us e d to
.
368 ENG I NEERI NG AND S H O P P RACTICE
grit and d irt fro m s mall machine parts . Th e so l utio n is co mposed
o f o ne part s o d ium carbo na t e s a l s o da ) t o t w e n t y part s

of wa te r .

1 533 . U se of Com pre s s e d Air . W he re c o mpres s ed a ir is ha d,

a hos e wit h a no zz le c o nne c te d to t h e s ys te m will b e fo und an
e xc e lle n t m e t h o d f o r re m o v ing d irt and ch ips fro m h o le
s and
cas tings .

S O LD ER I N G , S W E A T I N G , BR A e G A ND F E RR o F re
- G

1 54 1 . Te rm s D efin e d . So ld e ring ,
braz ing o r s we at ing is ,

acco rd ing t o t he manne r in wh ich it is d o ne t h e pro c es s o f un it ing ,

two pie c es by c o v e ring t h eir s urfac es w it h a mo lte n me t a l F e rro .

fix ing d e fin es t h e pro c ess o f braz ing cas t ings and o t h e r me t a ls by

t h e use o f a c o mpo und ca lled F e rro fi x .

1 54 2 Solde ring
. So ft s o ld e r is a fu s ib le a llo y o f le ad and t in
.
,

wh ile hard s o ld e r (s pe lte r) is an a lloy of c o ppe r and z inc or of

c o ppe r s ilve r and z inc T he s o lde ring iro n o r b it is ge ne rally
,
.

us ed to apply a n d s pre ad t h e me t al I t c o ns is ts o f a poin te d .

pie ce of c o ppe r fas te ned t o an iro n ro d wh ich h a s a wo o d e n

,

hand le Th e j o in ts to b e s o ld e re d s ho uld b e t ho ro ugh ly c le aned

.
,

by s crap ing o r fi ling be fo re t he flux is applied t he k ind o f flux

, ,

de pe nd ing upo n t he k ind of me ta l Res in is us e d o n t inne d iro n .

,

c o mmon ly ca lle d t in ; res in and t allo w o n le ad ; bo rax o n iro n ;

and s alammon iac (am m o n ium chlo ride NH Cl) o n c o ppe r o r bra s s , ,
.

An e xc e lle nt a ll ro und flux is a flu id o b t a in ed by d is s o lv ing ch ips

-

o f z inc in a 50 % s o lu t io n o f d ilut e hydro ch lo ric ac id B y add ing .

t o t h is s o lu t io n o ne part by w e igh t of amm o n ium ch lo rid e (s a l

, ,

ammo n iac ) to e igh t parts of t h e fluid t h is flux will ans we r for ,

iro n and s tee l .

1 54 3 Swea tin g
. W h e n s uch p ie c es as ha lf bo xes and be ar
.
-

ings a re un it e d by s o ld e r for t h e o pe ra t io n of b o ring t he pro c e s s ,

is t e rme d s we a t ing T h e s urfac es t o b e un it e d a re c le an ed

.
,

t re a te d w it h a flux and t inn e d h e ate d unt il a gree n is h tinge

appea rs t he n c o a te d w it h s o lde r afte r wh ich t h e s urfac es a re
,

pre s s e d toge t h e r and h e a te d un t il t he s o ld e r me lts wh e n t he y ,

a re a llo we d t o c o o l .

1 544 B ra zin g
. B raz ing is acc o mp lis h e d by p lac ing be t wee n
.
,

t h e p ie c e s t o b e j o in ed a p ie c e o f s pe lt e r (hard s o ld e r ) and fus ing

,

it wh ile t h e p ie c es a re h e ld o r c lampe d in po s it io n T he j o in t .

s h o u ld be t h o ro ugh ly c le ane d and s crap e d b e fo re t h e flux is

 S HO P PROCES S ES A ND K I N KS 369

app lied ; t he fus ing of t he s pe lte r is acc o mp lis hed e it her by means ,

of a b lo w p ipe or by red h o t to ngs wh ich a ls o c lamp t h e p ie c es

-
,
-

in pos it io n .

1 54 5 F e rro-fix in g
. T h e pro c ess O f braz ing cas t iro n lo ng
.
,

c o ns id e red im poss ible is no w re nde red c o mme rc ia lly poss ible by

,

t h e us e O f F erro fi x a braz ing co mpo und inve nte d by a G e rman

,

named Pich Not o n ly is t his co mpound ava ilab le for braz ing
.

bro ke n cas t iro n mak ing it it is c laime d s t ro nge r t han ne w b ut

, , , ,

Mr Pich h a s a ls o s ucc ee de d in b raz ing bro k e n wro ugh t and

. .

ma lle able iro n ; cas t iro n to s tee l ; wro ugh t iro n to cas t ; ma lle able
iro n to s tee l ; and brass to e ach o f t h es e The no ve lt y of t h is .

pro c ess is en t irely in th e us e O f a c o at ing Of F e rro fix app lied to ,

t h e s urfac es t o b e un it ed T he res t O f t h e o pe ra tio n is pe rfo rme d

.

in ess e n t ially t h e s am e mann e r as a re t he o rd inary pro c es s es o f

b raz ing and s weat ing which have bee n brie fly des cribe d .

MI S C E LLA N E O U S K I N KS
1 55 1 . F o rgin g Squa re H ole s A s quare h o le may b e . eas il y
fo rged in t h e e n d of a bar by fi rs t drilling in to it a h o le whose
c ircumfere nc e e qua ls t he pe rimete r of the s quare des ire d and ,

afte r he at ing hamme ring t he p iec e un til t he h o le is s quare

, .

1 552 Dividing in th e La th e
. Th is may be acc o mp lis he d by .

us ing th e tee t h in t h e d riv ing ge ar a s a mak es h ift fo r t he ho les in

an in d e x plate .

1 5 53 Ru s t Join ts
. An e xc e lle n t m ixt ure fo r fi lling up cracks
.

or blo w h o les in c as t ings or fo r c e m e n t ing iro n j o in t s is c o m po s ed

-
, ,

o f o n e part by w e igh t o f s a lammo n iac (N H Cl) t o fo rt y o r s ix t y

, , ,

parts of cas t iro n bo rings toge t he r w it h e no ugh wate r to fo rm

-
,

a t h ick pas te ; t h is is ra m med int o t he j o in t and allo wed to se t .

 C H APT ER X V I
ME CH A NI CS

F U N D A ME N T A L PR I N CI P LE S

1 61 1 . W o rk
That we may n o t be c o me c on fus ed in our
.

t e rm s it is n e c e s s ary to have a c le ar c o nc e pt io n o f t h e fundam e n t al

,

me chan ica l princ iples and d e fin it io ns .

T h e c o mm o n un it o f w o rk is t h e fo o t p o und wh ich may b -

,

d e fined a s t h a t amo un t of wo rk pe rfo rm e d whe n a we igh t of o ne

p o und is ra is e d a h e ight of o ne fo o t Th e un it ad o pte d by phys i.

c is ts is t h e e rg wh ich is t h e amo u n t o f w o rk d o ne by a fo rc e o f
,

o ne d yn e act ing t hro ugh t h e d is t anc e of o ne c e n timete r T he .

fo llo wing re lat io n o r e quat io n is o n e of t he fundame n ta l o nes

,
.

F o rc e X t h e d is t anc e t hro ugh wh ich it ac ts a lwa ys e qua ls t h e ,

res is t anc e X t h e d is t anc e thro ugh wh ic h it is mad e to a c t ; t hat is ,

FD rd H e re we s ee t ha t in t h e pe rfo rmanc e o f w o rk fo rc e
.

and m o tio n a re of e qua l im po rt anc e ; and th a t a give n am o unt of

wo rk may e it he r b e pe rfo rm e d by a large fo rce w ith s ligh t m o ve
me nt o r a s ma ll fo rc e w it h grea t m o ve me n t As an e x a mple o ur .
,

id e a o f a 1 500 h o rs e po w e r e ng ine is a mach in e o f gre a t s ize ;

-

h o we ve r it is n o t unc o mm on fo r th e t wo s m a ll e ngine s o f o ur
,

c ompo und lo c o m o t ives to d e ve lo p t h is amo un t o f po we r .

1 61 2 Po we r
. Po we r is t h e ra te o f d o ing w o rk a nd is a pro
.

duc t wh os e fac to rs a re s pac e t ime a n d fo rc e A co mple te id e a

,
.

of t h e po w e r o f a prim e m o v e r s u c h as th e s te am e n gin e be ing

, ,

fo rme d wh e n we s a y t h a t it pe rfo rms s o m a ny foo t po und s o f -

wo rk in o ne m inute W at t in h is a n x ie ty to ha ve h is e ng ines
.
,

d e velo p th e ir ra te d capa c it y to o k as t h e va lue o f t h e h o rs e po we r

,
-

a quan t it y n e arly d o ub le wh a t t h e ave ra ge h o rs e c a n d e ve lo p

wh ile walk ing —
foo t po und s pe r m inute s e le c t ing th e
-

value foo t po unds pe r m inute Th is un it o f po we r is th e

-
.

o ne in c o mm o n us e in s te a m e n gin e e rin g T h e un it o f e le c t rica l.

po we r is th e wa tt o r k ilo wa tt (o ne t h o us and wa tts ) 746 wa tts ,

be ing e qu ivale n t to o n e h o rs e po we r - .

370
372 ENG INEE RI NG A ND S HO P P RAC TIC E
a le nt h eat J o ule dete rmined t o b e
of fo o t po unds wh ile -
,

Pro fesso r Ro wland s mo re e xhaus t ive res e arch es s h o wed it to b e

’

77 8 fo o t po unds -
.

1 62 3 . An Ex pe rim en t in Th e rm o dyna m ic s Le t us no w co n .

d r t he
si e pro c ess es in t he fo llo wing e xpe rime n t : T he apparat us
c o ns is ts of a cylind e r wit h a t igh tly fitt ing we igh tles s fric t io n les s ,

p is to n and s o me met ho d of he a ting t he cylind e r A po und of

,
.

wate r a t 32 F is plac ed in t he cylind e r unde rnea t h t h e p is to n

°
. .

T h e firs t e ffe c t of t h e app lica t io n of he a t is to ra is e t he t e mpe ra t u re

o f t h e wa t e r wh ich e xpands inappre c iab ly Beginn ing w it h t he .

bo iling of t h e wate r t h e se c o nd e ffe c t is t ha t of t h e fo rmat io n o f

,

s te am wh ich fo rc es t h e p is t o n o ut At t h e ins t an t e vapo ra t io n is

.

c o mple te as we ll as during a ll t h e t im e it is go ing o n t h e cy lind e r

is s a id t o c o n t a in s a t ura te d s te am ; t hat is s te am wh ich c o n ta ins ,

jus t e xac t ly e no ugh heat to main ta in it in t h e gas e o us fo rm and ,

no m o re T he c o n t inued app lica t io n of h ea t af te r e vapo rat io n

.

h as bee n c o mp le te d res ults in t h e m o v ing of t h e p is to n s t ill fa rt he r ,

and the s te am in t he cylinde r wh ich h as be c o m e c o ns id e rably

h ott e r t hat is c o nt ains mo re he at t han is n eces s ary to kee p it
,

in t h e gas eo us fo rm is s a id to b e s u pe rhe a ted .

A t t h e ins tan t wh e n a ll th e wat e r h as b ee n change d to s te am ,

t h e p is t o n w ill have be e n m o ve d s uch a d is t anc e in t h e cy lind e r

as w ill ind ica te t ha t t he v o lum e o f s te am h as incre as ed 1 646

t im es t hat o f t h e wa te r .

I f we w e re t o me as ure t h e numbe r o f h ea t un its app lie d a t

t h e ins t an t whe n th e las t dro p o f wat e r wa s e vap o rat e d we w o uld ,

d is c o ve r that we re us e d to he at t h e wa te r and to
e ffe c t a m o le cu lar cha nge fro m wat e r t o s t e am mak ing th e t o t al ,

he at un its of s te am a t 2 1 2 to b e .
°
I f n o w we s h o u ld
arrange a t able (F ig 1 62 3 ) s e tt ing d o wn t h e re in add it io nal h ea t
.

in po unds of s te am a t c e rta in press ures and t h e d iffe re nc es we ,

wo uld d is c o ver t hat w it h s ma ll add it io ns of h e a t t h e pres s u re

ris es rapid ly .

Ab H
T o ta l ea t U n its Addi it o na l He a t U n its
D ff
s olute Pre ss ure
A
bo ve 3 2 D e g.
pe r Po und o f S tea m
i e rences

F IG . 1 62 3 .
 MECHANI CS 73

F ro m t h e abo ve table we a re impres s ed w it h t h e fac ts : (1 )

That s o s ma ll a po rt io n of t he he at is co nve rted into us e fu l wo rk
and (2 ) t hat s o mark ed an inc reas e in pres s ure o ccurs by t h e
add it io n of a s mall number o f hea t un its We t he n c o nc lud e t h is .

to be a was te ful m et ho d of us ing s te am E xpe rie nc e h a s pro ved

.

t hat any me t h o d in wh ich t h e s t e am fo llo ws t h e p is t o n a t fu ll

pres s ure during t he e n tire s t ro k e is was teful Th is led to t he .

inve n t io n of var io us d e v ic es fo r cut t ing o ff t h e s team a t s o m e

po int b efo re t he c o mplet io n of th e s t ro ke I t is s u ffic ie n tly e xac t
.

fo r o ur purp os e to s a y t ha t if a g ive n quan t it y of s te a m b e ex

p a n de d t o t w ic e its v o lume it s press ure,w ill b e o n e ha lf ; if to
t h ree t imes its v o lum e its press u re w ill b e o ne t h ird
, .

PO W E R G R A PH S A ND CO M P U T A T I O N S

1 63 1 Th e In d
. i ca to r Ca rd O n a graph re pres e nt ing press ures
.

and volumes , t h e e xpans io n curve w ill be an hype rbo la and t he

area of t h e graph will re pres e nt t h e amo unt of wo rk d o ne If .

s te am b e c ut o ff a t s o m e p o rt io n of t h e s t ro k e t h e pres s ure upo n ,

t h e p is to n it w ill b e s ee n is far fro m un ifo rm and t h e s pe ed of

, ,

t h e p is to n is variab le I n o ur c o mpu t a tio ns of t he w o rk pe r

.

fo rmed it w ill be ne c es s ary t he n to us e ave ra ge pres s ures and

, ,

s pee ds ; av e rag e pres s ures and s pee d s be ing t h os e wh ich pro duc e

t h e s ame to t a l e ffe c t as variable o ne s .

I n t h e fo llo w ing graph (F ig whe re F D re pres e nts

.

le ngt h o f s t ro ke and F A max imum pres s u re t h e s te a m is cut o ff ,

a t o n e quar te r o f t h e s t ro k e and e xpand s to a m in imum pres s ure

of DC .

T he are a t h e n of t h e graph may be t ak e n as be ing p ro po r

tio n a l t o t h e t o t a l w o rk d o n e by t h e s t e am I t is appare n t t ha t
.

t he e c o n o my o f us ing e xpand ing s t e am is gre a t as a glanc e re ve a ls ,

t h e are a B C D E t o exc ee d t ha t o f A B E F I f t h e are a of A B E F

.

b e 1 it can b e p ro ve n t ha t t h e a re a o f B C D E e quals th e hype r

,

b o lic lo garit hm of t h e ra t io of e xpans io n T he ratio in t h is .

ins t anc e is 4 ; t h e hype rb o lic logarit hm fo r 4 is so t ha t t h e

to tal are a o f t h e figure re pres e nt ing t h e t o t al w o rk d o ne by t h e

s te am is I f we had allo we d t h e s te am to fo llo w t h e p is t o n
during t h e e nt ire s t ro k e t h e are a of t h e graph wo uld have
,

bee n 4 b ut fo ur t imes t h e amo un t of s team would have bee n

,

us ed .
374 ENG I NEERI NG A ND S H O P P RACT ICE

F IG . 1 63 1 . I ndica to r C d
ar .

1 63 2 . Po we r and Stea m c o m pu tat io n of

Com puta tion s . A
t h e s t e am u s e d in e a ch o f t h e t wo in s ta nc es w ill s e rve t o illu s t rate
t h e e c o n o my in an o t h e r way L e t th e are a o f t h e p is to n b e
.

2 00 s quare inch e s t h e re vo lu t io ns 60 pe r m inu t e and t h e le ngt h

, ,

o f s t ro k e 2 fe e t (t wo s t ro ke s a lw a y s pe r r e v o lu t io n ) ; t h e n t h e

fo o t po unds o f wo rk de ve lo p e d pe r m inu te fo r t h e cas e wh e n

-

fo llo wing f ull s t ro k e a re

Sq in . L bs . Ft . Re vo lutio ns Fo o t-po unds

( )
2 00 X (1 0 0 ) X (4 ) X ( )
60 e qu a ls th e h o rs e po we r
é
fig
o
be ing th e fo o t po und s d iv id ed by
gz
g e qua ls
’
-
or

h o rs e - po we r .

T h e nu m b e r of cub ic fee t o f s te a m us e d pe r h o ur is
Sq F t
. . Re volutio m Min ute s

( 00)
2
X 4
( ) X ( )
60 X (60 ) e qua ls cub ic feet .

( )
1 4 4
T h e we igh t a cub ic fo o t o f s te a m a t 1 0 0 po und s abs o lute
of

is po u n ds a n d t h e s te a m c o n s u m e d pe r h o ur is x

or 4 600 p o und s T h e s te a m us e d pe r h o rs e p o we r pe r h o ur is
.

4600
e qua ls po und s of s te a m . Co mpu t in g t h e s te a m us e d
whe n cu tt ing o ff at i th e st o r ke ,
we h a v e : t h e ave ra ge he igh t of
 C H AP T ER XV II
—
PO W E R G E NE RAT I NG MACH I NES

ST E A M E N G I N E S
T U RBI N ES A ND

1 71 1 .Th e Steam E n gin e S team e ng ine s may be div id ed

.

acc o rd ing to t he numbe r a nd arra nge me nt of t he ir cylinde rs into

si mp le ,
c o mp o und t r ip le e xpa
, ns i-
o n quadrup l —
e e xpans io n dup le x
, , ,

et c ; acc o rd ing t o t h e t ype of v a lve and valve ge aring us ed in t o

.
,

plain s lide valve p is t o n valve auto mat ic c ut o ff Co rliss e tc

, ,
-
, ,
.

and acc o rd ing t o t he ir us e in to s t at io nary lo c o m o t ive and marine

, , .

A n y of t h e abo ve m a y b e e it h e r s ingle o r d o ub le ac ting as th e

s te am is ad m itt e d t o o n e o r b o t h s id es o f t h e p is t o n ; h o riz o n tal

o r v e rt ica l a s t h e c e n te r lin e o f t h e e ng ine c y lind e r is h o r iz o n t a l

or v e rt ica l ; and c o nd e n s ing o r n o n c o nd e n s ing wh e n e xhaus t ing

-

in to a part ial vacuu m or int o t h e at m o s ph e re .

T he de t a ils o f t h e s imple s lid e-va lve e ng in e a re s o w e ll kn o wn

t hat an e nume rat io n o f th e ir nam es and func t io n s w o u ld a lmos t
see m s upe rflu o us H o we ve r th e fo llo w ing figure (F ig 1 7 1 1 ) w it h
.
,
.

le tt e re d d et a ils may pro ve o f s e rv i c e to t h e n o v ic e .

T he c ut re pre s e n ts a t yp ica l v e rt ica l p is t o n va lve e ng in e as

built by t he Bu ffa lo F o rge Co t h e princ ipa l part s of wh ich a re
.
,

t h e cy linde r Cyl in wh ich re c iproc a tes t h e p is to n P

, ,
T he ,
.

re c ipro cat ing mot io n of t h e p is to n is tran s fo rme d in to t h e ro t ary

mot io n of t h e s haft t hro ugh th e p is to n rod P R th e cro ss he ad , ,
-
,

C H t h e c o nne c ting ro d C R and t h e cranks C

, , ,
T o t h e s haft is , .

at tach ed t h e e cc en t ric E by me ans of wh ich m o t io n is g ive n to

, ,

t h e va vel V ,
h —
and t e fi y whee ls W wh ich s e rve t he d o uble purp o se
of s te ady ing t h e ra t e o f ro t a t io n and o f t rans m it t ing t h e po we r .

T h e fi y— whee l ne ares t th e e cc e n tric c o n ta in s t h e go ve rno r G , ,

which by s h ifting regula tes t h e am o un t of s te am a t any s tro ke .

Th e mo ve me n t o f t h e valve acro ss t h e po rt s -p is e ffec te d by , ,

”
t h e e cc e n t ric t hro ugh t h e e cc e n t r ic ro d E R t h e s lid e S and t h e
, , , , ,

valve rod V R to t he valve Th e re lat ive po s it io n o f th e crank

, ,
.

and e cc e nt ric is quart e ring ; t hat is t o s a y t hat wh en th e p is to n ,

3 76
 PO WE R GENE RATI NG MACHI NES 3 77

re aches t he e nd of its s t ro ke t he valve has re ache d the m idd le of

its s t ro ke. Steam e nte rs t h e s te am ch es t S C thro ugh th e s t ea m
, ,

p ipe and fi lls t he s pace X bet wee n t he t wo po rt io ns of t he va lve .

T he pas s ag e of t h e s te am is as fo llo ws : Wit h t h e pis to n a t t h e

F IG . 1 71 1 . Se c t io n of a Ve
rt ica l Pi t
s on Va lv E ngine
e .

botto m of t h e cy linde r as ind ica ted t h e va lve mo ves d o wnward

, ,

unc o ve ring t h e lo we r po rt and admit t ing s te am und e rne at h th e

pis to n fo rc ing it up and caus ing t h e s te am abo ve it to be e x
,

ha ns ted t hro ugh the uppe r po rt wh ich latte r is o pe n to t h e

,

at mos ph e re By t h is time t he valve h as m o ve d upward s o a s

.

to adm it s t e am t hro ugh t h e uppe r po rt t hus fo rc ing t h e p is to n

,
 378 E NGIN EE RIN G AN D S H O P PRACT ICE
d o wn to its o riginal pos itio n co mpelling t h e s tea m wh ich fo rc ed
,

t h e p is to n up to b e e xhaus te d t hro ugh t h e lo we r po rt This .

a c tio n is c o n t inu o us and au t o ma tic .

1 71 2. Tu rb in e s A s te am t urb ine ge n e rally c o ns is t s of a d is c

.

o r cylinde r w it h p ro pe rly fo rme d buck e ts o r b lad es o n t h e c ircum

fe re nc e aga ins t wh ich t h e s te am impinges a t a d e te rm ined angle

,
.

I n its s imples t fo rm it is a t urb ine wh ee l o pe ra t ed b y s te a m

ins te ad o f by wa te r as is t h e o rd inary t urb ine .

T he mo s t impo rt an t re as o n fo r t h e h igh e ffi c ie ncy o f th e

t urb in e is t hat it is adapte d t o us e e ffe c t ive ly t h e h igh es t po s s ib le
d egrees of e xpans io n ; wh ile in t h e re c ipro cating e ngine it is pra e
t ica lly impo s s ib le to pro v id e fo r h igh d e grees o f e xpa n s io n As .

t h e e xhaus t pres s ure app ro ach e s a pe rf e c t vacuum t h e v o lume ,

nat ura lly incre as es a t a rap id ra te th e vo lume of s te a m wit h

2 —
a 9 inch vacuum be g d ub t hat w t h a 2 8 inch vacuum I n
in o le i — .

t h e t urb in e th e h igh e s t d e gree o f e xpans io n is e as ily pro v id e d fo r

bec aus e o f its imme ns e advant age in th e us e o f a ve ry h igh vacuu m
and a ll d e gree s o f s upe rh eat Co nse que n tly a much large r po rt io n
.

of t h e h e a t (w o rk ) in s te am can b e ut iliz e d by t urb in es th an by

s te am e ng in es .

Th e res pe c t ive we igh ts o f c o mp le te ge n e ra t ing un its e xc lus iv e

o f fo unda t io n s —
re c ipro cat ing e ngine and t urb ine a re in t h e
rat io of 8 to 1 and t he s av ing in fo undat io ns alo ne is a ve ry
,

impo rt ant ite m .

Th e impo rtant s te am t urb ines o n th e m a rke t a re t h e Do w

and th e Pyle th e De La va l t h e Curt is and t h e Wes t ingh o us e
, ,

Pars o ns . T h e Do w and t h e P yle have t h e ir c h ie f us e in lo c o

m o tive h e a d ligh t wo rk Th e D e La va l is v e ry e ffic ie n t and is
-

—
.

bu i t in s ize s up t o 30 0 ho rs e po we r wh ile t h e Cu rt is h as its ch ie f

l ,

us e in d ire c t c o nn e c te d ge n e ra t o r w o rk g e n e ra lly in la rge p lan t s

-
, ,

a n d is bu ilt in un it s up t o 5 00 0 k ilo wa tts T h e Wes t ingh o use

.

Pars o ns is bu ilt in la rg e r S izes t han any o t h e r t h e la rge s t o n t h e

.
,

mark et be ing k ilo watts o r h o rs e po we r I t is us e d -

.

e x te ns ive ly fo r bo t h marin e a n d e le c t r ical ge n e ra t ing w o rk .

1 71 3
. Th e Do w an d P yle Turbin e s T h e D o w t urb ine is a
.

s e ries of rad ia l o u t ward flo w t urb in es p lac e d lik e a s e ries o f c o n

-

ce n t ric rings in a s in g le plan e w it h a s t a t io nary gu id e ring b e t w ee n

e ach pa ir o f m o vab le ring s .

T he Py le t urb ine is s im ilar to t h e Do w w it h t h e e xc e p t io n ,

t h a t it c o n s is ts of inward flo w t urb in es

- Th es e two types of
.
3 80 EN G IN EERING AN D S HO P P RAC TICE
no zzles a gains t t h e plane o f th e t urb ine a t quite a s ma ll angle ,

and t angen t ially aga ins t t h e medium c ircumfe renc e o r c en te r line

of t h e buck e t s Th e int e rio r o f t h es e no zz les is t a pe re d w it h t h e
.

large e n d t o ward t h e buck e ts and t h e s te am in pas s ing t h ro ugh

,

t h e no zz le e xpand ing f ree ly to t h e press u re of t h e s urro und ings

, ,

acquires gre at ve lo c it y T h e e n e rgy due t o t h is ve lo c it y is

.

impa rte d by impac t t o t h e buck e ts t h e re by ro t at ing t h e wh e e l

, .

K e n t mak es t h e fo llo w ing re m arks in re fe re nc e to t h e De La va l

s te am t urb in e : As t h e s t e am pass es t hro ugh t h e chann e l o r
“

n o zzle its s pe c ific vo lume is incre as ed in a grea te r pro po rt io n

—
,

t han t h e cross s e c t io n of t h e cha n n e l and fo r t h is re as o n its ,

F IG . 1 7 1 40 . S ec tio na l Pl
a n of b
D e La v a l T ur ine Dy namo .

”
ve lo c it y is incre as e d and a ls o its mo me n tum t ill t h e e nd o f the ,

e xpan s io n a t t h e las t s e c t io na l are a o f t h e n o zz le T h e gre a te r .

t h e e xpan s io n in t h e n o z z le t h e gre at e r its v e lo c it y a t t h is p o in t

,
.

E xpa ns io n is carrie d furt h e r in t h is s t e am t urb in e t han in o rd inary

s t e am e ng in e s H e furt h e r s ta tes t ha t t o o bt a in t h e be s t po ss ib le
.

e ffe c t t h e adm is s io n to t h e b lad e s mus t b e free fro m b lo ws and

,

t h e ve lo c it y o f d is charge as lo w as p o ss ible Thes e c o nd itio ns

.

wo uld re qu ire in t h e s te am t urb ine an e n o rmo us ve lo c it y of t h e

pe riph e ry a s h igh as 1 300 to 1 60 0 fee t pe r s e c o nd O n acc o unt
, .

o f c e n t r ifuga l fo rc e t h e v e lo c it y o f t h e pe riph e ry o f a 5 h o rse

,

po we r t urbin e is 57 4 foo t pe r s e c o nd t h e numbe r of re vo lutio ns

.
,

be ing p e r m inu te .

Th e inab ilit y to s e cure a c o inc id e nc e o f th e c e n te r of grav it y

and t he geo metrical ax is of re vo lu t io n o n acc o u n t of t h e une ve n,

nes s in t h e te xt ure of th e mate rial n e c e ss ita t es s uch pro v is io ns

,
 PO W ER GEN E RATI NG MACH INES 38 1

and adjus t me n ts as w ill allo w t h e rot at ing mas s to adj us t its

c e n te r of ro t a tio n to it s c e n te r of grav it y Th is is ge ne rally .

acc o mp lis h e d by t h e us e o f a fle x ible s haft mo vab le be arings o r , ,

t h e us e of a be aring wh ich is k e p t fi lle d w it h o il a t a v e ry h igh

press ure .

As w ill b e s ee n fro m F ig 1 7 1 40 th e s peed re duc t io n n e c es s ary

.

fo r o rd inary purp o s es is e ffe c te d by mea n s o f t h e ge aring J K .

Th is t ype o f t urb in e is bu ilt in un ts up t 300 h r e po we r

i o o s - .

1 71 5 . Th e Curtis Tu rb in e I n t h e Curt is t urbine no a tte mpt

.

is mad e to k ee p t h e s pee d of t h e vanes up t o o n e half t ha t o f t h e

j e t t h is is a c o nd it io n o f e c o n o my in t h e De La va l fo r it is

S tea m Ch es t

Moving Bl ades

S ta tiona ry Bl ade.

M oving Bl a des

S tat iona ry Bl ades

M ovi ng Blades

M ovin g B l ades

Moving B l a de s

M ovlng Bl a des

F IG . 1 7 1 5a . Di g a m
a r of Cu
rtis Nozz les an d B uckets .
38 4 ENG INEE RI NG AND S H O P P RACTI CE
in i
p g gn
‘

mo v ing blad es driv ing th e m aro und and s o on

on th e . .

T h e areas o f t h e pass ag es incre as e pro gres s ive ly in vo lume cor ,

res po nd ing wit h th e expa ns io n o f t h e s team O n t he righ t o f t he .

s te am in le t a re s h o wn re vo lv ing ba lanc e p is to n s P P P o n e co r , , ,

res po nd ing t o e ach of t h e cy lind e rs in t h e turb in e wh ich acc o rd ,

ing t o s iz e may b e 1 2 3 o r 4 in numbe r , ,

T h e s t eam a t A p res ses .

a ga ins t t h e t urb ine and go e s t hro ugh d o ing w o rk I t a ls o presses .

in t h e re ve rs e d ire c t io n b ut cann o t pass t h e p is t o n P b ut a t t h e

, ,

s am e t ime t h e pres s ure s o far as t h e s te am a t A is c o nc e rn e d is

, ,
,

e qua l and o p po s it e s o t hat t h e s haf t is n o t s ubj e c te d t o any e nd

,

F IG . 1 7 1 6s . S ec t io na l El e va t io n of W h P
es t ing o use- a rso ns b
T ur ine .

t hrus t By m e a ns o f th e e q ua liz ing p o rts o r p ipe s E the pis to ns

.

a re s ubj e c t e d to t h e s a m e pre s s ure as t ha t ac tin g o u t h e var io us

drums .

T h e are as o f t h es e ba la nc e p is t o n s a re s o a rrange d t ha t n o
ma tte r what t he lo ad may b e o r what t h e s te am pres s ure o r ,

e xhaus t pres s ure may b e t h e c o rre c t ba lanc e is pres e rv ed and t h e

,

s haf t h a s n o e n d t hru s t wha te v e r .

A t T is s h o wn a t h rus t be aring wh ich h o we ve r h as n o t hrus t , ,

t o t ak e care o f b ut s e rve s t o ma in t a in t h e c o rre c t adjus t me n t o f

,

t h e ba lanc e p is to n s .

Th is t urb ine is bu ilt in un its up to k ilo wa tts o r

ho rs e po we r
-
.
 PO WE R GENE RAT I NG MACH INES 385

F I G 1 7 1 6b . .
—5 000
G e ne ra t ing K W . . U it C m p i on f Space
n s . o ar s o
p
O cc u ied a nd S iz e o f o unda t io ns F . M d Engi Typ U it nd
o e rn ne e n , a
a W e s t ingh o use Pa rso ns T ur ine T b yp U nit f im il R ting nd
e o s ar a a
O ve rloa d a a c it C p y .

71 T
7a1b le of Com pa
. ra tive S tea m a n d Coa l Con s um ptio n .

Co mpara t ive S te am and Co a l c o ns umpt io n pe r 1 h o rs e p o w e r -

h o ur o f t he vario us t ypes of e ngines

K indof E ngine S tea m

S m a ll E ngine s , S im pl e ,
No n - C
on de n s ing .

M dium
e p E Cn gine s ,
i
S m le , No n -
o nd e ns ing

Me dium ngin S im p l C n d
E i g es , e, o e ns n

C m po und E gi
o C nd i g n nes , o e ns n .

T ip l E p
r ei Engi
-
x Co nd i g
a ns o n n es , e ns n

Q u d up l E p n i n E gi
a r e- Co nd n
x a s o n n es ,
e s in g

B t h h od R t y E gin
ro er o o ar n e

Cy l id l E ngin
c o a e .

Pyl S t m T u bin
e ea r e .

D w S t m T u b in
o ea r e .

W t ingh us P
es S te m T u b in
o e- a rs o ns a r e

D L v l S t m T u b in
e a a ea r e .

Cu t i S t m T u bi
r s ea r ne .

F IG . 1 71 7 .
38 6 ENG IN EERING A ND S HO P PRACTICE

G AS , OI L A ND H o r AI R E N G I N ES
'

1 7 2Th eory a nd Th e rm odynam ics I n t he chapte r o n

1 . .

Mec h a nics we d is c o ve re d t hat o ne t h e rma l un it of he at wa s

pro duced by t he expe nd it ure of 778 foo t po un ds of wo rk I n a -
.

t h e rmo dy n amical d is cus s io n of h e a t and wo rk we d is c o ve r t ha t ,

t h e gre at es t amo unt of wo rk wh ich can poss ib ly b e o bt a in ed f ro m

a h ea t e ng ine in its c o nve rs io n of a g ive n quan tit y of hea t is
-

T t
Wo rk X To t al He at
T 4 60

wh ere T and t are t h e te mpe ra t ures o n th e F ahre nh eit s cale

—
be t wee n wh ich t h e pe rfec t h ea t e ng ine is wo rk ing 460 being
abs o lute ze ro o n t h e F ahre n he it s ca le .

I n t h e app lica t io n of t h ese t wo laws to t h e s t e am e ngine t h e ,

firs t s te p in t h e pro c ess was to increase t h e e las t ic it y o r press ure

of t h e gas (s te am ) by h ea t ing it in a c los e d ves s e l T h e s t e am .

wa s t he n pas s ed in to a cylind e r and e xpand ed during wh ich ,

pro c ess a po rt io n of t h e he at was c o nve rted into us e fu l wo rk t h e ,

re s idue e s cap ing fro m t h e cy lind e r a t a lo we r t e mpe rat ure Th is .

we d is c o v e red t o b e a was t e fu l pro c ess t h e bes t s te am e n g in e ,

having a t h e rmal e ffi c ie ncy of fro m 2 1 % to G a s and o il

e ng in es s ee k t o e lim ina t e t h e was te due to t he c o mp lica te d appa

rat us fo r h eat ing and incre as ing t h e press ure of the gas (s tea m )
by inte rnal c o mbus t io n t hat is by ge ne rating h eat and press ure
,

d ire c tly in t he cylinde r of t h e e ng ine .

Bea u D e Ro ch a s Con clus ion s Otto a n dCle rk Cycle s

’
1 7 2 2 . .

I n 1 862 Be au de Ro chas anno unc ed t h e fo ur fo llo w ing c o nd itio ns

t o b e n e c es s ary t o se cure t h e b es t res u lts f ro m an e xpand ing gas :

( )
1 T h e cy lind e r s h o u ld hav e t h e gre a t e s t capac it y w it h t h e

s ma lles t c ircu m f e re n t ia l s u rfa c e ; t ha t is a cylind e r wh o se le ngt h

,

is e qu ivale nt to its diame te r ( ) T h e s pee d S h o uld be as h igh

2 .

as p o s s ib le (3) T h e c ut o ff s h o uld b e as e arly as po ss ible

.
-
()4 .

Th e in itia l pres s ure s h o u ld b e a s h igh as po ss ible Th is po s t u .

la tes th at ign it io n o f t h e gas s h o uld t ak e p lac e a t t h e d e ad po int ;

s uch ho we ve r is no t t h e prac t ice w it h m od e rn e ngines for it
, , ,

h as be e n d is c o v e red t ha t in t h is c la ss o f e ng in es and in guns

in wh ich t h e ac t io n of t h e ga s is ana lo go us be t te r res ults a re
s e cure d wh e re t h e ris e o f pres s ure is m o re gradua l and it s in te n

s it y part ially s us ta in ed P rac t ic e s h o ws t h a t t wo impo rtant

.
388 ENG INEE RING AN D S HO P PRACTICE
e xplos io n rat he r t han by c o mbus t io n ; and aga in in cases where ,

t h e regu la t io n is e ff e c t e d by t h e adm is s io n o f a variab le quan t it y

o f t h e e xplos iv e m ix t u re t h e c o mpres s io n is no t g e n e ra lly a co n

s t an t .

F IG . 1 72 2 b . O t to G as E ngine .

O ne ofgre a t advan ta ges o f t h e O tt o cyc le h o we ve r is

t he , ,

t ha t it le n ds it s e lf re ad ily t o a d es ign o f e ngin e wh ich is a t o nc e

s imp le in m e ch a n ica l c o ns t ruc t io n e ffi c ie n t in t h e us e o f fu e l and
,

ea s ily o pe ra t ed .

1 7 2 3 . Dis cu s sion of D eta il s an d Meth o ds of Regula tion . At

””
the pres e nt t ime t h e maj o rity o f t h e s ma ll s tat ionary gas and
,

o il e ng in e s o pe ra t e o n t h e O t t o cyc le w it h wha t is ca lle d t h e

h it o r m iss s ys te m o f regula t io n
“
.

T h e h it o r m iss s ys t e m o f re gula t io n is bas e d o n th e o pe n in g

“

o f t h e ga s adm is s io n va lv e u n d e r t h e ac t io n o f t h e g o ve rn o r t h e ,

a ir adm is s io n b e ing ind e p e nd e n t and o c c urr ing a t e ach cyc le w it h

t h e re s u lt t h a t a s t h e lo a d flu c t ua te s t h e n umb e r o f adm is s io n s

, ,

a n d e xp lo s io n s var ies acc o rd ing ly T h e pro p o r t io n s o f t h e m ix

.

t ure a re regula t e d o nc e fo r a ll wh ile t h e c o mpre s s io n re ma in s a

c o ns tan t .

F o r t h e re as o n t h a t it is re qu ire d s im ply t o d is pla c e a lit t le

p ie c e o f me tal be t wee n t h e s t e m o f t h e a dm is s io n va lve and t h e
 PO W E R GENERATI NG MACHI NES 38 9

cam ,
t he h itm iss s ys te m o f regu la t io n is o ne of gre at s e ns i
or

t ive nes s in t h e go ve rn o r me chan is m it be ing s ubj e c t t o no re ac t io n

,

by t he de ta ils wh ich it o pe ra tes .

S ma ll t wo cyc le e ng in e s a re us e d to a c o ns ide ra b le e x t e nt fo r
-

launch and au t o mo b ile wo rk I n E uro pe t h e te nd e n cy o f prac tic e

.

fo r t he larg e r e ng in es t h o s e o v e r 1 00 h o rs e po w e r is t o ward t he
,
-
,

K oe rt ing t ype T he K oe rt ing e ng in e is d o ub le ac t ing a s a re

.
-
,

m o s t s te am e ng ines ; it o pe ra tes o n t he Cle rk cyc le and ha s t he

c o mbus t ible charge of gas and a ir d e live re d to and th e burnt ,

gas es e x t rac ted fro m t he cy lind e r by means o f t wo a ux iliary

,

F IG . l 72 3a . S e c t io na l Pla n of K oe rting Two -c y cl

e G as Engin e, S h ow

in g Pi to
s n, M i
a n, a n d Ch a rging Cylinde rs .

cylinde rs o ne an a ir t h e o t he r a gas ,
wh ich s e rve as pumps .

Th es e cy lind e rs a re s o pro po rt io ned th a t t h e p ro pe r c o mbus t ible

m ix t ure is d e live re d to t h e wo rk ing cy lind e r by t he ac t io n o f t wo
p is to n va lves T he e ng in e is regulate d by a t hro t t ling d e v ic e
.

und e r t h e c o n tro l o f a go ve rn o r Th is type o f eng ine o pe ra t es

.

e it h e r o n b las t o r pro duc e r gas and h a s a t h e rma l e ffi c ie ncy ,

acc o rd ing to P ro fes s o r Me ye r o f I t is mad e in h o rs e po we rs

,
-

rang ing fro m t ho s e in hundre d s t o t ho s e meas ured in t h o us and s .

U n ifo rm it y o f ro ta t io n is s e cure d in t h e s ing le cy lind e r e ng ines -

o n ly by t h e us e o f e xc ess ive ly large and h e avy fly wh ee ls wh ich -

re duc e t h e me cha n ica l e ffic ie ncy to 80 % o r 8 2 % ins te ad o f 8 5 %

to I n n e arly a ll o f t h e large gas e ng in es and es pe c ia lly ,

t h ose wh ich o pe ra te o n t h e O t to cyc le t h e manufac t ure rs hav e

,
39 0 EN IN G EERING AN D S HO P PRAC TICE

e nd eavo red to se cure un ifo rmit y o f turn ing eff ort by inc reas ing
t h e numbe r of t h e cy lind e rs A m e rican prac tic e t e nds t o ward a
.

multiple cy lind er ve rt ica l fo ur cyc le e ng in e wh ile E uro pean

,
-
,
,

prac tic e is to ward a t wo cy lind e r ho riz o n ta l t wo cyc le engine

-
, ,
-
,

whe re e c o no my of c o ns umpt io n is sa crificed t o o bt a in a m in imum

numbe r of mo v ing parts and a un ifo rm t urn ing e ffort .

F IG . 1 7 2 3b . W e s t ingh o us e V e rt ic a l G as E ngine .

O ne of bes t kno wn A m e rican iz ed e ng ines is t h e D ies el

the
e ng ine ,
m a nufac ture d a t Pro v id e nc e R I t h e la tes t t ype of , . .
,

which h a s t hree ve rt ical cylind e rs m o un te d s ymm e t rica lly and a ll

driv ing t h e s ame S haft e ach cy lind e r o pe rat ing inde pe nde n tly on
,

t h e O tt o cyc le .

1 72 4 . Th e Die s el Engin e F ro m a d es crip t io n publis h e d in

.

P ower A pril 1 9 0 3 we le arn t ha t : T h e Dies el e ng in e h as t h ree

“
, , ,

d is t inc t ive chara c te ris t ics a s c o m pa re d w it h e xis t ing e xplos ive

g as and o il e n gin e s Th e y a re.
()l Th e c o n t e n t o f t h e cy lind e r
during t h e c o mpres s io n s t ro ke is a ir o nly and t h e te mpe rat ure
39 2 ENG I NEE RING AN D S HO P PRACT ICE
e xt re mely h igh te mpe rat ure o f th e a ir c o mpress ed by t he up
s t ro ke o f t h e p is to n A n y g rad e o f crud e o r fue l o il may b e
.

use d The a ir wh ich s uppo rts c o mbus t io n is drawn into t he

.

cylind e r t hro ugh an auto ma tic mus hroo m va lve and c o mpres s ed
by t he up s t ro ke of t h e pis to n to bet wee n 450 and 52 5 po unds
p e r s quare i nch T h e res
. u l t ing t e mp e ra t ure appr o ach es 1 000 F .

and t h is is much m o re t han s u ffi c ie n t to ign ite t h e oil as s oo n as

it is inj e c te d A t t h e c o mme nc e me n t of t he d o wn s t ro ke t h e
.

fuel valve o pe n s re ma in ing o pe n abo ut a t e nt h of t he s t ro ke

, ,

and fuel is adm it te d and burne d in no s e ns e explo d e d during

t h e wh o le o r part o f t h is pe rio d acc o rd ing t o t h e ac t io n o f
,

”
t h e go v e rn o r Aft e r t h e fue l s upp ly is s to p pe d t he re s ult ing
.
,

gas es of c o mbus t io n wo rk e xpans ively during th e res t o f the

s t ro k e .

Tes ts o f th is eng ine s ho w a t he rma l e ffic ie ncy of and

t e s ts o n a s ing le cy lind e r e ngin e O f th is t ype pro duc e d a brak e
-

h o rs e p o we r pe r h o ur o n Q po und o f o rd inary crud e o il The

-
.

reliab ility of t h is e ng ine is e vinc e d by a c o nt inuo us m ix of o ver

t wo w ee ks in wh ich t h e o pe ra t io n was ab s o lu t e ly w it h o u t s t o p
and t he variat io n o f e le c t rica l pre s s ure ge n e rated wa s ve ry s ma ll .

1 72 5 F ue ls
. As may b e ga t h e re d fro m t h e fo re go ing te x t
.
,

a n d fro m F ig s 1 72 5s and b o n page s 3 9 4 and 3 9 5 t h e fu e ls e m

.
,

p loye d in t he s e e ngines vary w id e ly O f t h e gas es c o mmo nly

.

us e d we may me n t io n o rd inary illum inat ing ga s pro duc e r gas

, ,

and t he was te gas es fro m blas t furnac es Many ga s and gas o .

line e ng in es o pe ra te o n carbure t e d a ir t h e a ir be ing pas s e d

,

o ve r gas o lin e o r s o m e o t h e r v o lat ile p e t ro le um s p ir it of lo w

s p e c ific grav it y is s a t ura t e d wit h vapo r and be c o m e s e qua l in
,

he at ing o r ligh t ing po we r t o o rd inary c o al gas G rea t caut io n .

s h o u ld b e u s e d in t h e hand ling o f gas o lin e t h e dange r aris ing

,

b ecaus e t h e vapo rs give n o ff a t o rd inary t e mpe ra t ures a re h igh ly

e xp lo s ive O ne o f t h e d e fe c t s of a c o mm o n fo r m o f carbure te r
.

is t ha t t h e m o re v o la t ile o ils a re fi rs t t ak e n o ff le av ing what is ,

s o me t im es a us e les s o ily re s idu e T o o bv iate t h is d iffi culty s o me

.

manufac t ure rs s pray t h e gas o lin e in t o a curre n t o f a ir by wh ich

it is vap o riz e d ; t h e m ix t ure is t h e n c o mpres s e d and ign ite d by
an ele c t ric s park W h e n gas o lin e is s o us e d it s h o uld b e le d
.
,

fro m an und e rground tank t hro ugh s o ld e re d p ipes t o t h e co m

b us t io n chambe r and a t n o t ime S h o uld it c o m e in c o n t ac t w it h
,

t h e a ir o u ts id e of t h e e ng in e Th e re s h o uld n e ve r b e any flame

.
 POW ER GEN E RATING MACH INES 39 3

or burn ing gas es in t h e v ic in it y of t he cylinde r e xc e p t of c o urs e , ,

in t h e cas e o f h o t tube ignitio n wh e re it is a fe ature o f t h e e n

,

gine .

Mo to rs o f t he Pries t m a n and Dies el t ype o pe rate o n t h e les s

vo lat ile pe t ro le um pro duc ts s uch a s ke ros e ne part ially re fi ne d o r ,

e ve n crud e o il .I f fo r n o o t h e r ca us e t han t he lo w c os t o f fue l ,

t h e gas o line e ng ine is rap id ly s upe rs e d ing t h e s mall s t e am

e ng in e fo r as e arly as 1 8 9 3 t h e c o s t of fue l a t re t a il fo r s ma ll
,

gas o line e ngine s was on a par w it h t he s te am e ngine us ing 6

po unds o f c o al pe r h o rs e po we r ho ur w it h c o al a t t hree d o llars
-
,

and o ne ha lf pe r t o n T he s av ing h e re w o u ld b e t h e c os t of
.

att e ndanc e fo r bo ile rs a nd t he hand ling o f t h e s o lid fuel and

as hes T h e c o s t o f o pe rat io n fo r a g as o line e ng ine re quiring
.

o n e t e n t h ga llo n pe r h o rs e p o we r pe r h o ur w it h gas o lin e a t e igh t

-
,

c en ts pe r ga llo n wo uld b e 8 c e nts pe r h o rs e po we r pe r h o ur

,
.
-
.

1 72 6 O pe ra tion
. G as e ng in es un lik e s te a m e ng in es do n o t
.
, ,

s t art w it h o ut t h e a id o f s o m e aux iliary s tart ing d e v ic e S t art ing .

d e vic es have tak e n vario us fo rms acc o rd ing to t h e id e as o f t h e

manufa c t ure rs ; s o m e o f t h e me th o d s e mplo ye d b eing a crank
t urn e d by hand fo r t h e s ma lle r s iz es ; a s imp le m e a ns o f p lac ing
a s tarting charge in t h e cy lind e r ; o r t he s t arting may b e e ff e c te d
by t h e us e o f c o mpres s e d a ir .

T h e life o f t he o rd inary ga s e ng in e is far s h o r te r fo r t h e ,

re as o ns s tate d by Cle rk t ha n t h e life o f t h e o rd inary s te a m

,

e ng in e O f t h e s am e h o rs e po w e r -H o we ve r t h is m e chan ica l diffi

.
,

culty is being rapid ly s o lve d bo t h in A me rica and in E uro pe .

A t pres e n t t h is s h o rt life o ff s e ts to s o m e d egre e t h e e c o n o my o f

t h e ga s e ng ine p lant
-
.

1 72 7 Na ph th a En gin e s
. Na ph t ha e ngin es us e naph tha in t h e
.

b o ile r in s te ad O f wa te r t h e va po r be ing us e d e x p a ns ive ly in t h e

,

e n gin e cy lind e r as s t e am is us e d U po n be ing e x haus t e d it is

.

c o nde ns e d and re t urn e d t o t h e bo ile r ; a po rtio n o f t he naph t h a ,

ho we ve r be ing us e d a s fuel und e r th e bo ile r T h es e eng ines a re

,
.

us e d almo s t e xc lus ively fo r s ma ll ya ch ts and launch es A 4 .

h o rs e po we r e ng ine we igh s 300 po und s c o n s umes fro m 4 to 6

-
,

quarts o f naph t ha pe r h o ur and t ak es b ut abo u t two m inute s to

g e t und e r h e ad w ay .

1 72 8 H ot a ir o r Ca lo ric En gin e s
.
-
H o t a ir e n g ines a re u s e d
.
-

t o s o m e e x t e n t fo r pump ing s m a ll quan t it ies o f wat e r b ut t h e ir ,

bulk is e n o rm o us c o mpare d w it h t h e ir eff e c t ive po we r Th e hea t .

 EN GI NEERING AN D S HOP P R CTI A CE
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39 6 ENGINEE RING AND S HO P PRACTICE
of a s lowl y burning fuel is applied to t he pi s ton and rejec ted a t
t h e end of t h e s t roke The f ollowing da ta a re compiled from a
.

t es t made by Profes s o r Robins on of a t welve nominal ho rs e

, ,

power ho t a ir enigne : -

Thi s engine gave I H P i n t h e wo rking cylinde r and

“
. . .

I H P in t h e pump leaving
. . . n et while t h e
,

eff ec t ive brake H P was giving a mechanical e ffi ciency of

. .

The cons umpt ion of coke was pounds pe r b rake H P . .

p e r hou r ; while t h e mean e ff ec t ive p re ss u re on t h e wo rking pi s t ons

was pounds pe r s qua re inch ; in t h e pumps it was

po unds The area of t h e wo rk i ng cylinde rs was t wice t hat of
.

t he pumps The temperat ure of th e h ot a ir s upplied wa s abo ut

.

1 1 60 deg rees F it being rejec ted a t t h e e nd of t h e s troke a t a

.
,

t em pe rat ure o f 8 9 0 deg rees F .

H YD RA U LI C Mor o ns

1 73 1 . W a te r Wh eelshaft m a y be ro t ated by water in

. A s

one of t h e t h ree following ways : by weight by impul s e and by ,

re ac t ion Ve ry fe w whee l s a ct wholly by ei t he r o f t hes e modes

.
,

t h e wheel t aking t hi s or t ha t fo rm as one o r t h e o t he r modes of

ac tion p reponde rates .

The cha rac t eri s t ics of wa te r wheel s a re t hat t hey operat e by

t h e weigh t o f t h e wa t e r and move wi t h a low veloci t y t h e veloci t y ,

”
having no de fi ni t e relat ion t o t he heigh t o r head of t h e water
under which t he whee l ope rates Paddles blades or buckets a re .
,

fas t ened to a s haft o r t o a s pide r in s uch a manne r t ha t t he “

weight of t h e wa te r on t hem ro t ates t h e whee l The whee l s a re .

des ign ated a s unders hot t ho s e which receive t h e wa te r belo w t he

,

cen te r ; o vers ho t t hos e wh ich recei ve t h e wa ter a t o r nea r t h e to p

,

and running con t ra ry to t h e unde rs ho t ; and breas t t hos e which ,

receive t h e wa t e r above t h e cen t e r and belo w t h e t o p and run

t h e s ame as th e unde rs hot The e ffi cienc y of wat er whee l s varies

.

as follow s Me rriam givi ng t hi s e ffi ciency : ove rs ho t wheel s 70 %

, ,

to b reas t wheels 50 9 to 80 9 1 wi t h t h e lower values on

, 2 ,

t h e s malle r wheel s ; unde rs ho t wi t h t h e ex c ept ion o f Po nc ilo t ,

which on ac coun t o f its peculia r cons t ruc t ion h a s an e ffi ciency

of 2 0 % to 40 7r (
60 %
1 73 2 . Turb in e s , Th eory The wo rd t u rbine an d Dis c us s ion .

w h en us ed in hyd raulic s gene rally refe rs to an imp ul s e o r reac t ion -

wheel t h e principle charac t e ri s t ic of which is t ha t it runs wi t h a

,
 PO WE R GENE RATI NG MACHINES 97

”
velocit y which h as a defi ni te rel a ti on to t he h ead unde r which it
O pe ra t es I n t he following di s cus s ion t aken in pa rt from G C
. . .

Ma rk s excellent wo rk on H yd raulic Power E ngineering t h e fri c

’
,

t ion lo s s es a re n eg lec t ed and t h e mat t er is p res en t edt heo re t ically .

I f a s t ream of wa t e r having a cert ain veloci t y Vw encoun ters , ,

a cu rved vane t h e pat h of t h e s t ream will be al tered following

, ,

t h e c urve o f t h e vane a nd leaving it in t h e di rec t ion which t h e

vane would t ake were it con tinued The veloc it y Vw of t h e .
, ,

lea ving s trea m will be t h e s ame as on ent ering th e vane th e only ,

change being one of di rec t ion S hould a velocit y Bv be given

.
, ,

t o t h e vane an ins pec t ion of t h e diag ram will s how t hat t h e wa t e r

,

may never reach t h e vane fo r when t h e s tream has reached Va:

,

t h e vane will have t raveled to B

’

F1 0 . 1 7 32 .

To obviate t h is ei t her t h e ori fi ce of t he s tream mus t be given

,

a mo t ion s imilar in di rec t ion and magni t ude to Bv o r t h e di rec t ion ,

and veloci ty of t h e s tream mus t b e al tered t o E t he res ul tant of ,

Vw and E r The mo t ion of t h e s t ream relat ive to t he moving

.

vane again coincides wi t h Vw The mot ion of t he s tream on

.

leaving t h e vane will again coincide wi t h vw relat ively to t he ,

vane b ut a s t h e vane and s t ream each have t he veloci t y E u

, ,

t h e abs olut e o r re al veloci t y o f t h e s t ream on lea ving t he vane

will be t h e res ul tant of mo and B v or L On ent ering t h e vane .

t h e s t ream h a s an abs olu t e veloci t y of E and a co rres ponding

Wm
st ore of ene rgy of while on leaving t h e vane th e amoun t was
29
WL 2

29
W hen less t han E th e di ff erence h as bee n applied to
L is the
vane and may be applied in t h e pe rfo rmance of us eful wo rk
,
.
 G EERI NG AND S H O P P RACT ICE
°

39 8 E N IN

The veloci t y E of t h e head being fi xed the veloci t y L of the ,

dis charge s hould be made a s low as po ss ible b ut neve r zero as , ,

t hen t h e wa te r would n o t flow f rom t h e vane The only govern .

ing condi tion fo r t h e curve of t h e vane is t hat t h e water flo w

gradually from t he angle of ent ry to t h e angle of exi t .

J P F rizell poin ts o ut in a di s cu s s ion mo re pa rt icula rly of

. .
,

cup s haped vanes t hat : (1 ) The pu rpos e of t h e vanes o r flo a ts

-
,

in an impul s e whee l is to effec t t h e great es t po ss ible change in

t h e mo t ion of t h e wa te r Thei r lengt h need be no great er t ha n
.

is neces s a ry t o accompli s h t ha t change and (2 ) it is a condi t io n ,

o f highes t e ffi ciency t ha t t h e wa t e r s hould le a ve t h e vane in a

di rec t i o n oppos i t e t o its m ot ion and wi t h a veloci ty eq ual to t hat

o f t h e vane a t t h e poin t o f exi t W here t h e edge of t h e vane is
.

radial t o t h e wheel di ff e ren t p a rts move wi t h di ffe ren t veloci t ies

, ,

and t h e ful fi lment o f t hi s condi t ion is i m pos s ible .

F rizell in h is di s cu s s ion o f re a c t i o n whe el s s uppos es t h e rim

of a wheel to con t ain o ri fi ces which di s cha rge t h e wate r in a direc
t ion abs ol ut ely t a ngent ial t o t h e whe e l The p res s u re wi t hin th e
.

wheel is a s s umed to be g reat e r t han t h e p res s u re wi t hout t he ,

di ff e rence in p re s s u re being rep res en t ed by t h e head H If A .

rep res en ts t h e c ro s s s e c t ion o f t h e s t ream

-
W t h e weight of a ,

cubic foo t of wat er and V equa l s t h e veloci t y ; t h e bes t velocit y

o f t h e ci rcum fe rence t hen is t ha t due t o t h e h ead H a t which

t h e wat e r i s s ues In t hi s cas e t h e abs olut e tangen t ial veloci t y of

.

t h e wa te r leaving t h e wheel is ze ro w hile t h e ene rgy impa rt ed t o

,

t h e whee l is 2 WA V H o r t wi c e t h e ene rgy o f t h e wa t er unde r

t h e given head Thi s does n o t imply that t h e whee l is capable of
.

yielding an e ffi ciency o f fo r in o rde r t ha t t h e wa te r may

,

i s s ue f rom t h e o ri fi ce while t h e wheel is in mo t ion it mus t recei ve ,

a t angent ial veloci ty equal t o t hat o f t h e wheel and to impa rt ,

t hi s veloci t y requi res a n expendi t u re o f ene rgy WA V H This ,

.

and t h e s eve ra l lo s s es inciden t t o mo t io n t o get he r wi t h that du ,

t o t h e d e vi a t ion o f t h e i s s uing s t re a m f ro m t h e di rec t ion of a

t angen t m us t be deduc t ed from t he o ri ginal ene rgy 2 WA VH
, .
.

,
.

1 73 3 Tu rb in e s
. Cla s s e s a n d U s e s The t wo cl a s s es of .

”
t u rbi n es impul s e and re ac t ion e a c h con t a in s eve ral dis t inc t
, ,

t ypes The impul s e t u rbines h ave no s u c t ion t ube (s e e Ma rk s ’

.

H yd raulic Powe r E n gin ee ri n g p a ge 2 9 2 t o 2 9 8 ) and t h e t ypes

,

a re t h e P el t on o r b u rdy gu rdy wh e e l t h e radial ou t wa rd flow t h e

-
,
,

radial inwa rd flow and t h e axial flo w .

40 0 ENG INEE RING A ND S H O P P RACTICE

F IG . l 7 3 4b .
— D o ble l
E lipso ida l B u ke t fter
c a H ours ’
S e rvice un der

a H d of 1 300 feet
ea .

F10 . A c t io n of l
D o b lc Ncc dle Re gu a t ing N l
oz z e .
PO WE R GE NE RATI NG MACH IN ES 40 1
40 2 EN IN G EERING AND S H O P PRACTI CE
r eac t ion wheels a re t h e Boyden wheel which as early as 1 846
,

gave a n et e ffi ciency of t h e S wain ; t h e A me rican ; t h e

Ri s don ; t h e Le fl el and t h e D uplex The maximum e ffi ciency of
'

t his cl as s of t u rbine is f rom 75 % t o

The evolut ion of reac t ion wheel s to t hi s t ime h as res ul t ed in
a fo rm of whee l in which t he wat er enters t h rough openi ngs
having t heir longes t dimens ions pa rallel to t he s haft and leaves
,

it t h rough O pe nings which have t hei r longes t dimens io ns radial

t o t h e s haft
. The greates t di ff erence bet wee n th e various makes
of whee l s is mainly one of det ail ei t her in t h e ada ptat ion of t he
,

wheel to a ho ri zon t al s haft in t he s haft of t he guides or vanes

, ,

in t h e gates and in t h e governing mechanis m .

40 4 ENG INEERING A ND S H O P P RAC TIC E
J oule , W
uni t of ene rgy o r wo rk (vol t coulomb ) ; it is
,
is t he -

p rac t ically equivalen t to t h e energy expended in one s econd by

an ampere flowing t h rough a res i s tance of one ohm .

A m pere I is t h e uni t of cu rren t s t rengt h o r ra te of flow and

,

is equivalen t to an unva rying cu rren t which when pas s edt h ro ugh ,

a s olut ion o f ni trat e o f s ilver in wate r in acco rdance wi t h s tanda rd

s peci fi ca t ion s depo s i ts s ilve r a t th e rate o f 00 1 1 1 8 grams per -
.
,

s econd .

Volt E is t h e uni t of elec t ro mo t ive fo rce t he di ff e rence o f -

potent ial or elec t rical pres s u re ; and is t hat elec tro—

, , ,

mot ive fo rce ,

which s teadily a pplied to a conduc to r whos e res is t ance is one

,

ohm will produce a c urrent of one ampe re

,
.

Ohm R is t h e uni t o f res i s t ance and is t h e res i s tance o ff ered

, ,

t o an unva rying elec t ric cu rren t by a column of me rcu ry a t

32 degrees F ha v ing a cons tan t c ros s s ec t ional a rea a weight
.
,
-
,

of gra m s and a lengt h of cen t imet e rs .

Coulo m b Q is t h e uni t of quant i t y (ampe re s econd ) and is

, ,

t h e amoun t o f elec t rici t y t ran s fe rred by a cu rren t of one ampe re

in one s econd .

T he A m pere H our Q is equivalen t t o 3600 coulombs ,

’
,
. .

F a ra d K t h e uni t o f ca paci t y is t h e capaci t y o f a conden s er

, , ,

cha rged to a po ten tial o f one vol t by one coulomb of elec t rici t y .

H en ry L t h e uni t of induc t ion is t h e induc t ance of a ci rcui t

, , ,

when t h e elec t ro mo t i ve fo rce induced in t h e ci rc ui t is one vol t

-
,

while t h e induci ng cu rren t va ries a t t h e rate o f one ampe re pe r

s econd .

Tim e T one hour ; t

, ,
one s econd .

The following fo rmulas and t hei r combinat ions exp ress t he

rela t ion be t ween t h e above uni ts ; t hey a re t ho s e i
n common us e :

W I Et
= P Rt = P t. E = I R, R

1 81 2 . Anologie s b etwe en th e F l o w of W a te r and E l e ctricity

.

In o rde r t o obtain a better unde rs t andi ng of t h e s ubj ec t wi t h t h e

leas t ex pendi t ure of word s t h e following t able of a nologies com ,

piled from Ken t and Suplee ; is us ed : .

 ELEMENT AR Y ELECT RI CIT Y 40 5

ANALO G I ES BET W EE N T HE FLOW O F W ATE R AND

E LEC TRI CI T Y

WA TE R E LE c rm crrr '

H d differe nce f l vel in f et Dif V lt ; l ctro m t iv forc ; diff re n

ea ,
o e e . o s e e - o e e e ce

f n ce o f press u e lbs pe sq ua
e re f p te nt ia l r f p ss u ; E o r
, . r re o o or o re re

i chn . E M F . . .

Res is t a n ce of pipe s , a pe rt ure s , e t c .

, Oh m R in cre a ses dire ctly
s , re s is ta n ce ,

in crea s e s h
wit le n gt o f pipe , wit h h as th e len gt o f t h e co n duc to r o r h
co n t ra ct io ns . ro ug ness h , ; de
et c . w ire , a nd in ve rs e ly as its s e ctiona l
c re a s es wit h in crease o f s ec tio na l a rea , R 0 0 l s , o r in th e fo rm o f

a rea e xpre ss ed by com ple x fo rm u a n e qua t io n

13 8 °
a co n s t a n t K x le ngt h
c ros s s e c t io n

It va ries wit h th e na tu re of th e
co n ductor . Co ndu tivityc is th e
re ciproca l o f spe cifi c res is t a n ce .

Ra te of flow, as cu bic f ee t pe r se c Am pe re s ; curre n t ; c urre n t s t re n gt h;

ond ga llons pe r m inute e t c or in te ns ity o f curre n t ; ra te of flo w ;

”
.
, , ,

vo lum e divide d b y th e t im e . In 1 am pe re l co ulo m b p r se co n

e d .

th e m in in g re gio ns so m e t im e s v o lts
E
ex
Am pc res ,
I ,
E IR
pre s se d in M in er s
’
I n ches . ohm s
'
R
'

Q ua n t ity us ua lly m eas ured in cu bi Co ul

c om b , un it o f qua nt ity , Q ra te

fee t o r ga llon s , b ut is a lso e q uiv of flo w t im e , as a m pe re -s e co n s d .

a le nt to ra te of flo w t im e , as 1 am pe re - o ur h 360 0 co ulo m bs .

cu bic fee t pe r se co nd fo r so m a ny
h o urs .

W or k or e ne rgy foo t m e as ure d in Jo ule , vo lt -co ulo m b; W , th e un it of

p un
o d ; p d u t o sf w i gh
rot o f facll e wo r k pro duct o f qua ntity by th e

in g w te r i to h e igh t
a f f ll : in
n o a e le ct ro - m o t ive fo rce vo lt -a m

p um i
p g p
n o du c t o f,
q u a nrt ity in po re -s e co n d l Jo ule
. .73 73 ft lbs . .

cub ic fee t in to t h e press ur in lbs e .

,
If I ( am pe r
e s ) ra te o f flo w a nd

pe s q u
ra re f t g a in s t w h ic h. th
, e a E ( vo lts ) diffe re nce o f pre s s ure

wa te r is pum pe d . b e t wee n two po ints in a c ircuit ,

e n erg e xp en de d I Et PRt .

Po we r, ra te k ho rse w Wa t t un it of po we r, P, vo lts
'

of wo r ,
-
po e r , X
ft lbs
. . of wo r k in o ne m in ute a m pe re s curre n t o r ra t e o f flo w X
33 000 . I n wa te r flo wing in pip s e ,
diffe re n ce of po t e n t ia l . 1 wa tt
ra t e of flo w in cu . ft pe r se co nd
. . 73 73 ft . lbs .

pe r se con d of

t im e s res is ta n ce to t h e flo w in lbs . a h o rs e -po we r .

pe r squa re foo t 550 ; in fa lling

wa te r, lbs . fa lli n g in 1 se con d 1 50 .
40 6 G EERING AND S HOP PRACTI CE
E N IN

In th e mechanical applicat i ons of elec trici ty it mus t always ,

b e remembered t ha t t h e vol t co rres pond s to pres s ure and t h e

,
— —
a m pere to flow and th e produc t the vol t ampere is t h e watt -
,

t h e u ni t of power 7 46 of which a re equal t o a ho rs e power T h e

,
-
.

l 0 00
k i lowat t equals 1 0 00 wa tts ,
is equal to ho rse power
-
.

746
The Bri tis h B oard of T rade U ni t is
equal to l kilowa tt hou r .

1 81 3 E l e ctric Cir cuits

. A ci rcui t is compo s ed of a conduc t or
.

o r se veral conduc t o rs joined t oge t he r and is t h e pa t h t h rough

,

which a cu rrent flows from a given s tart ing point aro und t h e ,

conduct ing pat h and back to t he point again W hen s ome of .

t h e conduc t ing elemen ts a re di s connec t ed t h e ci rcui t is t ermed ,

open o r bro ke n in con t ras t t o being clos ed o r com pleted A c i rcuit .

is s aid t o be grounded when s ome o f t h e conduc to rs have come in

cont ac t wit h t he g round ei t her t he m s elves or t h rough so me e x
,

Fm . 1 81 3 . A Divid d Ci
e rc uit .

t erna l conduc tor W i t h dynamo elec t ri c mac h ines t h e terms

.

ex tern a l and in te rn a l ci rcui t s a re u s ed ; t h e fo rme r t o indica te

t hat part of t h e ci rcui t which is ou ts ide t h e elec t ric s ource ; t h e

latt e r t hat part of t he ci rcuit which is included wi t hin t h e elec t ri c
,

s ou rce .

A divided ci rcui t is one divided int o t wo o r mo re b ranc h es ,

ea ch b ranch t aken s e pa ra te lv being termed a s hun t A divi ded .

ci rcuit may be s hown a s follows :

1 2 3 and 4 a re t h e b ranch es t hi s c i rcui t havi ng 4 b ranches
, , , ,

any one of which as 1 2 3 o r 4 is called a s hunt t o th e ot he rs

, , , ,
.

The te rm s eries is us ed t o des igna te tha t s o rt of connec t ion of

conduc t o rs which allows th e cu rren t to pas s t h rough each s ucces
s ive ly .Mul t iple a re o r pa ra llel is t h e t e rm u s ed to des ignat e
t hat s o rt of connec t ion of conduc t o rs in which all t h e pos i t ive
elec trodes a re connec ted t o one main pos i t ive conduc t o r and all
t h e negat ive elec t rodes t o one main nega t ive conduc t o r .
408 ENG IN EERI NG AN D S HOP PRACTI CE
Magnet ic attrac t ion or repul s ion emanat ing from a poi n t
va ries invers ely as t h e s qua re of t h e d is t ance from t hat poi n t .

The law of invers e s qua res ho wever is not t rue when t he m ag

, ,

n e t is m p rocee d s f rom a s urface of app reciable ex t en t and t h e

d is t ances a re s mall as in dynamo elec t ric machines -

Th e Stren gth of E l e ctro—

.

1 82 3 . m a gn e ts a n d So l e n oids An .

elec tro magnet is made by coiling a cu rren t ca rrying conduc to r

- -

a round a co re of s oft i ron A s olenoid is gene rally a uni fo rmly

.

wound long s traight coil ca rrying a cu rren t t h e current pro

, , , ,

duc ing a unifo rm fi eld a t it s cent e r t hough in s ome s pecial in ,

s t anc es,
as in s ome of t h e elec t rical ins t rumen ts t h e coil co ns is ts ,

of a helix wi t h b ut a s ingle t u rn In dis cus s ing th e s t rengt h of

.

t h e fi eld S heldon makes t h e following rema rks : 7} being t h e c ur

ren t and H t h e uni fo rm fi eld p roduced a t t h e cen t e r t h e s olenoid ,

may be cons ide red as compos ed of magnet ic s hells a rranged a t

equa l di s tances from each o t her I t t akes 4m} ergs to move a.

uni t magne t pole one t hat will repel an equal like pole when
a t t h e di s t ance of one cen t imet e r wi t h t h e fo rce of one dyne
,

from one s ide of a s hell to t h e ot her ; and 4 i n e rgs t o pas s it 7r

t h rough n cons ecu t ive s hell s o f t h e s olenoid If t hes e n s hells .

occupy a lengt h on t h e s olenoid of l cent imete rs t hen ,

W o rk F o rce X D i s t ance Hl 4 7 15n e rgs ,

and t h e magnet izing fo rce t ha t is , ,

the s tr engt h o r in t ens i t y of t h e
fi eld in t h e s olenoid is :

A developmen t of a T ra c t ive fo rmula acco rding ,

to F o s t e r is ,

as follows
If n numbe r o f t u rns in t he coil
I ampe res o f cu rren t flowi ng
41 r
(t o educe
r to C G . . S . uni ts )
10
Magne to - mot i ve fo rce X nI F
Mnguet e -
mot i ve fo rce F
Magne ti c flux
reluc ta nce R

(as a bove ) uI
 EL EMENT A RY ELECTRI CIT Y 40 9

If dimens ions

(B bei n g t h e conven
and
t
a re

ional s
BA
in inches and

ymbol f or
uI

m a gne
,

t ic flux den s
”
A is

i ty
X 3 1 32
.
in s quare inches , t hen

o r magne t ic induc t ion s ) The fo rmula fo r t he pull or lifting

.

power of an elec tro magnet i n inch meas ure is

-
, ,

B A
’

Pull (in po und s )

T A BLE or M A G N E I I Z A TI O N
’ ‘
AND T RA c rrO N or E L E C I Ro M A
' —G N ETS

B Line s pe r Sq I nc h
. Po unds pe r Sq Inch
. B L ine s pe r Sq In ch . Po unds per Sq In c h
.

F IG . 1 82 3 .

D Y N A MO S A ND G ENER AT O RS
1 83 1 . D e s cription of a D yna m o dynamo or
or G e n e ra to r . A
gene ra to r may be defi ned as a machine which convert s t h e me
c h a n ic a l ene rgy gene rally of ro tat ion in to elec t rical en ergy by
, ,

mean of elec t o magnet ic induc t ion ; elec t rical ene rgy be ing
s r -

delive red ei t her in t h e fo rm of an al ternat ing o r di rec t curren t .

The elec t rici t y is no t produced by th e dynamo its ac t ion be ing

—
,

t e gene a t ion o r p roduc t ion of an elec t ro mo t i ve fo rce caus ing

h r

t h e cu rren t t o pas s t h rough t h e ex t e rnal ci rcui t In tracing th e .

analogy be t ween t h e flow o f water and t he flow of elec t rici t y

t h rough t h e in te rnal and ex t ernal ci rcui t s we have — ia t h e ,
41 0 ENG INE ERING AND S HOP PRACTI CE
int ernal ci rcuit th e caus es the current to flow from a
lower to a highe r potent ial jus t as wat er is pumped from a lower
t o a h ighe r level ; while in t h e ex te rnal ci rcui t like wa ter flowing ,

from a higher to a lower level t h e elec t rici ty flows f rom a higher

,

o r po s i t ive po t ent ial t o a lowe r o r nega t ive po t en t ial .

The es s ent ial parts of a dyn amo a re t h e fi eld t h e armatu re ,

and t he commut at or o r collec t o r rings The fi eld is generally .

p roduced by elec t ro magne t s made by winding a n umbe r of coil s

-

about s ui t able i ron cores The a rmat u re is s o des igned t hat t h e

.

number of lines of fo rce which t hrea d t h rough its loops or coil s ,

from t h e fi eld wi ll be co ns t an tly va ried res ul t ing in t he produc

, ,

t ion of an it is compo s ed o f a numbe r o f loops o r coil s

wound about an i ron co re The commu tato r o r collec to r rings
.

a re mechanical devices on a s haf t f o r ei t he r conve rt ing o r collec t ing

t he cu rre nt gene rat ed in t h e a rma t u re ; t hi s cu rren t is t aken o ff

by means of s tat iona ry brus hes in s liding contac t wi t h t h e com
mut ato r o r rings .

D ynamo s may b e clas s i fi ed acco rding t o t h e cu rren t delive red

in to al tern at ing o r di rec t current ; acco rding to mechanical det ail
int o revolving a rmat ure wi t h s t ationa ry field magnet ; s t ationary
a rmature and revol ving fi eld ; and bo t h s tat iona ry a rma tu re and
fi eld be t ween which is revolved an i ron co re ; t h e s e called induc t o r -

A C in which t h e poles a re t u rned inwa rd and ca rry two windings ,

t h e fi eld and t h e a rmat u re wi t h a cen t ral too t hed induc to r re

vol ving in s uch a way as to inc reas e and dec re as e t h e numbe r of
lines of fo rce in th e fi eld ; and acco rding t o t hei r winding in t o
s epa ra t ely exci t ed s e ries wo und
,
s hun t wound and compound
-
,
-

wound dynamos .

1 83 2 P rin cipl e s of th e D yna m o o r G e n e ra to r

. W e will now .

cons ider t he phenomenon occurring when a l oo p of wi re is revolved

in a magnet ic fi eld about an axi s pe rpendicula r to t he lines of
fo rce .

I t is eviden t from t h e principle o f induc t ion t ha t a s t h e 1 0 0 p ,

is a conduc t o r who s e s ides b ut n o t end s m ove ac ross t h e magnet ic

fi eld cu t t ing t h e lines o f f o rce t he re will be induced in it an
, ,

E MF
. . In t h e s imples t fo rm o f a b i pola r ma c hine a s th e loo p
.
-

revolves abou t it s axi s one s ide is goi ng down while th e o t he r is

,

going up and fo r t hi s reas on t h e

,
induced t hough trav ,

ve rs ing in oppo s ite di rec t ion s a re on oppo s i te s ides of t he loop

, ,

and t he refo re in s tead o f neu tralizi ng ea c h ot her a re cumulat ive ,

 412 ENG INEE RING AND S HOP P RAC TICE
ci rcui t J us t a t the ins t ant of commu tat ion th e induced
.
,

is zero as is al s o t h e curren t ; t his occu rring t wice eve ry revol ut ion

, .

To obtain a p rac t ically cons tant current free from t hese unde ,

s i rable fluc t ua t ion s it will only be necess ary t o mul t iply th e

,

numbe r of loops and commut ato r s egmen ts The fluc t uat ions in .

a bi pola r machine having t welve loops and s egmen ts is of

t h e to t al If each of t he loops of wi re were given t wo
t urns befo re be ing connec t ed t o t h e commu t a t o r s egmen t and ,

t h e numbe r of revolut io ns a n d t h e s t reng t h o f fi eld re m a in t h e

s ame t wice t he E M F
,
will be produced wi t h t h e s ame number
. . .

of commuta to r s egments .

F ro . 1 833 . P rinciple o f Com m ut a to rs .

1 83 4 . we have al ready lea rned t h e a rma t u re

A rm a ture s . As ,

is t ha t po rt ion o f t h e dynamo in which t h e E M F is induced by . . .

its movemen t in a magne t ic fi eld and con s i s t s o f t h e loops of ,

wi re wi t h t h e neces s a ry in s ula tion t h e i ron co re t hat s us t ains ,

t hem and t h e mino r connec t ing det ail s The loops of wi re or .

,

conduc t o rs in which t h e E M F is genera t ed a re t ermed i nduc t o rs

. . .
,
.

A rma t u res a re gene rally o f t h ree kind s d rum ring and di s c , ,

.

The drum armat u re is one in which bo t h s ides of t he loop of

wi re cut t h e lines o f fo rce The ring con s is ts of an annula r i ron
.

co re abou t which th e wi re is wound ; t he lin es of fo rce emanat ing

fro m t h e no rt h pole of t he magnet flowing t h rough t h e co re
ins tead of ac ros s t he a ir s pace in s ide t he ring O nly t h e wi res .

on t h e outer pe riphe ry of t he ring out th e lines of fo rce ; t hos e on

t h e in s ide s e rving only t o comple te t h e elec t rical ci rcui t F or .

t hi s reas on a g rea t e r po rt ion o f t h e wi re on t hi s a rma t u re is

“
dead t han on a d rum a rmat ure .

The dis c a rmat u re s eldom us ed in t hi s count ry is a d rum

, ,
 ELEMENTAR Y ELEC TRICIT Y 41 3

arma tu re of large d i ameter and s ho rt lengt h w it h the great er ,

p o rt ion of t h e wi re ex po s ed t o t h e pole p i eces placed a t it s end s .

1 83 5 Fie l d Ma gn et s
. In general t h e fi eld magnets of dyna
.
,

m os a re elec tro magne ts and a re b i pola r o r mul ti pola r as t hey

- - -

poss ess t wo o r mo re (an even number of) po les In t he s maller .

m achines which a re us ually b i pola r having one no rt h a nd one

,
-
,

s out h pole t h e a rm at u re is revolved bet ween t hem ; while t h e

,

large r m achines us ually mul ti polar have t he nort h and s out h

,
-
,

poles arranged in a ci rcle wi t h t hei r faces concen tric wi t h th e

arma tu re The di fferen t met hods of arrang i ng t h e coils of bo t h
.

b i po la r and mul t i pola r machines a re illus t ra t ed in t h e following

- -

fi gu res . F igs l 8 35a b c d e

.
, , . , .

F IG . 1 83 5 a . F IG . 1 83 5b .

F ro . 1 83 5c . 1 8351 1 .

F re . 1 835e .

1 83 6 . W in din gs
The following des c ription of t he various
.

w i ndi n gs of fi eld magnets is taken in part from Kent and S heldon .

41 4 G EERI NG
E N IN AND S H OP PRAC TICE
S epa rately E x cited The fi eld magnet coils in t hi s class of
.

dynamos have no connect ion wi t h t h e armat ure coils b ut rece i ve

t hei r cu rren t f rom a s e pa ra te machine o r s ource .

S eries Wound (fo r va rying load ) In t his cl as s of dyn amos .

,

t h e fi eld winding and t h e ex te rnal ci rc ui t a re connec t ed in s e ri es

wi t h t he a rmat ure winding s o t hat t he ent i re arma tu re curre nt
mus t pas s t h ro ugh th e field coil s S ince in t he s eries wound .
,
-

dynamo t h e arma tu re coil s t h e fi eld and t h e ext ernal ci rcuit ,

a re in s e ries any inc reas e in t h e res is tance of t h e ex te rnal ci rcui t

,

will dec rea s e t h e elec tro mo t ive fo rce from t he dec reas e in t h e
-

magnet i z ing curren ts A dec reas e in t h e res i s tance of t he external

.

,
—
ci rcui t will in a like manner inc reas e t h e elec t ro mot ive fo rc e ,

from t h e inc reas e in t h e magne tizing current The us e of a .

regulat o r avoid s t he s e changes in t h e elec t ro mo t ive fo rce -

.

S h unt Wo und (fo r cons t an t s peed ) In t hi s clas s of dynamos .

t h e fi el d magnet coil s a re placed in a s hunt to t h e a rmat u re

ci rcui t s o t hat only a po rtion o f t h e curren t generated pass es
,

t h rough t h e fi eld magnet coil b ut all t h e di ff e rence of pot en t ial

,

o f t h e a rma t ure ac ts a t t h e t e rm inal of t h e fi eld ci rcui t In a .

s hu n t wound dynamo an i n c reas e in t h e re s i s tance of t h e ex t e rnal

-

r s h —
ci cui t inc reas e t e elec t ro mot ive fo rce ; and a dec reas e in t he
res i s t ance of t h e ex te rnal ci rcui t dec rea s es t h e elec t ro mo t ive -

fo rce . This is jus t t h e reve rs e o f t h e s e ries wound dynamo -

.

In a s hunt wou n d dyna m o a cont inuous balancing of cu rrent

-

occu rs t h e cu rren t dividing a t t h e b rus hes bet ween t h e fi eld and

,

t h e ex t e rnal ci rcui t in inve rs e p ropo rt ion t o t h e res i s t ance of

t hes e ci rcui ts I f t h e res i s t ance of t h e ex t e rnal ci rcui t becomes
.

grea ter a p ropo rt iona tely g rea ter cu rren t pas s es th rough t h e
,

fi eld magne ts and s o cau s es t h e elec t ro—

, mo t ive fo rce t o become
g rea ter I f on th e con t ra ry t h e res i s t ance of t h e ext ernal ci rcuit
.
, ,

dec reas es les s cu rren t p a s s e s t h rough t h e fi eld and th e elec tro

,

motive fo rce is p ro po rt iona te ly d e c rea s ed .

Co m po un d Wo und I n t h i s clas s o f dynamos t h e fi eld magnet s

.

a re wound wi t h t wo s e pa ra t e coil s one of w h ich is in s e ries wi t h ,

t h e a rma t u re and t h e ext e rnal ci rcui t and t h e ot her in s hun t

wi t h t h e a rm at ure .

E ffic ienc y The e ffi ciency a t full load of s tanda rd bel ted

.
, ,

mo to rs and gene ra to rs va ri es from 8 1 9 7 in a l kilowatt gene rato r -

,

- —
8 7 % in a 1 0 kilowa tt 9 2 9 in a 7 5 kilowa tt to 9 3 % in a 2 2 5
,
7
2 .
,

kilo wa t t ge n era to r .
41 6 ENG I NEE RI NG AND S HOP PRAC TICE

the ys tem (8) The n umber and s ize of t h e delivery units

s . .

( )
9 The ini t ial vol t age ( )
1 0 The pou n d.s of coppe r on t h e l i ne .

( )
1 1 O riginal co s t o f con s t ruc t ion and eq u ipmen t (1 2 ) G r o ss .

expe ns es operat ion dep reciat ion e tc (1 3 ) L iabilit y o f t ro ubl e

, , ,
.

and s toppage (1 4 ) D ange r a t s tat ion a n d o n line (1 5 ) Co n

. .

ve n ie n ce in ope ra t ion making changes ex t en s ion e t c

, , ,
.

O n t h e ass ump t ion t ha t t h e s t a t ion equipmen t will be app rox

im a t ely a cons t an t what eve r t h e ini t ial p res s u re may be t h e
, ,

gre at variat ion in t h e cos t of wi re a t di ff e ren t p res s u res is s how n

by Mr H art in t h e following t able (F ig 1 9 1 3a ) in which he gives
. .

t h e weigh t o f coppe r requi red fo r t ran s mi t t ing 1 00 ho rs e powe r 5 -

miles .

1 9 3 1 . Ta b ula te d T ra n sm i s s ion Da ta .

W I GH E T OF CO P PE R WI R E RE Q U I RE D To T R A N S MIT 1 00 H P . . 5 M LE S
I

V o lta ge D ro p 1 0 % D ro p 2 0 %

F IG . 1 9 1 3a .

The s ubdivi s ions o f each of t h e gene ral me thod s of t ra n s

mi ss ion a re t a bula ted by Ke nt a s follows
O ne M a ch ine
LO W V o lt a ge
{M
.

ac hi
nes in P a ra lle l .

2 W i re
- .

M hi
O ne ac ne .

H igh V o lt a ge . M hi i P
ac nes n a ra ll l e .

Co n t in uo us Cu rre n t . < M hi i S
ac n es n e rie s .

3 -
W ue
2M hi ac ne s in S e rie s .

M hiac n es in M ul t ipl e S e rie s .

M ult ipl W ire e . M h in

ac es in S eries .

Alt ern a t n g i S i n gle Ph as e

W ith ut C
o o n ve rs io ns .

W ith C o n ve rs io ns .

Alte rna t in g C urre n t .

A lte m a tm g MultI Ph a se
W ith ut C
o o n ve rs io n s .

W ith C v
-

on e rs io n s
 PO WE R T R NS A M I SS I O N 41 7

Alt e rn a t in g C o n t in uo us .

Al t e rn a t in g Con ve rt e r; Lin e Con ve rt e r; A lte rna t in g

Re ge ne ra t in g S y s Co n t in uo us .

te rn s . C o n t in uo us - C
o n t in uo us .

P ti l R v i f y y t m ar a e -c o n e rs o n o an s s e .

The rela t ive advan t ages o f t hes e s ys tems va ry wi t h each

pa rt icular t ran s mi s s ion p roblem b ut in a general way may be ,

t abula t ed as follows :

S ys tem Adva n ta ges D isa dva n ta ges

2 -W I re
'

{ l
Lo w Vo ta ge S a fe ty , S im p icity l . E x pe ns e fo r Co ppe r .

H
L gi h V o lt a ge E c o n o m y , S im plic ity . Da n ge r, D iffi c ult y Of

3 Wi
-
re l
Lo w Vo t a ge o n Ma c h in e No t S a vin g E n o ug in h
a n d S a v in g in Co ppe r o ppe r fo r lo n g D is . C
M ul t ipl W i e re . Lo w Vo ta e a tg la c ine s
t a n ce s N CM h
CCSS i‘Y fo r .

a nd S a v in g in C o ppe r .
‘‘
B a la n ce d Sys t e m .

S in gle Ph as e . E co no m y of Co ppe r . Ca nno t s ta rt un de r Lo a d .

Lo w E ffi c ie n cy .

Mult ipl Ph e ase . E co n o m y of Co ppe r ,

S y n Re q ui re s m o re t han 2
ch ro n o us S pee d Un Wi re s .

n e ce s sa ry , A ppli bl ca e

to ve ry lo n g D i t n s a ce s .

M o t o r- Dy n am o H ig h l
V o ta ge T ra ns rn is E pe n s ive , x Lo w E ffi
s io n . c ie n cy .

Lo w V o lt a ge D li
e ve ry .

F IG . 1 9 1 3b .

N ote . S ingle
phas e mot o rs a re now ma de o f va rious pa tt erns
-

which ca n s ta rt unde r full loa d s uch as W a gne r Cen t ury Wes t , , ,

ingh o us e Compen s a te d Se ries Mo t o r G ene ra l E lec t ric e t c I t is , , .

t rue t ha t s uch a mo t o r mu s t be la rge r and mo re expen s ive t han

a polyph a s e ; it need n o t be l e s s e ffi cien t except s o fa r as one
cons ide rs weigh t a fa c t o r in det e rmining e ffi ciency .

1 9 4 1 . Sys te m s of Ele ctrica l Dis trib ution in Com m on U se .

In a paper befo re t h e E nginee ring Societ y of W es t e rn Penn

s ylva n ia Chas T S co tt ably di s cuss es t h e va rious s ys t ems of
,
. .

elec t rical di s t ribu t ion The following table is abs t rac ted from.

t hi s pape r
1 Con t inuou s o r D i rec t Cu rren t
. .

A Cons t an t P o ten t i a l
. .
41 8 EN IN G EERI NG A ND S HOP P RAC TICE
1 1 0 V ol ts di s t ances les s t han s a y 1 500 feet , , .

F o r incandes cent lamps .

fo r a re lamps us ually 2 in s eries

,

fo r m e te rs .

2 2 0 V ol t s dis t ances les s t han s a y 3000 feet , , .

fo r incandes cen t lamps us ually 2 in se ri es , .

F or a rc lamps us ually 4 in s eries ,

.

F or m e t e rs .

2 2 0 V ol ts , 3 -
W i re
dis tances les s t han s a y 30 0 0 fee t , ,
.

F o r incandes cent lamps .

F or a rc lamps us ually 2 in s e ries on each b ranch

, .

F o r mo to rs ; 1 1 0 o r 2 2 0 vol ts us ually 2 2 0 vol t s ,

.

500 V ol ts dis tances les s t han s a y 8000 fee t , , .

F o r incandes cen t lamps ; us ually 5 in se ries .

F o r a re lamps u s ually 1 0 in s e ries

, .

F or mo to rs s t a t iona ry and s tree t ca r

, .

B Cons t ant Current

. .

Us ually abou t ampe res th e vol ts inc reas ing to ,

s eve ral t hous and as demanded .

F o r a rc lamps .

Though fo rmerly us ed fo r mo tors no w s eldom

1
,

us ed on accoun t o f power limi t a n d dange r fro m

excess ive vol t age .

2 A l t e rnat ing Cu rrent

. .

A Co n s t an t Po t en t ial
. .

F o r incandes cen t lamps .

F o r a rc lamps .

F o r s mall m o t o rs .

Mul t i phas e s ys t ems

-
.

F o r ligh t ing .

F o r mo t o rs .

F o r ro t a ry t ra ns fo rme rs fo r giving di rec t cu rre nt .

B Cons tan t Cu rren t

. .

U s ually 1 0 ampe res .

F o r a re lamps .

1 9 1 5
. Moto rs Dis cu s sion a n d P rin ciple s
,
In gene ral what .
,

h as bee n s aid wi t h re fe rence t o t h e p rinciples o f t h e di rec t cu rrent -

dynamo applies to t h e mo t o r ; in fac t it is th e s ame machine ,

wi t h t h e nat ure of its ope ra t ion reve rs ed In t h e mot o r t h e .

R w itt n t
e r e nf m w it h p
o co t porti re s e n ra c ce .
42 0 ENG I NEERI NG AND S HOP PRAC TICE
at a vari able s peed wi t h a cons tant t o rque ; bes t adapted fo r
th es e condi t ions a re t h e s eries wound mo t o rs ope rat ing on con -

s t an t po t en t ial ci rcui ts
-
t hei r t ypical s e rv ice being t h e d ri v ing
,

of c ranes hois ts and eleva tors whe re a cons t ant load is ope rat ed
,

a t a va riable s pee d ( )
3 Tho se which ope
. ra t e a t a va riable s pe ed
wi t h a va riable to rque ; bes t adapte d for t hes e condi t ions is t h e
se ries wound mo t o r ope ra t ing o n a cons t an t po t en t ial ci rcui t
- -

t h e t ypical condi t ions be ing found in t h e ope rat ion of s t re et

railway mo t o rs whe re in s t a rt ing t h e to rque is a t maximum
,

while th e s pee d is a t minimum and whe re as t h e ca r gains head , ,

way t h e to rque dimini s hes a s t h e s pee d inc reas es Many s eries

, .

mo to rs fo r trolley cars a re s o wound as to have a sa t urat ed fiel d

a t prac t ically all s peed s so t ha t va ria t ion s o f cu rren t do not
,

caus e va riat ions of s peed I f fi eld va ries as cu rren t t hen to rque

.
,

va ries as s quare of current which caus es too rapid a falling o ff ,

in to rque as s pee d inc reas es .

O n t h e di re c t cu rren t ci rcui ts t h e cha rac t e ri s t ic ac t ion of

-
,

th e s e ries wound mo t o r is t o build up t h e fi eld and t h e ou t pu t as

-

t h e load inc reas es ; whe reas in t h e s hunt wound mo t o r t h e fi eld -

s t re ngt h fall s as t h e load inc reas es t h e compound winding

be ing much us ed to ope rat e text ile machine ry where any s light
va riat ion in t he s pee d would a ff ec t th e cha rac ter of t h e p roduc t .

The reader is refe rred to Chapt e r X X on Mo t o r Drives e tc whe re , ,

.
,

much recent addi t ional informat ion may be found rega rding
mo to rs t hei r applicat ion and regulat ion
, .

1 9 1 6 Mo to r S pe e dR e gu la tion
. The accepted met hod s o f regu .

lat ing mo t o r s pee d a re by in s e rt ing res i s t a n ce in t h e a rmat ure o f

,

s hun t wound mo t o rs ; by va rying t h e fi eld s t rengt h o f s e ries wound

- -

moto rs ; and by s wi t ching s ec tions of t he fi eld coil s in o r o ut of

ci rcui t F ield regulat ion is no w an accept e d prac t ice wi th s hun t
.

wound m e te rs fo r con t rolling s pe ed As g re at a va riat ion as 6 to .

1 can b e t hus ob t ained giving full powe r a t all s peed s , Addi .

t io n a l inf o rma t ion rega rding m o to r s peed regulat ion may be found
in Chapt er X X Mot or D rives and Mo to r D riven Machine To ol s .

1 9 1 7 Alte rn a tin g cu rren t Moto rs

. The majo ri t y of t h e
- .

al t ernat ing curren t mo to rs in common us e may be divide d in to

-

t wo clas s es viz s ynch ronous and induc t ion mo to rs If any

,
.
, .

al te rnat o r be b rough t in to s ynch roni s m wi t h t h e al t e rnat o r

genera t ing t h e cu rrent it may be us ed a s a moto r t h e ac t ion O f
, ,

t h e two being s imiliar to t he ac t io n of t wo gene rat o rs in pa rallel .

 PO WE R T R NS A M ISS IO N 42 1

1 9 8 1 . Syn ch ron ous Moto rs . S ynchronous

mot o rs a re almos t
ident ical in co ns truct ion wi t h t he d riving al te rnato r ope rate on ,

s ingle o r polyphase s y s t ems and cons is t of t wo ess ent ial part s

, ,

t h e fi eld and t he armat ure ei t he r of which may revolve

,
The .

fi eld of s ynch ronous mo t o rs mus t be exci ted in t he s ame way as

t h e al t e rna to r by a se pa ra te con t inuous current
, , The d rawback .

t o t hose ope ra t ing on a s ingle phas e be ing t ha t t hey a re n o t

s el f s t a rt ing b ut mus t be b ro ugh t in t o s ynch roni s m wi t h t h e
-

al te rnato r by s ome extern al means .

Polyphas e mot o rs howeve r a re s el f s ta rt ing t ha t is wi t h no

, ,
-
, ,

le a d I t is bet te r t o b ring t hem t o s pe ed by indepe nden t mea ns

.

o n accoun t of t h e la rge cu rren t neces s a ry t o s t a rt t hem S uch .

machines a re us ually s ta rt ed by a s mall induc t io n mo to r; o r in

s uch a s have t h e fi eld exci t ed by a s mall di rec t cu rre n t gener -

ato r bel ted to t h e mo to r by ope rat ing t hi s generato r as a moto r

,

t o s t a rt .

The e ffec t of weakening t h e fi eld of a di rec t cu rrent moto r is -

t o inc reas e t h e s peed while t h e cu rren t flowing t h rough t h e

,

a rmat ure remains prac t ically un changed No s uch change o f .

s peed occu rs if t h e fi eld s t rengt h of a s ynch ronous mo t o r be

cha nged fo r s uch a mo to r h a s t o keep s tep wi t h t h e al te rnato r

,
.

The adjus t men t to th e changes of load and field s t rengt h be ing

eff ec ted in s uch a mo t o r by changing t h e phas e di ff e re nce bet wee n
t h e cu rren t and t h e E M F As t h e load va ries t h e curren t in
. . .
,

t h e mo t o r ei t he r lead s o r lags be hind t h e E M F and t h e E M . . . .

will no longe r be in oppos i t ion to t hat of t h e al t e rnat or res ul ting ,

i n a con s tant flow of curren t s u ffi cien t ly large to enable t h e mo tor

t o ca rry its load W hen t h e machine is too much ove rloaded
.
,

t hi s lagging of one a rmat u re be hind t h e ot he r becomes s u ffi cien t ly

great to t h row t h e mo to r o ut of s ynch ro nis m th a t is to fall o ut , ,

o f phas e wi t h t h e genera t o r and caus e it t o s t e p .

F o r economy in ope ra t ion s ynch ronous and induc t io n moto rs

,

a re s ome t imes placed in t h e s ame ci rcui t In s uch an arrangement .

t h e s ynch ro nous mo t o r may be made by inc re as ing t h e fi eld ,

exci tat ion to caus e th e cu rrent to lead while t h e induc t ion mo to r

, ,

caus es it to lag ; t his balancing effec t being conducive o f e ffi ciency .

S ynch ronous mo t o rs a re bes t adap ted fo r power t ran s mis s io n

plants and for la rge powe r units of high vol tage wi t h a cons t ant ,

load and s peed The d rawbacks t o t his clas s of m e te rs a re t h e

.

n ecess i t y of exci t a t ion and t h e inabili t y t o s t a rt .

42 2 ENG IN EERI N G AND S HOP PRACTI CE

9 9
1 1 . Induc
In duction t i on mo
Moto rs t o rs a re s ome
. t i m e s

made t o ope ra te on s ingl e phas e ci rcui ts b ut t hey a re mo re gen

-
,

e ra lly opera t ed on t wo o r t h ree pha s e ci rcui ts The t wo ess en t i a l

-
.

parts of a n induc t ion mot or ei ther of which may revolve a re t h e

, ,

prima ry o r fi eld which is connec ted wi t h t he line and t h e s econ ,

dary o r a rmat ure in which a re induced th e curren ts by t he pri

mary .

Compa ring th e ac t ion o f t h e t wo mo to rs we have t h e c urren t ,

led into t h e a rmat ure from th e line in a s ynch ronous or in a

di rec t curren t moto r th e reac t ion of t hes e cu rren ts u pon th e
-
,

fi xed fi eld p roducing t h e mo tion ; while wit h t h e induc t ion mo to r

t h e cu rren t is le d f rom t h e line in to t h e fi eld to p roduce a m a g
net ic fi eld which cons tant ly changes o r rotates and which in duces

F1 0 . 19 19 . Ro ta t ing F ield .

cu rren ts in t h e armatu re coil s The reac t ion of t h es e induced .

cu rrents on t he fi eld res ul ts in mot ion in mos t cas es of t he

'

a rmat u re hence t he name i n duc t ion mo to rs .

The ro t a ting fi eld bei n g di s ti n c t ive Of t h e i nduc tion moto r ,

we will cons ider its ac t ion on a t wo phas e ci rcuit wi th a four pole - -

fi eld :
The poles 1 and 2 (F ig 1 9 1 9 ) a re wound f rom one o f th e pai rs
.

o f wi res while 3 and 4 a re wound free from th e o t he r ; t h e t wo

phas e bei ng 9 0 apa rt At t h e ins tan t t hat 1 and 2 a re re ceiving

°
.

a maximu m curren t 3 a n d 4 a re demagnet ized A s t he cycle pro

,
.

gres s es t h e magnet is m of 1 a n d 2 dec reas es while t hat of 3 and 4

,

inc reas es res ul t ing in a s hi ft ing o r rotat ion of t he fi eld a rea of

,

maximum in tens i t y I t mu s t be unde rs tood t ha t th e ro tat ing re

.

fers to t hi s s hift ing of t h e fi eld rat he r than to any motion or revo

lut io n o f t h e p rima ry The a rmat u re wi thin t hi s fi eld ro tates
.

s imply by t h e s h ift i ng e ff ec t w i t hou t t h e use of collec t o r rings ; t h e

42 4 E NG I NEE RI NG AND S HOP PRAC TICE
it is us ed t he mechanical equivalent of t hi s d is s i pate d hea t is
,

los t Thi s loss is u navoidable

. .

As t h e heat of comp ress ion inc reas es t h e volume of t h e a ir it ,

is necess a ry to ca rry it to a highe r p res s u re in t h e comp res s o r in

order t hat we may fi nally have a given volume o f a ir a t a given
p res s u re and a t t he tempe rat u re of th e s urrounding at mos phere .

The wo rk expended in s ecu ring this exces s of p res s u re is al s o lo s t .

A no t he r s ou rce o f lo ss o f ene rgy in a comp res s ed a ir s ys t e m -

is t h e fric t ion of t h e a ir in t h e pipes leakage dead s paces t h e

, , ,

res i s t ance O fl e re d by ins u ffi cien t valve area and th e valves

'

i nferio r wo rkma ns hip and s lovenly at tendance .

In t h e adiabat ic comp ress ion of a ir all th e hea t res ul t ing fro m

,

t he comp res s ion is re tained in t h e comp res s ed a ir while in t h e ,

i s o t he rmal comp res s ion o f a ir th e hea t is removed as rapidly as

produced by means O f s ome fo rm of refrigerato r .

That ene rgy which a fluid o r gas is capable of exert ing agains t
a pis ton in changing from a given volume and temperat u re to a
t o t al p rivat ion of hea t and inde fi ni te expans ion is t e rmed its
in tri ns ic ene rgy .

1 92 2 . Air Com pre s so rs A de t ailed des c ript ion o f any one

.

of t he hund red s of di ff e rent a ir comp res s o rs on the market is

deemed unneces s ary ; it being s u ffi cien t to s t at e t hat in pri n ciple
t he s imple a ir comp res s o r is an a ir pump cons i s t ing o f a cylinde r
wi t h s ui table inlet and ou tlet valves in which a pis t on ope rates ,

fi rs t t o d raw in t o th e cylinde r t h rough t h e inle t valve a ce rtai n

quant i ty of a ir and nex t to comp ress t hi s a ir t o a cert ain press ure
,

and to fo rce it t h rough t h e outlet valves in to t he receive r w hich ,

latter is us ually a t ank .

1 923 . Com pre s s e d a ir En gin e s a n d Ma chin e s

- The com .

p ress ed a ir engines on t h e ma rket as well a s ot her compress ed

-
,

a ir machinery va ry widely in de t ail a n d des ign acco rding to t h e

, ,

wo rk to be perfo rmed and t h e ideas o f t he manufac t u rer I t .

may be s tated however t hat mos t of t h e a ir engines and t ools

, , ,

like s team engines have recip rocat ing pi s t ons valves and pa rts
, , ,

and t h e a ir is us ed in much t h e s ame way t hat s team is us ed in

s team engines Comp res s ed a ir is us ed ex t ens ively in mining
.

opera tions no t only for d riving hoi s t ing engines rock d rill s a nd
, ,

underg ro und pumps b ut fo r o pera ting t he locomot ives a s well

,
.

Whe re compres s ed a ir is u s ed to d rive machines in mines and

t un nel s t he lo ss O f powe r in common p rac t ice is abou t
,
t he
 P OW E R T RA NS MI SS I O N 42 5

bes t prac t ice h aving a loss of about In t h e machine s hop ,

comp res s ed a ir is be ing widely us ed fo r operat ing pneumat i c

hammers d rill s and riveters ; fo r a ir hoi s ts and ligh t c ranes and
,

fo r cleaning ca s t ings and machines Comp res s ed a ir is us ed t o

.

furni s h t he blas t for va rious fu rnaces c upolas e t c W hen s o , , .

us ed t h e p ress u res a re compa rat ively lo w and s ome form of

blowe r is generally employed t h e p res s ure va rying from a few
,

oun ces to t h ree qua rt ers o f a pound Comp res s ed a ir is al s o .

us ed fo r pneumat ic t ube s e rvice in which s m all ca rri ers a re fo rced

t h rough s moo t h t ubes .

H YD R A U L I C
T R A N S MI S S I O N
1 93 1
. A da pta b ility a n d U s e s W hen t h e moving of very
.

heavy loads a t low veloci t ies is to be e ff ec ted water under a ,

p res s u re generally of from 700 to 2 00 0 pound s pe r s qua re inch

a ff o rds an e ffi cient met hod of t rans mi tt ing power to a di s tance ,

t h e applica t ion be ing t h e ope ra tion of eleva to rs c ranes p ress es , , ,

li ft ing jack s and s imila r machine ry The s ys t em us ually con s i s ts

- .

o f one o r mo re pumps capable o f developing t h e requi red p res s u re ;

accumulat ors which a re vert ical cylinders wi t h heavily weight ed

,

plunge rs pas s ing t h rough s tuffi ng boxes in t h e o t her end by ,

means of which a quan t i t y o f wa t er is accumula ted a t th e p res

s u re t o which t h e plunge r is weigh t ed ; t h e di s t ribu t ing pipes and

t h e machine ry t o be ope rat ed .

1 9 32
. H ydra uli c F o rgin g O ne of t h e impo rt ant us es of
.

hyd raulic po wer trans mi s s ion is in t h e opera tion of heavy fo rging

machines fo r t h e compres s ion of s teel ingot s while in a fluid s ta t e ;
th e ope ra t ion of hamme rs fla nging and fo rging p res s es and
, ,

rive t ing machines . F o r t h e p roduc t ion of ma s s ive s t eel fo rging ,

t h e hyd raulic fo rging p ress h as s upe rs eded t h e s team hamme r .

W hen a s team hammer wa s employed fo r t hi s pu rpos e it was ,

no ted t ha t t h e ex te rnal s urface of t he ingot abs o rb ed a la rge

propo rt ion o f t h e s udden impac t o f t h e blow and t hat only a
comparat ively s mall eff ec t was p roduced a t t he cen tral po rt ions
of t he i ngot t hi s being due to t he res i s t ance o ff ered by th e inert i a
,

of t h e mas s to t h e rapid mo t io n o f the falling hammer Thi s .

dis advant age is ent i rely elimina ted by t h e s low t ho ugh powerful , ,

compres s ion eff ec t ed by t he hyd raulic fo rging p res s .

Some idea o f t h e s ize of hyd raulic fo rging p ress es and als o

t h e ex t en t to which t hey a re us ed may b e gain e d from t h e s tate
42 6 EN G I N EERI NG AND S HOP P RAC TI CE
ment t hat a fo rging p res s h a s been des igned by John F ri t z fo r
t h e Bet hlehem W o rk s of t on s capaci t y t o be run by
, ,

engines a n d pumps of ho rs e po wer The plan t is s e rved -

.

by 4 open hea rt h s teel furnaces of a uni ted capaci t y of 1 2 0 t o ns

-

of s t eel pe r heat .

The e ffi ciency o f a hyd raulic appa rat us of di rec t plunge r o r

ra m t ype va ries from 9 2 % t o

TRA N S M IS S I O N
RO P E

1 941 . W ire R ope T ra n sm i s s ion W here l arge powers a re t o .

be trans mi tt ed over rough g rou n d o r waterways to a dis ta n ce

n o t exceeding t wo o r t h ree miles w i re rope trans mi ss ion is s ome
,
-

t i m es bes t adap t ed to t h e condi t ion s which obt ai n The rope .

,

gene rally made of fi ne s teel wi re is us ually compos ed of 7 1 2 o r

, ,

1 9 wi res and ope rat es in t h e t rans mi ss ion in t h e s ame way t hat a

bel t does The s heaves (rope wheel s ) a re us ually made s trong
.
,

as ligh t as pos s ible and of cas t i ron The bo ttom o f t h e groove .

in which t h e rope runs is fi lled wi t h va rious s ubs tances s uch as ,

jute yarn t arred oakum ha rd wood leat her and rubber ; a very
, , ,

s a t i s fac t o ry fi lling being compo s ed o f s egmen t s o f lea t her and

block s o f India rubber s oaked in t a r packed al t erna tely in t h e

, ,

groove The maximum di s t ance bet ween s heave t owers t h e

.
,

s heaves being 1 0 f ee t in diame t e r is given by Ken t a s 600 fee t , ,

t hough an excep t ional d rive a t L ockpo rt N Y h as a clea r s pan , . .

,

O f 1 7 00 fee t .

I t is cus t oma ry to t ra n s mi t t he p o we r wi t h t h e lowe r po rt io n

o f t h e rope a s t h e g rea t e s t deflec t ion u s ually occu rs in t hi s po rt ion
,

w hen idle Prac t ice demon s t ra t es t ha t t h e li fe o f a rope is

.

longes t when t h e bending over s heaves is all in one di rec tion and ,

when t h e s heave diamete r is la rge t ha t is ove r 1 00 rope d i a m , ,

e t e rs f o r s t eel and 1 8 0 f o r i ron wi re .

In s ome t ra n s mi s s io ns ins t ead o f grooved d rums o r a number

,

o f s heaves abou t which t h e rope m akes t wo o r mo re lap s g rip ,

pulleys a re s omet imes us ed The rims o f s uch pulleys a re fi tted

.

wi t h a co n t inuous s e ries o f s teel jaws which bi t e t h e rope in

con tac t by reas on o f t h e p res s u re aga ins t t hem releas ing it as ,

s oon a s t h e p re s s u re is relie v ed and o ffe ri n g f ree eg ress t o t h e

rope .

1 9 42 . Ro pe D rivin g In mill s and fac to ries where t he power

.

is la rge a n d t h e di s tance it is to be t ran s mi tt ed compa ra t ively

42 8 ENG INEERI NG A ND S HOP P RACTICE

F IG . 1 9 43b . C o n tin uo us S y s te m , Ho riz o n ta l D rive .

F IG . 1 9 43c . Co n tin o us Sy s te m , Ve rt ica l D rive . T e n s io n ta k en a t D rive n .

 PO W E R TR NS A M ISS I ON 42 9

las t s trand from t he d river leads ove r an idler s heave moun t ed ,

a t t h e s ide o f o r nea r t h e d riven pulley to t h e t en s ion pulley f rom

, ,

wh i ch it is ret urned to t he g roove on t he oppos i te s ide o f the

d riven pulley .

1 9 44 Sh ea ve s a n d Pulle ys
. A s heave whee l o r pulley is one
.

made of cas t i ro n in t h e rim of which a re fo rmed deep g rooves

,

of s ui table s hape to receive th e tu rns of t he rope If s eve ral .

grooves a re c ut in one pulley t hey mus t all b e of t he s ame s hape

, ,

F IG . 1 9 44a . S ta n da rd D rive G ro o ve .

F IG . 1 9 44b . S tra g t s de
i - i
h D rive G ro o ve .

d+ 3

F IG . 1 9 44c . I dle r G roo ve .

4 30 ENG INEE RI NG AND S HOP PRACTICE
s ize and diameter a t t h e pi t ch line in o rder to p revent c reeping ,

o r s lippage e i t he r of which res ul t s in an undue s training of ce rt ai n

”
,

po rt ions of t h e d rive The con tou r of a groove of accep ted fo rm

.

is s hown in F ig 1 9 44a t h e s ides being cu rved The E nginee r s ’

.
,
.

St andard G rooves des igned by t he Jonas Laughlin St eel Co

, .
,

a re nine in numbe r and t hough s imila r to t h e s hape s hown in

,

F ig l 9 4 4a a re no t in a cco rdance wi t h th e p ropo rt ions given

.
, .

F ig 1 9 44b is a fo rm s omet imes u s ed b ut is n o t as good as t hat

.

s hown in 1 9 4 4s Tangents to t h e s ide a t t h e pi t ch line a re a t

.

an angle o f The s ides a re s o s haped t hat t h e rope in we dg

ing on t hem res ul ts in t h e produc t ion of a high fric t ional res is t
ance to s lipping The concave s ides caus e a rolling mot ion in
.

t h e rope which is ben e fi cial in its p rod uc t ion o f a uni fo rm wea r

,
.

In prac t ice t h e S iIrfa ces of t h e g rooves s hould be care fully pol

,

is h e d a s any roughnes s due to t h e t ool ma rks o r im pe rfec t ions in

, ,
-

t h e c a s t i ng rapidly cu t s t h e rope
, .

The s hape of t h e groove in t h e idler p ulley as will be s ee n in F ig ,

.

1 9 44c is s emici rcula r a t t h e bo t t om wi t h a radi us s ligh t ly la rge r

,

than t h e radius of t h e rope In t h e following table (F ig 1 9 44d)

. .
,

t aken fo r t h e mos t pa rt f rom A me rican Mfg Co s Blue Book will

’
,
.

be found s ome us eful dat a rela t ive to bo t h pulleys and ropes .

D AT A RE L AT I V E To M ANI LA T RA N S M I S S I O N RO P E AND SR E AV Es

L E NG m or SPL IC E IN F E ET

F IG . 1 9 44d .
432 ENG I NEERI NG A ND S H OP P RAC TICE

F IG . 1 9 45 b . H o rse-po we r of Ma nila Ro pes at Vario us S peeds .

s heaves of s mall diameter ; it is more expens ive less durable h as , ,

less s trengt h and is ha rder t o s plice t han t he manila ro pe .

The wea r on t rans miss ion rope is bo t h exte rnal and in ternal .

The external is caus ed by t h e s lipping and wedging in t h e g rooves

of th e pulley ; while t he int e rnal is caus ed by t h e movement of
t h e fi be rs on each o t he r unde r press u re in be nding over th e
s heaves . In o rdi nary p rac ti ce the wea r is as s umed t o be di rec tly
p r opo rt io n al to t h e s peed T rans mi s s ion rope . manufac t u re rs

s eek t o les s en in t e rn al wea r by t h e f ree us e o f s uch lub rican ts as

graphit e and t allow on t h e co re and inne r s t rand s of t h e ro pe .

The fo regoing diagram (F ig 1 9 45a ) and t able (F ig 1 9 45 b) give

. .

t h e ho rs e po we r o f manila ropes a t variou s s peed s and a re cal e u

-

la ted on t h e ba s is o f a maximum s train o f t wo hund red pounds

fo r a rope one inch in diame t e r I t will be readily s ee n t ha t t h e
.

maximum power under t hes e condi t ion s is t ran s mi tt ed a t a S peed

, ,

of about 80 fee t pe r s ec ond ; a t highe r s pee d s t h e power fal ls off ,

ra pidly becaus e o f t h e exces s i ve cen t rifugal fo rce .

1 9 46 . Splicing The s plicing of a t rans mi s s ion rope is an

.

important matte r ; t he points on which th e s ucces s of t h e s plice ,

and inciden tally th e d rive depend being t h e lengt h of t h e s plice

, ,

which in t u rn depend s U pon th e diameter of t h e rope and which

is given in t h e t able (F ig 1 9 44 d) ; t h e diame t e r of t h e s plice
.
,

which s hould be t h e sa me a s t h e diamet er o f t h e rope ; t h e s c our

ing of t he ends of t h e s trands o f t h e s plice which mus t be s o ,

fas tened t hat t hey wi ll not wea r o r whi p o ut o r caus e t h e over

lyi ng s trand s to wea r unduly ; and t h e wo rkmans hip of t h e s plice ,
 PO WE R T R NS A MI SS I O N 4 33

wh i ch hould b e t he bes t it is pos s ible t o se cure W hen s plic

s .

ing an old and a ne w piece of rope t h e new piece s hould be ,

t ho roughly s t ret ched fo r a t bes t it is an exceedingly di ffi cul t ta s k

, ,

on accoun t of t h e s t ret ch and di ff erence in diameter of t h e rope .

The illus t rat ions and ins truc t ions for making s t anda rd rope
S plic es a re t aken by t h e court es y of t h e A me rican Manufac t u ring
,

Co from t hei r Blue Book of Rope T rans mi ss ion

.
, .

There a re many di ff erent s plices now in us e b ut t h e one t hat ex

”
,

p e rie n c e h a s p roved bes t is wha t is known a s t h e E n gli s h t rans mi s

s ion s plice In des c ribing thi s we take fo r o ur exa m ple a fou r s trand
.
-

rope I ? in diamet e r a s s pliced on s heaves in t h e m ul t iple s ys

, ,

F IG . 1 9 46a .

te m The rope is fi rs t placed a round s heaves and w i t h a ta ckle

.
, , ,

s t re tched and hauled t aut ; t h e en d s s hould pass each o t he r f rom

s ix t o s even feet t h e pa ss ing poin t being ma rked wi t h t wine on each

,

rope The ro pe is t hen s lipped from t h e s heaves and allowed t o

.

res t on s ha ft s t o give s u ffi cien t s lack fo r makin g t h e s plice

, .

U nlay t h e s t rands in pai rs a s fa r back a s t h e t wines M M ,

’
,

c ro t ch t h e four pai rs o f s t rand s t hus opened (F ig 1 9 4 6a ) co res .

,

having been d rawn o ut t oget her on t h e uppe r S ide Then having .

,

remov ed ma rking t wine M unlay t h e t wo s t rand s 6 and 8 s t il l

, ,

in pai rs back a di s tance of t wo feet to A ; t h e s t rand s 1 and 3

, , ,

als o in pai rs being ca refully laid in t hei r place Next unlay t h e

,
.

s t rand s 5 and 7 in pai rs to A replacing t hem a s be fo re wi t h

’
, ,

2 a nd 4 The rope is now as s hown in F ig 1 9 46b The pai r of

. . .

s t rand s 6 and 8 a re now s epa rat ed and 8 unlaid fou r fee t back ,
4 34 E NG I NEE RI NG AND S HOP P RACT ICE
to B , a di s tance of s ix feet from cent er s t rand 6 bei n g left a t A
,
.

The pai r of s trands 1 and 3 having been se pa ra ted 3 is left a t A , ,

as companion fo r 6 ,s t rand 1 being ca refully laid in place of

s t rand 8 un t i l t hey mee t a t poin t B The t wo pai rs of s t rands
— —
.

2 4 and 5 7 a re now s epa ra ted and laid in t h e s ame manner ,

every ca re being t aken while t hus put t ing t he rope toget her
, ,

t ha t o riginal t wi s t and la y of s t rand is main t ained The pro .

t ruding co res a re n o w c ut o ff s o t ha t t h e end s when pus hed ,

back in rope butt t oget he r

, .

F IG . 1 9 46b .

The ro pe now appea rs as s hown in F ig 1 9 46c and after t he .

,

eight s t rand s have bee n c ut to convenient wo rki ng lengt h s (about

t wo fee t ) t h e companion s trand s a re ready t o be fa s t ened toget he r
,

rm

F IG . 1 9 46c .

and ucked t hi s operat ion is des c ribed fo r s trand s 2 and 7

t ,

t h e met hod being iden t ical fo r t h e o t he r t h ree pai rs U nla y .

2 and 7 fo r abou t t welve t o fou rt een inche s divide each s tran d ,

4 36 ENG I NEERING AND S HOP P RAC TICE
inches s o t hat th e ya rn s may d raw s ligh t ly wi t ho ut unlock i ng
,
.
.

This completes t he joining of one pai r of s t rands F ig 1 9 469 ,

. .

The t h ree remaini ng pai rs of s trand s a re joined in t h e s ame

manner .

F IG .

Aft e r t h eo pe h a s b een in s ervi ce a fe w days th e projec ti ng

r ,

end s a t locks wea r away and if t ucks have been ca ref ully made
, ,

and t h e o riginal t wi s t of yarns pres erved t he diame ter of t he ,

E ra . 1 9 469 .

rope will no t be inc rea s ed ,

nor can th e s plice be locat ed when t he
rope is in mo t ion .

S H A FT ,
P U LL E Y A ND B E LT T RA NS MI S S I O N
19 5 1 . Sh a f ting . With
excep t i on of engine
the and s pec i al
s h a ft ing almo s t all of t h e s haf t ing in us e t o day is manuf ac t u red
,
-

from mild s t ee l it being fi ni s hed round t rue and s moo t h ei t he r

, , ,

by cold rolling t u rning o r grinding The fi nal s izing o f t u rned

, .

s ha ft ing is made by pa s s ing a hollow t ool ove r it As t h e s haft ing .

 POW ER TRANS M ISSI ON 4 37

is us ua lly made fro m c ommercial s t ock t he s i zes run un der ,

" "
t hat of t h e b a r t ha t is I H , us and ,

In calc ulat ing t h e s t rengt h of s hafts two t hings mus t be ,

con s idered t h e res i s tance to t o rs i on or t wis t ing a nd th e res is tanc e

,

t o be ndi ng Wi t h refe re nce t o t he kind of s tress t o which t hey

.

a re s ubjec ted s hafts may b e class i fi ed a cco rding t o t h e pre d

, om i ,

nat i ng s tress int o t hos e s ubjec t chiefly to to rs ion o r t wis t ing

,

s t resses s uch as s haft ing in gene ral and line s haft ing in mill s
,

and s hops ; t hos e s ubject to be nding act ion s uch as s t uds or

a xles of gea rs ; and t hose which a re s ubjec t bo t h t o s t ress es of

t o rs ion and bending s uch as t h e c rank s hafts of eng i nes

, .

S haft ing m a y be divided acco rding t o us e int o t h ree kind s

, ,

jack s ha ft ing line s haft ing and coun ter s haft ing The j a ck s ha ft
,
.

is be l t ed di rec t ly from t h e engine while t h e lin e s ha ft is be l t ed ,

from t h e j ack s ha ft t he term be ing applied to t h e long lines of

,

s haf t ing us ed fo r t rans mi tt i ng t h e po wer t h ro ugh t h e s hops ; t h e

t erm coun ters ha ft is applied to t hat s haf t which receives its po wer
from th e line S haft and trans mi ts it t hrough t ight a nd loos e pul
leys o r clut ches to t he m achine In a ddi tion to t h e tors ional .

s t ress due to po wer t ran s mi ss ion line s haft ing is al s o s ubjec t to

,

be nding s tre s s es which a re due not only to t h e weigh t of t h e ,

p ulley s and coupling s b u t al s o t o t h e,

t e ns ion of t h e bel t ing a s

well .

A s pre vious ly s t ated in any comput at ion fo r th e s tre ngt h of

,

s haft ing bot h t h e res is t ance t o t o rs ion and t h e bending mus t be

,

cons idered If we wis h to det erm i ne t he di a mete r of a pa rt icular

.

s haft we fi n d i n our va ri ous aut h orities s o m e s uch fo rmul as a s

, , ,

(1 ) D =C ’
— and (2 ) D =C '
,

The abo ve formulas have t hei r o rigin in the s impler ones of

D C-
/F Z and () D = Cn /F L
' '
( )
3 C 4

where D equal s s haft diameter C equals co ns t ant fo r t he mat erial

, ,

F eq ual s fo rce t ending t o ro t at e t h e S haft and L eq ual s lengt h in

inches from t h e po int of applicat ion of F to th e cente r O f t h e s haft .

F o rm ula 3 is ba s e d on t h e fac t t ha t under t hi s condi t ion t h e , ,

t o rs ional deflec t ion of t h e s haft s hall not excee d a p re de te rm ined

angle pe r foo t in lengt h ; and formu la 4 under t h e condi t ion t hat ,
4 38 ENGI NEERI NG AND S HOP P RAC TICE
the moment F L produc es a t o rs ional s tres s not mo re t han a ,

p re determined amount pe r s q ua re inch In formul as 1 and 2 .

H P equal s ho rs e power t ra ns mi tt ed by t h e s haft a nd N e qua ls

-
,

t he number of revolu t io ns pe r minu t e .

Wh en s hafts a re s ubjec t t o combined bending and t o rs i onal

s tres s es a value M s hould be us ed in fo rmulas 3 and 4 wh ere M
, ,

is de term i ned from t he equa t ion M B x /B T M bei ng th e

,
2 ’
,

i deal twi s t i ng moment which wo uld have th e s ame eff ec t as B

,

and T ac t ing t oget her; B equals the bending and T equa ls t he

t wis t ing moment .

The follo wing table gives t h e values fo r C C and C under ’

, ,

a limi ted range of va rying condi t ions F o rmula 1 may be us e d .

for a ll s olid s haf ts under 1 1 inches in diamet e r while fo rm ula 2 ,

may be us ed for s hafts of larger s i ze .

’
C fo r C ‘ for C for C for
Ma ter!“ RoundSha fts Ro undSh a fts Round Sh a fts i
Ro un i Sh a fts

”
FI G . 1 951 .

In general prac t ice line s haft i ng in s hop and fac to ry is s eldom

under 1 4 in d iamet er its s peed of cou rs e being determi ned by
, , ,

t h e s peed of t h e d riving bel t a n d pulley s ; however 1 2 5 t o 1 7 5 ,

revolu t io ns pe r minut e was t h e gene ral s peed fo r machine s he ps

befo re th e adven t of high s peed cu tti ng tool s ; now double t hes e

values a re often us ed ; while for s h a ft s d riving wood wo rking
,
-

machinery t h e s pe ed is from 2 00 to 2 50 revolut ions per minut e

,
.

1 9 52 .Sh a f ting Suppo rt s The di s t ance bet ween be a ri ngs is

.

gen e rally about 8 feet s o t hat t h e couplings when 1 6 foo t s hafting ,

-

is us ed may come clos e t o t h e h ea ring

, The dis t ance bet ween .

t h e bea rings ho weve r is dependen t U po n t h e weigh t and t h e

, ,

po we r t rans mi tt ed and fo r s hafts heavily loaded wi t h pulley s o r ,

t ra ns mi t t ing la rge powe r t h e be a rings s hould be clo s e r t oge t her

,

”
The following t able (F ig giving maximum di s tances
.

bet ween b ea rings fo r t h e various s haft di a mete rs is computed on

, ,

t h e as s umpt ion t ha t a deflec t ion of mo re t han r te pe r f oo t of

lengt h is inadmi s s ible .
ENG INEE RING AN D S H O P PRACT I CE
 POWE R T R NS A M ISS ION 44 l

i ely of one p iece of pres s ed s teel ; t h e a dvanta ge eff ec t ed by

e nt r

s uch an a rrangemen t be i ng a s t rong ligh t pulley fre e from i n t e rna l

,

s t rai ns .

W ood pulleys a re almos t always made in halves and a re buil t

up of s m a ll s e c t ions of ha rd wood well glu ed and doweled to
,

get her They a re p rov ided wi t h bus hings to fit any s ized s haft
.
,

F ro . 1 9 54b . D o dge C
o m pres s io n Clutc h .

to wh i ch t hey a re s ec u red by a clamp hub Wood pulleys a re .

s eldom us ed in mach i ne s ho ps ; howeve r owing to t he i r ligh n tess ,

t hey a re well adap t ed to h i gh s peed wo rk - .

Loos e pulleys t urn f ree ly on t h e s haft a re us ed t o ca rry a

.
,

s h i ft ing bel t and a re ma d e fla t or s t ra igh t fa ced while tigh t -

,

pulle y s a re c rowned t ha t is a re of la rger diameter a t th e middl e

,

of th e face .
44 2 E NGI N EE RI NG AN D S H O P PRAC TICE
Clutches cl utch pulley is often us ed where it is nec es sa ry
. A -

t o s t a rt o r s t op a t igh t pulley frequen t ly s uch as t he t igh t pulley ,

of a coun te rs haft In t he clutc h s hown in t he i llus tration F ig

.
, .

1 9 5 4 a t h e cl ut ch is keyed to t he s haft while t he pulley runs

,

free ; when t he s leeve is s lipped towa rd t he hub of t he clutch ,

t he toggle join t c loses th e jaw s whic h g ri p t h e pulley rim fi rmly

-
,

caus ing t he whole t o revolve wi t h t h e s haft Clu tc h and loos e .

ulley hould alway s be p rovid ed w i t h long bus hings and s ui t able

p s s

devices for au tomat ic lub ricati on .

Cou plin gs T he devi ce for fas teni ng t wo piec es of s haft ing

.

t oge t he r is te rmed a coupling There a re s everal kinds of coup

.

F IG . 1 9 5 4s . S olid Slee ve Co upling . 1 9 5 4d Fl nge

. a or Pla te
C upl ing
o .

lings on t he ma rke t t he more common k i nds being t he flange

, ,

t h e comp res s ion den t al or jaw and unive rs al c ouplings

, F lange .

face couplings a re fitt ed t o t h e ends of t h e s haft and t he faces

-

t u rned in place to ins u re accu racy and alignmen t There a re .

F IG . 1 9 45 0 . Ribb e d Co m pre s s io n Co upl ing.

444 ENG INEERING AND S HO P PRACTICE
will a ct under certain condi t ions a t an angle of 2 5 or greater °
.

The objec t ion to t h e un i vers al jo i nt is th e fac t t hat it does not

trans mi t a unifo rm mo t ion ; t h e veloci t y of t h e d riven s haft
varying t w i ce during one re volut ion bet ween a veloci t y t hat is
grea ter and one t hat is les s t han th e d river .

1 9 55. A rra ngem ent of Sh af tin g an d Pulle ys W hen a ho ri .

zo nt a l o pen bel t runs over b ut t wo pulleys t h e driving s ho uld

,

be done wi th t h e lower s ide of t he bel t fo r t h e reas o n t hat th e

,

a rc of cont ac t is much g rea t er in t h is c as e .

F ro . 1 9 55 0 . Pulley Cro wn ing .

Idler pulleys wo rk mos t sa t i s fac to rily when located on t h e

s lack s ide of t h e be l t about one qua rte r away f rom t h e d ri v i ng

pulley I t is almos t impo ss ible t o operat e a vert ical bel t s at i s

.

fa ct o rily w i t ho ut an idler pulley cons equent ly t h e bel ts from

,

counte rs haft ing s hould incline s omewhat towar d t he machine .

Idler or t ight ener pulleys operate mos t s a ti s facto rily when of

liberal di amet er ; nois e wea r and inju ry to t he b el t due to s ho rt
,

reve rs e band s a re t hu s obvia t e d .

I t is common p rac t ice to have one bel t run on to p of t h e o t her

on t h e d ri ving p u lley when t wo parallel s hafts a re d riven f rom it .
 PO WER TR NS A M ISS I ON 44 5

Dri ving pulleys a re c ro wn ed be ca use t h e bel t tend s to run on

t h e larger d iamet er of t h e pulley .

In t he F ig
. 1 9 55 b , if for a ny a n
re s o t he bel t is fo rced to one

F IG . 1 9 55b . F IG . 1 9 5 50 .

F ro . 1 9 55d .
Q ua rte r Twis t Be l t .

s ide t hat edge nea res t t he cen ter of t he pulley is s tretched and
,

t ravel s fas t er t ha n t h e out e r edge This caus es t h e bel t to center

.

i t s elf on t h e pulley A bel t only r uns to t he high s ide of a pul ley

.
4 46 ENG INEERI NG AND S H OP PRACTICE
when t h e s haft s pa rallel ; if th e s hafts a re no t parallel t h e
a re ,

high s ide of t he pulley is due t o its p o s i t ion ra t he r t ha n t o it s

F IG . 1 9 5 5e .
Q ua rt e r Twis t Be l t with T wo Tigh te ners .

shape and t h e bel t runs t o t h e low s ide fo r

, the reas on t hat it
pass es on to t h e pulley in a s pi ral di rec t ion . A ll poin t s a s t hey

Fm . M ul P ull ys
e e for A ngle Be lts .

fi rs tcome in cont ac t wi t h t h e pulley be ing ca rried in t h e di rec t ion

of t he pulley s ro tat ion a s indica t ed in F ig 1 9 550
’
. .

Qua rt e r t wi s t bel t s a re us ed for connec t ing s hafts a t right

44 8 ENG INEERING AND S HO P PRAC TI CE
re qui red lengt h W hen one t hickn ess of be l t i ng is use d it is
.
,

known as s ingl e ply ; when t wo th ickn ess es a re cemented t oget he r

-
,

it is t wo ply ; and when t h ree a re us ed t h ree ply

-
,
- .

In s ome i ns tances fas t runn ing bel ts over 4000 feet pe r m i nut e
, ,

a re pe rfo ra t ed ; t h e pe rfo ra t ions preven t a ir cus hions fro m fo rmi ng

bet wee n t he bel t and pulley a nd allo w t h e be l t to run l oos e r wit h

les s s train upon t he bea rings .

G rea t care s hould be t aken in t he s elec t ion of t h e lea t her us e d

i n th e ma n uf ac t u re of t h e be l t a s upon t he qualit y and fi rmness
,

o f it de pe n dt h e l ife and wea r of t h e be l t G ood oak b a rk t anned

.

lea t her re q ui res about one hund red and t went y days in t h e
t ann i ng proces s from t h e dry hide t o th e fi ni s hed p roduc t Bel t .

ing butts a re us ually s tufl ed wi t h cod o i l a nd pure bee f t allow to

'

r ese rve t h e lea t he r and rende r t hem s u i t able for t h e t rans mi ss io n

p
o f powe r aft e r which t hey a re s t ret ch ed and s moo t hed
,
.

W hen it is neces s a ry to run a leat her bel t in wet o r damp

p lace ,s o r in t h e p roximi t y of acid s or dyes s ome o ne of t h e ,

many waterproo fi ng mat erial s on t h e ma rket s hould be use d .

T hes e gene rally inc rease t h e adhes i ve powe r p reven t s l ipping ,

a nd rende r t h e bel t s o ft and pliable Bel t d ress ings a re s uppos ed

.

t o pe rfo rm t h e abo ve func t ion s wi t h t h e except ion of t h e wa te r

p r oo fi ng
.

Be l ts unless endless a re gene rally joined by rawhide s t ri ps

, ,

t e rmed laces t hough t hey a re s omet imes laced wi t h a s pec i al

,

a lloy wi re . H oo ks a re al s o us ed .

1 9 58. B e lt La cing In laying o ut a s plice t h e t ry s quare

.
,
-

s hould always be us ed in o rde r t ha t t h e end s of t h e join t may be

c ut a t righ t a ngles t o t h e edge of t h e be l t Many an o th erwis e

.

good s pl i ce is ruined b v t h e neglec t of t hi s caut io n The fo ur .

s t yles of lacing s hown by t h e d rawings a re indicat ive of good

p r ac t ice and will be di s cu ss ed in t h e o rde r of t hei r a rrangemen t .

The doubl e laced s plice s hown in No 1 1 9 58a is often us ed

- .
,

ins tead of t he s ingle laced s plice s imila r to it In t hi s as in all

- .
,

o th e r s plices t he lac i ngs s hould be s o a rra nged as to d raw a nd

,

kee p t h e edges in l i ne and t he lacings s hould not be c ross ed on

,

t h e s ide of t h e bel t t hat runs nex t t h e pulley No 1 gives a . .

s t rong join t b ut n o t a la s t ing s plice fo r t h e rea s on t ha t a n y ex

c e ss ive s e rv i ce p roduces p remat u re wea r on t h e out e r laye r which ,

t akes t h e bulk of t h e wea r and t ea r of t h e lace a t A and B caus ,

ing t hem when wo rn t hin t o t ea r o ut To overcome t hi s d i th

, ,
.
 E A
PO W R T R NS M ISS I ON 44 9
450 ENG I NEERING AND S HO P PRAC TICE
cul t y t he s t yle of laci ng s hown in No 2 1 9 58a is oftent imes us ed; .
,

ins tead of us ing one end of t h e lace and wo rking over and over
t h rough t h e holes t wo ends of t h e lace a re t aken and one is d rawn
,

in ove r t h e ot her from t he oppo s i t e s ide a s i ndicated W i t h t his .

a rrangement pa rts of t h e t wo laces come in contac t wi t h t he

,

p u lley s in s
,
t ead of one as befo re .

Pul le y S ide

P ulley S ide

Pull ey S ide

F1 0 . 1 9 58b . Othe Belt La cings

r .

No . what is t ermed t h e hinge s plice and may b e made

3 is
double wi t h a double ro w of holes o r wi t h b ut a s ingle ro w as
s hown This m akes a flexible join t and one t hat will readily run
.

over a s mall pulley The la ci ng a s will be s een is pas s ed fro m

.
,
,

t h e hole down be t ween t h e e n d s o f t h e bel t t h e co rne rs of t h e ,

ends of whi ch h a ve been p revious ly ro unded Thi s joi n t is s ome .

t imes us ed fo r its economy in be l t la c i n g a s ho rt piece going a ,

cons idera b le wa y .

No 4 is an excellen t l a ce m a kes an e x c e llen t s plice and is

.

use d chie fly fo r heavy wo rk wi t h bel ts of ave ra ge wid t h I n its .

452 ENG INEERI NG AND S HO P P RAC TI CE

S peed in F ee t
per M inute

HP
500
t h k b
t ic n e ss o f e lt in in c es h
T k
wo r in g te ns ion o f e lt b .

T tV ’
e fl e c t ive t e n s io n o f
'

b
elt .

T 4 5 lb s , 80 lb s , 1 1 0 lbs , 1 4 5 lb s
. .

V v e loc ity .

F IG . 1 9 59 .

bel ts mo re t ha n one i nch wide mul t i ply

F or ,
th e wid t h by t h e
value in t h e table
‘

.
 C H APT ER X X

MOTO R D RI V ES A ND MOT O R D RI V E N MACH I NE -

T O O LS
2 0 1 1 . A dva nta ge s of Moto r D rive s
The chief ad van tages
.

of a s ys tem of individual mot o r d rives for machine t ool s e tc , .

,

as ide from the great economy of s uch a s ys tem a re t h e abse nce ,

of overhead s haft ing ; giving bette r ligh t and c rane s erv ice ; it s
convenience fo r detached buildings ; t h e indepe ndent l o cat ion of
m achines ; t h e s pee d con trol and eas y manipulat ion and as an
inevi table res ul t o f t hes e condi t ions its i n troduc t ion lead s to new
me t hods which no t only s ecu re a g reat e r ou t pu t b ut al so an
,

inc reas e of ex cellence in th e p roduc t Chas F Sco tt s ays : The

. . .
“

int roduc t ion o f t h e mo t o r in to t h e machine s hop h as res ul t ed in

new methods of applying power and co ntrolli ng it which have , .

n o t only inc reas ed t h e ou t pu t of t h e tool b ut have reac t ed upon ,

its des ign s o t ha t new met hod s have been wo rked o ut leading to
radical advances I t may be not ed t hat in t h e rapid and radical
.

change which h as t aken place in machine s hop p rac t ice high ,

s peed t ool s t ee l s and mo t o r d rives a re t h e impo rt an t fac t o rs ,

”
t hough t h e pri n cipal fea t u res which enable t h e mo t o r to play s o
impo rt ant a role in t hi s change a re m echanical rat her t ha n elec
t rica l viz s peed regulat ion and con t ro l
,
.
,
.

The accompanying chart (F ig 2 0 1 1 page 4 54 ) illus tra t ing t h e

.
,

principal advan tages and va rious met hod s t hat may be adopt ed
fo r d riving machine tool s wa s made in 1 9 0 3 by Dodge and Da y .

2 0 1 2.Re la tive Co s ts of Equipm en t As t h e t o t al co s t of

.

powe r in a la rge fac t o ry is a very s mall pe rcen tage of t h e ent i re

cos t of produc t ion from 2 9 0 to 5 % mo to r d rives gained b ut
7

li tt le popul a ri t y wi t h manufac turers un t il it wa s demons trated

t hat bes ides reducing t h e co s t of powe r wi t h t hem it wa s poss ible
, ,

to reduce t h e co s t of labo r to inc reas e t h e out pu t t o imp rove

, ,

t h e p roduc t t o reduc e powe r demand s and t o us e g reat e r powe r

,

m o re eff ec t ively .

Regarding th e fi rs t cos t of ins t alla t ion G M Campbe ll in a n ,

. .
,

4 53
454 ENG INEERI NG AND S HO P PRACTI CE
b
e
a
3
a a b 0 .
6 “
x a
a a c u
0
4
a m A
n
3
e 6 s 6 mc i
n

—
.
n
9
.

d4 a ;
2 o fi a
m 5
g
— —
9
.
4
t 2 “ a 3 i i 5 e “

—3
n o 3 d 3 n 6
3
0
o
a r 8 £
i
0
» n d0
a 3
.

» 8 3 d 2 8
s 2 é 3 e
o
w 3 2
5 8 e 3 3 0 a 3 a 5 9

2
0
0 fl 8 3
5
A m d5 : m
9 c
2

—
S
u o
9
0
s $
e
v -o 2
B 0
. Sn 3
Q 5m 5
N
B
v

2 «
3 0
B 8
o
:
b
456 ENG INEERI NG AND S HOP PRAC TI CE
ho rse power fo r machine s h op d riving and where t he avera ge
-

daily sa ving in s team was and of combus t ible ,

In o t her cas es acco rding to t h e A m erica n M ac h in is t elec tri c

, ,

d rivi ng h a s reduced by 50 t h e cos t for enginee r coal and wat e r;

9 7
,
,

t h e fuel accoun t 2 0 6 and t h e cos t of powe r

“
, , , The gross ,

s aving wa s 30 % wi t h di rec t conn ec ted mo t o rs and 2 2 % w i t h -

bel ted o r gea red mot o rs .

Co nce rning t h e economy in t h e ope rat ion of mo t o r d ri ves ,

t h e res ul t s t ha t ob t ained a t t h e P i t ts bu rg and La ke E rie Sh O ps

during t h e yea r 1 9 0 4 a re given a s being t ypic a l F o r t his yea r .

t he ave rage ho rs e powe r t aken by a ll machine t ool mo t o rs was

- -

about 2 00 during t h e wo rking hours The avera ge powe r con .

s ump t ion a t p res en t 1 9 0 6 is abou t 300 o r 30 70 o f t h e ho rs e

, ,

power ra t ing of t he 8 3 mo t o rs t h e ave rage ho rs e power of each ,

-

being Only 1 7 3 } of t he power hous e ou t pu t was us ed

C
.
-

by th e machine tool s it being 38 7 1 c of t he to tal elec t ric power;

,
0
.
7

t h e ligh t ing cons umed while t he heat ing and vent ilating
moto rs took
A t abul a t ed ho rs e po we r co n s ump t ion fo r ea ch t ype of wo rk
-

is a s follows :

b
Va ria le S pe e d T l
oo s

Co ns ta n t

C ra n es

T o ta l,

The t o t al cos t of po we r fo r t h e machine t ool s and c ranes

—
,

exclu ive of main tenance wa s

s The powe hous e
,
r

c a paci t y is 600 kilowatts and wi t h a n overload rat ing o f 2 5 70

it would be 7 50 kilowa tts The mo to r ra t ing fo r t h e 83 moto rs
.

above men t ioned was 1 00 0 ho rs e power -

.

I t will no doub t be s u rp ri s ing t o n o t e t ha t t h e powe r lo sses

, ,

which ob tain when all machines a re running light may reach or .

even exceed th e avera ge po wer con s ump tion t h roughout the

”
wo rking days To illus trat e t hi s po in t t he followi ng diagram
.
,

(Fig 2 0 1 3 ) is t aken f rom a n excelle n t a rticle by Mr Campbell o n

.
.

Powe r Re qui red by Ma c hi n e Tool s Thi s paper wa s read

“
.
,

F eb rua ry 1 9 0 6 befo re t h e E n gi n ee rs Socie t y of W es t e rn P enn

, ,
’

s ylv a n ia .The good res ul ts ob tained in t he Pi t ts bu rg and Lake

E rie S ho ps may be ind ic a ted f ro m t h e fa ct t ha t whe re fo rmerly
MOTOR DRI V E S AND MOTOR - DRI VEN MACHI NE T OOLS 457

J G M Odmas o n

aem od-as x o n
4 58 ENG I NEERI NG AND S HOP P RAC TI CE
it wa s po ss ible t o overhaul fi ve to s even locomo t ives eac h month ,

now fourt een to t wen ty a re overhauled and t he new s hops a re

cons idered s uch an excellen t inves t men t t ha t it is es t imat ed t hat
t hey will have paid fo r t hems elves including fi rs t cos t and ,

interes t in te n yea rs or les s

,
.

Mor o ns FOR TO O L DRI V I NG

SH O P A ND MA C H I N E
2 02 1 Con s tan t s pe e d Moto rs U nde r t his head i ng a re cl as s ed
.
- .

mo to rs whos e avera ge va riat ion f rom no load to full load is

”
no t ove r Thei r general cha rac teris t ic s as may be s een ,

from t h e plo t t ing of heavy li nes in t h e diag ram Typical

Cu rves fo r S hun t and Compound Mo t o rs F
( gi 2 0 2 1 ) a re as .

follows : In all b ut t h e s ynch ronous mo t o r whic h gi ves a bs o

lutely a con s tan t s peed if th e cycles o f t h e ci rcui t upo n which it
operates remain cons tan t t h e s peed is app ro ximat ely co ns tan t ,

falling s ligh t ly wi t h th e load The t orque and brake ho rse power .

a re clo se ly p ropo rt ional t o t h e a rma tu re cu rren t while t h e mo to r ,

automat ically adjus ts i ts elf to give cons tan t s peed a s the di ff erent
load s come on it .

Mr Da y rema rks t ha t t h e con s tan t s pee d mo to r pa rt icula rlv

.
-
,

of th e al te rnat ing type is s o s imple in cha rac ter t ha t we nat urally

,

t u rn to it as t h e po ss ible s olut ion o f t h e p roblem of di rec t co n -

n ec t e d machine d rives H e s tat es t ha t it lack s t wo g rea t ess en

.

t ia ls viz
, eas e o f handling and s peed regulat ion and t hat all
.
, ,

attemp ts to s upply t hes e s ho rt comings by mechanical means

have s o fa r p roved uns a t i s fac to ry H is s t at emen t t hat t he
, , .

induc t ion mo to r is merely a s ource of powe r jus t as t h e line ,

s haft ca rries wi t h it t h e in fe rence t hat it is inflexible a s t o s pee d

,

regula t ion ; howeve r W I Schlich t e r in a pape r befo re th e

,
. .
,

A S M E J une 1 9 0 3 p res en ts s eve ral s ucces s ful met hods of

. . . .
, , ,

con trolling a n d va rying t h e s peed of al te rnat ing cu rrent moto rs - .

The di ff e ren t t ypes of mot o rs a re class i fied by W Edga r Ree d .

as follows

S h u t W un d n o

Co ns ta n t S pe e d $ 0 819 “

t
b T rq u
Va ria le o e I nduct i o n W o un d Ro to r
Po ly-p h as e Sh o rt -c irc uite d

R oto r

S yn c h ro n o us
4 60 ENG IN EERI NG A ND S HOP PRAC TI CE
Thei r charac t eris t ic s a re cl ass i fi ed in t he following table
Ch a ra c te ris tics n o te d o n dia gra m ; no rm a l s pee d m a y be
S hunt Wo un d varied by c ha ng es in fi e ld s t re ngt h .

Built in s m ll i es a s z an d fo r o pe ra t io n on

l igh ti g i uit n c rc s . S m a ll s ta rt ing q

to r ue ,
n l
S i g e p a se
- h la rge line c urre nt to s ta rt m us t b ebr ugh t o

up to n ea rly full s pee d be fore lo ad is t h wn ro

on .

I n duct io n
Ad pte df
a lyphas e ligh ting circuits Sta rt
or po .

ing cur e nt f de veloping full loa d; t rq u

r or o e

Poly -p has e o n ly ligh tly in

s xce ss f full l d cu re nt
e o oa r .

R unn in g cha ra t ri t i s im ila r t o t hos e o f

c e s cs

s h un t wo u d m t o r e x ce pt t ha t it h as b ut
- n o

o ne de fi nite s pee d .

A bs olut e ly co ns t a n t s pee d, no s t a rt in g q
to r ue ; n ot se l f .

S yn c h o no us
r s ta rt in g wit h lo a d . M u t ha s ve co n t in uo us e n t a va ils
c urr

a bl
e fo r fi eld e x c it a t io n . U se d prin c ipa lly in la rge s izes .

2 02 2 . Va ria b le or In general t his

A dj u s ta b le S pe e d Moto rs .
,

cl as s of mo to rs is des igned t o give automat ically a wide range of

s pe ed s fo r t h e di ff e ren t t o rques and o ut pu t s requi red of it They .

have no defi ni te ho rs e power rat i n g b ut a re generally rated a t

-

t h e ho rs e po we r t hey develop fo r one hou r wi t hin a s t at ed ri s e

-

in tempe rat u re ; t h e ri s es mos t oft en s elec ted being 60 o r

°

7 5 Cen t ig rade The s elec t ion of a s ui t able mot o r of t his t ype

°
.

s hould depe nd la rgely upon t h e maximum t o rque requi red of

it and t hi s s hould be developed wi t hout u n due s pa rking o r

h ea t ing .

Plo tt ed on t h e s ame diag ram (F ig 2 o2 2 u) fo r compa ri s on a re .

t h e gene ral cha rac t e ri s t ic s of t hi s clas s of mo t o rs ; t h e one on t h e

left gives cha rac t eri s t ic dat a ei t her for t h e s eries wou nd con t inuous -

o r t h e s ingle phas e s e ries wound al t e rna t ing cu rren t mo t o r while

-
,
- -
,

t h e one on t h e righ t s hows t h e s ame da t a f or t h e polyphas e

induc tion mo t o r .

The di fferent types a re t hus divided by W E dgar Reed in t h e .

t able
 MOTOR D RI VES A ND —
M O TO R D RIV EN MACHI NE TOO LS 46 1

m um M «torturou s

Aouoio wn dn
§
n
4 62 ENG I NEERING AND S HOP PRACTI CE

a rm zed m an
-

.I a M O J au o g
-
a
 ENG I NEER I NG AND S HOP PRACTI CE
Compound Mo to rs in Se c 2 0 2 1 F ig 2 0 2 1 Thes e cu rves were
.
,
. .

t aken f rom te s ts upon t h e s ame mo t o r fi rs t wi t h s hun t and ,

se ries winding s bo t h o pe ra t ing and se cond wi t h only t h e s hun t ,

winding in ope rat ion Compound mot o rs have a fi xed no load .

-

s peed t h e s peed va ry ing inve rs ely as t h e load i s

, high s pee d a t ,
. .
,

a ligh t load .

The di ff e ren t kind s of mot o rs having cha rac teris t ic s of th e

compound type a re t hus t abulat ed by Mr Reed who s tates t hat .
,

th e s o called compound mo t o r is gene rally o f t h e con t inuous

“
-

”
current t ype b ut t hat polyphas e i n duc ti on mo to rs of t h e s ho rt
ci rc ui t ed o r wound rot o r ty pes a re made and thes e have nea rly
t h e s ame ope rat ing cha rac te ri s t ic s .

Co m p o un d M o to rs
C o n tin uo us Curren t Co m po un d
{ W o un d

Alt e rna t in g Cu rre nt

Sh d Ro to r
{W
o rt-c irc uit e

o un d Ro to r

This mot o r is es pecially valuable fo r d riving recip rocat ing

machine ry plane rs s hapers p rin t ing p res s es e t c becaus e it
, , , ,
.
,

holds in check t h e s u rge of cu rrent from th e line a t th e in

s t ant o f reve rs al a t t h e t ime when t h e maximum to rque is
,

requi red .

”
2 02 4 R ef e ren c e s to Oth e r Da ta
. F or o t he r info rma ti on .

rega rding elec t ric mo t o rs t h e s t uden t is ref e rred t o t h a t po rt io n

o f Chap t e r 1 9 on Powe r T ran s mi s s ion which deal s wi t h elec tric

t ran s mi ss ion and e s pecially t o Sec t ions 1 9 1 5 1 9 1 6 1 9 1 7 and 1 9 1 8
, , ,
.

”
Should a mo re exhaus t ive s t udy o f mo t o rs and mo t o r d riving b e
des i red much valuable info rma t ion may be had from th e a rt icles
,

on F eed Cha ract e ris t ic s and t h e Cont rol of E lec t ric Mo to rs by

“
,

Ch as F Sco t t which appea red in t h e E ngin eering M a gaz ine of

. .
»

A p ril and Ma y 1 9 0 6 ; a pape r by W Edga r Re ed on

,
El ec t ric .

Mo to rs and Thei r A pplica t ion publi s hed in Vo l 2 1 1 9 0 5 of ,

.
, ,

t h e P roceedings o f t h e E nginee rs S ocie t y of W es t e rn Pe n ns y l

’

vania ; and to t wo pape rs by G M Campbell which appea red in . .

”
t h e Proceedings o f t h e s ame s ocie t y one in Novembe r 1 9 0 5 and , , ,

”
t h e o t he r in F eb ruary 1 9 0 6 ; one dealing wit h Machine Shop
,

P rac t ice and th e o ther wi t h Powe r Requi red fo r Machine

,
“

Tool s ; and again to a pape r by Robert T Lozier read befo re

,
.
,

t h e Ne w Y o rk E lec t rical Socie t y and di s t ribu t ed by t h e B ullock

 MOTOR D RI VES AND M OTO R D RI VEN MACH IN E TOOLS -
4 65

E lec t ric Mfg Co on t h e

. .
,
E lec t rical O pe rat ion of Modem Machine
Tools and Machine ry .

W O R KI N G VA RI O U S MO T O RS
A P P LI C A T I O N S OF TH E

2 0 31 .On th e Ch oice of a Moto r In general it may be s tated .

,

t hat mo re t han one t ype of mo t o r m a y be us ed t o pe rfo rm a

given kind of wo rk and condi t ions of elect rical di s t ribut ion alone
,

may det ermine t he se lec tion I t is very i m po rt ant however t o .

, ,

know all t h e condi t io ns requi red of t h e s ervice a s s pecial condi

t ion s of ttimes exert a p re ponderat ing influence in t h e choice of
a mo to r .

2 0 32 .Con s ta nt s pe e d Se rvic e
- The purpose of th e following .

li s t is to give a fe w general applica tions of d ri ves requi ring th e

us e of con s tan t s peed mo t o rs
-

W ood wo rking Machinery La th es Circ ula r and Band Sa ws e tc

-
, , ,
.

F ans B lo we r A ir Comp res s o rs

,
s
,
.

S uch Machine Tool s a s have Ro ta ry Mo t ion L a thes D rill s , , ,

Milling Machines Bo ring Mill s et c

, , .

H igh and Slow Spee d Cent rifugal and Recip roca t ing Pumps .

S ho e making Machinery .

Laund ry Machine ry .

H yd raulic E levat o rs .

L ine S haft ing which requ i res a fai rly con s tan t s peed w i th fe w
s t ops.

2 0 33 .Va ria b le o r A dj us ta b le Spe e d Se rvice B ecaus e of t h e .

tendency in t h e s e ries mo to r to run away a t lo w o r no load s and ,

bec aus e of tempe rat u re s pa rking and ot he r condi t ions in ot he r

,

t y pes of t hi s class va riable s peed mo t o rs fi n d t hei r gene ral a ppli

,
-

cat ion in cas es where t h e mot o rs a re always under cont rol of th e

operato r In th i s clas s of s erv i ce a re found
.

St ree t Railway Mo to rs .

Locomo t ives .

Cranes H oi s ts E levato rs et c
, , ,
.

Us ed for s e rvice requi ring f requen t s tops and high s peed -

averages .

2 0 34 .D rive s a n d Too l s R e qui rin g Com poun d Se rvice As .

h as been p revio us ly s ta ted t hi s mot o r fi nd s its la rges t ap plica t ion

,

in d riving rec i p rocat ing machinery where a full load is th rown

s uddenly and in te rmi t t en t ly on t h e m a chine U nde r t h is cla s s .

of s e rvice a re pla c e d:
466 ENG I NEERI N G A ND S
:

HOP P RACT I CE
Machine Tool s having Re cip rocat ing Mot ion .

Planers Shape rs Slo tt e rs and Press es

, ,
.

P unches S hea rs and Pres s es

,
.

H ois t s E levat o rs and Cranes

,
.

Be nding and S traigh t ening Roll s .

Prin t ing Pres s es .

Crus he rs e t c ,
.

Roller Beds .

S P E E D R E G U LA T I O N

2 0 4 1 . Spe e d Ra n ge s evident t o even t h e novice . A s is , ,

machin e tool wo rk requi res s pee d varia t ion for economic p rod uc
-

t ion . H o w much o r t h rough wha t range and what p ropo rt ion is

to be t aken by t h e mo to r and what pa rt can be had in t h e t oo l
i ts el f a re t h e p roblems A mo to r can be made to o pe rate a t any
.

s peed bet ween 0 and t h e maximum b ut it become s abno rmally ,

la rge fo r g reat ranges a s th e s peed is a di rec t func t ion of t h e

,

po we r: E lec t ric manufac t u rers s a y t hat th e p rac t ical range is

6 o r 7 t o 1 t hough t hi s may be inc reas ed to 1 0 to 1 wi t hou t
,

di ffi cul t y G ene rally s peaking from t h e s hop man s s t andpoint

.
,
’
,

it s eems b es t wi t h t h e p res en t mo t o rs and t ool s no t t o exceed

4 to 1 in t h e mo t o r obt ai n ing t h e re s t of t h e va ria t ion by runs o f
,

gea rs t hough j us t what s peed ran ge t o give t h e mo to r canno t be

,

s t a t ed fo r a ll condi t ions .

”
W i t h a lat he having a s pindle s peed v a riat ion s a y of 2 6 to 1 -
,

t h e va ria t ion co uld be ob t ained wi t h fou r runs o f gea rs and a

s pe ed va ri a t ion in t h e mo t o r of 3 t o 1 W i t h th e gea rs run 2 .
,
“

would give t h ree t imes 1 ; run t h ree t imes 2 ; and ru n 4

“
,

th ree t ime s 3 and a s t hi s is a ra nge o f 30 0 9 3 t h e mo to r is given

, ,

3 to 1 and ope ra t es a s f ollows : s ta rt ing wi th t h e la t he running

” ”
wi th run 1 and t h e mo to r a t ini t i a l s peed t h e s peed may b e ,

b rough t up gradually by any in c remen t unt il it is t h ree t imes

”
t h e ini t ial s pe e d ; is now d ropped o ut t h ro wn
“
run 2
“
n 1
r u ,

in and th e mo t o r b rough t bac k to its ini t ial s pe ed gi ving t h e nex t ,

s peed t o th e s pindle above t ha t wi t h run 1 and s o on t h rough “

t h e en t i re ran ge .

S peed inc remen ts o f o n lv 5 C} o r les s may be necess a ry b ut f o r ,

,

t h e regula r r un o f wo rk inc remen t s o f 1 0 % will be found s ui t able

and wi t h t hi s inc remen t t h e num b e r o f con t rolle r poin ts obt a ined
by t h e fo rmula given by G M Ca mpbe ll will b e : . .
468 ENG I NEE RI NG A ND S H O P PRACTI CE
Thi s s ys t em is on a pa r wi t h us ing res is t ance in t h e arm a tu re
—
ci rcui t to vary t h e elect o mo t ive fo rce as regards t h e s ize of t he
r

mo to r .

( )
3 C hanging t h e numbe r of pole s and a t t h e sa me t i m e t h e

a rmat ure connec t io ns t o co rres pond Wi t h t hi s me thod an .

eigh t pole machine would give app roximat ely

-
i , and f ull ,

s peed ; a s ix t een pole mach i ne Q i-

Q and f ull s peed There a re
, , , .

many s e rious defec ts to t his s ys t em s uch a s loss of t o rque when ,

t h e p oles a re re ve rs ed s t opping e t c , , .

Af te r dis cus s ing a t lengt h t h e di ffe ren t me t hod s P res Chas , . .

F S co tt o f A I E E makes t h e following s ta t emen t : A com

“
. . . .

pa ri s on of t h e fo regoing met hods of s peed con trol s hows se veral

poin ts in favo r o f con t rol by va riat ion o f t he s t rengt h of t he
s hun t fi eld when adj us t able s peed s a re des i red which s hall be
, ,

cons t ant independent of load va riat ions The moto r and cont rol
,
.

devices a re s imple ; th e s upply ci rc ui t is of th e s imples t kind

”
wi t hout s pecial gen erat o rs o r addi t ional wi res The current is .

al ways minimum a s no lo w vol tages a re us ed which would requi re

,

a greate r cu rren t fo r a given power .

In s pi te of t hi s fac t t h e mul t iple vol tage s ys tem h as m et wi t h

,
-

grea t s uccess in a numbe r of la rge machine s hops .

2 0 43 Spe e d Con tro l R e la tion s

. The following de fini te rela .

tion s obt ain bet ween t h e vol t age cu rren t s peed and t o rque and , , ,

a re given he re in o rde r t ha t a be tt e r unders t anding may be had

rega rding s pee d con t rol .

( )
1 H o rs e powe -
r is p ropo rt ion a l t o s peed X t o r que .

(2 ) P owe r is p ropo rt ional t o E M F X cu rr en t . . . .

I f E M F be cons t an t t h e s peed is a co ns t ant

. . . .

( )
3 The refo r e t o r que H P and cu r ren t
,
va .ry . t oge t he r .

(4 ) I f t h e load be doubled bo t h t h e t o rque and

,
cu rr en t a r e

doubled ; unde r t hes e condi t ions it follows t hat t h e

t o rque and cu rren t a re p ropo rt ional .

( )
5 If t h e E M F applied . .t o. t h e a r ma t u re be va r i e d t h e ,

s peed changes in like p ropo rt ion .

( )
6 W i t h a de fi ni t e con s t an t fi eld s t
,
reng t h t h e s peed is p ro

po rt ional to t h e applied and t h e to rque is

p ropo rt ional to t h e curren t .

2 0 44 Sy s tem s an d W irin g The di ffe rent s ys t ems of wi ring

. .

a re t h e s ingle vol t age o r 2 wi re t h e t wo equal vol t age o r 3 wi re

- - -

—
,

and t h e mul t iple volt age o r 4- wi re In all t h e s ys te m s t h e s ize .

 M OT OR D RI VES AND —
M OTO R D RI VEN MACHIN E TO O LS 469

of moto equi rr abou re ame

dis ins talla tion al ready
t t he s . A 2 -w i re
i n s ervice can i nco rpo rat e wi t hout a ny trouble any nu m ber of
va riabl e s p ee d s ingle vo lta ge mo to rs
-
, .

The 3 wi re s ys tem is a c ross be t wee n th e mul t iple vol t age and

-

2 wi re wi t h pa rt of t he good and part of th e bad poin ts of each

-
.

In brief t h e multiple vol tage s ys tem which is a type of s pee d

, ,

control by a rma ture vol tage cons is ts o f se veral s ources of curre n t

,

s upplied a t di ffe rent vol t ages each di ffering by a fix ed ra t io

, .

We may have a 3 wi re s ys tem which h as 2 2 0 vol ts on t wo of its

-

wi res and 1 1 0 vol ts be t ween each of t hes e and t he middle wi re ,

which gives us two s peeds a t a rat io of t wo to one : t hen again ,

we may have a 3 wi re s ys t em w i t h unequal vol t ages ; fo r example

-
,

80 1 60 and 2 40 vol ts dividing the maximu m vol t age in to t hi rds

, ,

ins tead of halves as in t he fo rm er ins tance O r we may have a

—
.

4 w i re s ys tem bet ween which t h e followi ng vol t ages a re mai n

t a in ed: 60 80 and 1 1 0 vol ts res pect ively
,
The di fferent vol tages .

obtain ed wit h t his arrangement a re 60 80 1 1 0 1 40 1 9 0 and 2 50 , , , , .

S uch an arrangemen t wi t h a s mall range of s hunt fi e ld regulat io n -

could be given a s pee d range of abou t 6§ to 1 .

Spe aking o f t h e mul t iple vol t age s ys t em Mr S co tt s ays

-

”
.

The p rincipal a dvant ages in th e us e of t h e mult iple vol t age -

s ys t em i nvolving a cons ide ra ble numbe r of vol t ages a re t h a t les s

range of s pee d is neces s a ry in t h e fi eld con t rol A n d as be fo re .

s ta ted he goes on t o recommend t h e con t rol by t h e va ria t ion in

s trengt h of t h e s hun t fi eld F o r recip rocat ing mach i ne t ools

.
,

t h e m ultiple vo lt a ge s ys t em is undoub tedly advan t ageous An .

ot her s trong poin t in favor of this s ys tem is t hat s t anda rd mo tors

a re us ed .

H O RS PO
E - W E R R E Q U I R E M E NT S
0 5 1 . Moto r Ra tin gs
The plott ings on t h e diag ram here
.

”
wi t h (F ig 2 0 5 1 ) a re taken from Mr Campbe ll s pape r and indicat e
. .
’

how li ttle reliance may b e placed upon th e manufac t u re r s rat ing ’

of a mo to r A 5 H P Mot o r means very li tt le unles s we

.
“
. .

know th e condit ions under which it ope rat es o r on wha t pa rt icula r

b as i s t h e rat ing is made .

F rom t h e diagram it may be s een t ha t a 5 ho rs e powe r mo to r -

m a y weigh (and c os t s o m ewhere in p ropo rt ion ) f ro m 360 to 1 600

po und s .A n dagain t h a t one migh t p a y f or and receive a 30 ho rs e
po we r mo t o r when t h e r a t ing called f o r b u t a 5 ho rs e powe r m o t o r - .
4 70 ENG INEE RI NG AND S HOP PRACTIC E

C o n s ta n t S p e ed
S peed Va ria tion

F IG . 2 051 . W igh t
e s of b
Va ria le s pee d
-
M otors .
472 ENG INEERI NG AND S HOP PRACT ICE
ac tual ho rs e power no ted in a large number of i ns tances and on
-

a wide range of work s ome wide varia t ions were no ted ; b ut t he ,

agree ment in gene ral was s uffi cient ly clos e t o s ho w t ha t t h e

fo rm ula is a reas onable one fo r arriving a t t he approximate
ho rs e power requi red for doing t h e ac tual wo rk
- .

2 0 54 H ors e p
.o w e r R e qui re d to R em
-
ove Chi ps of G ive n

A rea . The charts , fou in numbe , give e ho e powe r req ui red

r r t h rs -

to r emove chips o f a known a rea (dept h of c ut t imes feed ) a t t he

o rdina ry rates of s peed The ho rs e powe r ob tained will be found .
-

ample and th e s pee d range and area of t h e chip a s plo tt ed a re

s u fficient t o give da t a fo r even t h e heavies t cu t s wi t h high s peed -

”” ”
s t eel s The met hod of us ing t hese diag rams F igs 2 o5 4u b c
.
,
.
, ,

and d is : I t is des i red to know what ho rs e power is requi red to

,
-

remove f rom s oft s t eel a chip x fi 1 5 deep X Q feed ) a t a

3
, ,

s pee d of 40 f ee t pe r minu te O n th e cha rt fo r s oft s t eel fi n d t h e

”
.

curve ma rked 40 feet follow t hi s do wn unt il it in ters ec ts t h e

”
,

abs ci s s a The reading di rec tly below

. gives th e horse ,

po we r requi red to remove a chip 1 6 s qua re o f t hi s value of 3

.
,

"
cours e gives t h e ho rs e powe r requi red to remove th e chip ft, x i
,
-

or ho rs e power Thes e hors e powers will be fou nd ample and

- .
-
,

t hough calc ula t ed by Campbell s fo rmula a re abou t t h e s ame as

’
,

when calculated by Mr P omero y s formula which appea red in .

’

t h e G ene ral Elec tric Revi e w 1 9 0 8 ,

.

H o rs e powe r F X D x fpm X 12 x N X C
- . . . .

where F feed in inches

‘

D dept h of c ut .

fp m f ee t
.
pe r minu
. t e . .

N number o f t ool s cu tt i ng .

C a co ns t an t depending upo n t he mat erial .

The ho rs e powe rs in t h e t able may be obtained by giving C

-

t h e f ollowi ng values : H a rd s t e e l C 7 1 ; w rough t i ron C 51 ; , .

, .

s o ft s teel C 5 1 ; cas t i ron C

, . 37 , . .

The tables (F igs 2 05 4a a bb cc and dd) accompanying the .

,

cha rts not only give t h e ho rs e powe r requi red b ut als o t he weight
,
-
,

of metal removed pe r minut e fo r th e given cut and s peed .

MOTO R D RI V ER AND M OTO R D RI VEN
-
MACHI NE TOO LS 473

no rms ditto D w eb s
474 ENG INEE RING AN D S HOP PRACTICE

Ho m es dmo D 64 “ a
476 G EERIN G
E N IN AND S HOP PR ACTICE

X
. .
2q g 53 N 53
n o noes dmo D s n ub s
 MOTO R D V
RI ES AND —
M OT O R D RI VEN MACH I N E TOO LS 4 77

H O RS E -
PO W E R R E Q U I RE D AND W E GH T I or CH I PS A T TH E V A RI O U S S P E E DS

so F E EI I oo F E ET

m 3
.

fi 3
m
n

m 3
m 3
m 1
fi 1 2
m 2 2

FI G . 2 0540 a . H A RD ST EE L .

"
m 1 6 2 3
m 6 2 a
n

1 6
fi 1 4 6 o9 33
fi 1 8 4 m6 6
m 3 13 w6 9 6
m 7 18 8 a 2 4 1
w
fi 4 25 6 s 4 9 2

”
m
c
3 33 2 a 8 4
. 9

FIG . 2 o5 4bb . W RO U G H T I RO N .

72 6 I 15 “ 1 8 1 6 z
1 6 68 2 1 i 2 7 76 42 o
36 85 4 8 w8 6 n 3 9 6 m
6 4 15 2 8 6 w 0 6 a n a 2 ‘ o

10 24 [3 3 a 66 a n 6 m
1 4 3 34 4 19 1 a 39 a 8 w2 a
1 9 5 46 8 26 s 5 2 6 a 6 m n
2 4 6 6! 2 34 m6 2 6 a ‘ m a
1
. .

F IG . 2 054cc . S O F T S T EEL .

17 12 “ M 1 7 I3
69 49 1 3 1 9 3 2 4 4 2 9 s6
1 5
1
l 1 32 4 4 7 55 9 66 m
2 6 l 9 62 7 6 l3 9 5 m6 I1 4
1
m8
42 3 84 l 2
c
21 I5 2 I8 a 6
w2 26 4
.

62 44 2 4 8 17 6 31 22 a 6
84 6 68 33 6 24 42 m a 4 36 m2
0 9 78 ]
8 43 6 31 2 54 5 39 s ‘ 46 8 m2

FIG . 2 0 54dd . CA S T I RO N .

55
2 0 . H o rs e -powe rs of th e Moto r Equipm ents f o r Va riou s
Ma chin e Too ls The dat a from which th e cu rves o n t hi s chart
.

F
( g i 2 0.5 5 ) we r e de rived have been ga t he red f rom nume rous

s ou rces and ac t ual in s t alla t ion s t hat have been found s a t i s fac t o ry .

The values plotted a re ample for t he heavy cuts of gene ral pra c
t ice and
,
a r e s ligh t ly highe r t han t ho s e given by M r P ome roy .

G ene ral El ec t r ic R eview 1 9 0 8 The s eve r al charts which he

,
.
478 ENG INEERING AN D S HO P P RAC TIC E

M m1 0 ° °
o I H
.

30 1 0 m 30 JOM O J as m u
 I ND E X

A ll o ys , co ppe r-tin -z in c, 43
e ru z in c , 43
fu ipl 48
co p .

s s,
A bras i ve O pe ra t i o ns il
.

b a n d, 2 7 0 G m er an s 47
v e r,
p i i Gu l y b
. .
,

gr n d n g
’
ro c e s s e s , s ee r e s ro n ze , 4 7
h l
.

w ee s , 2 7 6 t o 2 84 lea d, us e in 44
h l p b
. .

w ee s a n d s ee ds , 2 7 7 m a nga n es e ro n ze , 4 7
Ab l p yp l
.

ras i v es , a un du m , 2 7 6 e wt e r a n d t e m e ta , 48
b ph ph b
. .

c a r o run dum , 2 7 6 os or ro n z e , 4 3

h i h l p h
. .

c o ce o f w ee gra des a n d n um ro pe rt ies a n d c a ra ct e ris tics , 4 2

li l
.

b e rs 2 8 1 s i co n a n d s tee , 3 1
d l
. .

co run um , 2 7 7 so d e rs , e t c , 4 6
y l
. . .

em er , 2 7 7 s tee , 2 8
h hi h
. .

-s ee d c utt in
gra de o f a rdn es s , 2 7 9 g p g 3 4
i h i
.
.
,

g r n d s t o n es , 2 7 7 s t re n o f , w re 4 6
b l ph
o n e a n d t e le gra
. .

n um e r o f 2 79 te e
p w i re , 46
l h
. .

s ca e o f h a 2 76 v a ri a tio n o f s t re n gt , 43
f by hi l
. .

s ur a ces c ut 2 79 w te m e t a , 48
l hy li l i
. .
,

A c c um u a t o r, dra u c , 4 2 5 A te rn a t n g c urre n t m o to rs , 4 2 0
A i iy il y i ib
. .

c dt te s t fo r o s , 55 c urre n t , s s te m s of d s t r ut io n,
h
.

A c m e s t a n da rd 2 9
°
s c re w t re a d, 2 1 7 41 8
h bl p
. .

t re a d, ta e of a rt s , 2 1 8 c urre n t t ra n s m is s io n , 4 1 6
hp ly
. .

A dde n dum , ge a r to o t a rts , Alum in um , a l o s , 4 7

A i b i p i b
.

d a a t c co m re s s o n , 4 2 5 ro n ze , 4 7
A j bl i i
. .

d us t a e s e rv c e fo r m o to rs , n flue n c e o f, 1 8
p l
.

s e e d m o to rs , 460 s tee , 33
A i y l
. .

dm ra l t m e ta l, 4 5 un du m , 2 7 6
i i A i
. .

A dva n t ages o f m o to r dr v ng, 4 53 m e r c a n ga e , 1 2 1 1 2 2

g
i i ll
.

A ir c o m p re m e d 4 2 5 t w s t dr ga ge , 1 2 1
p d
.

co m res se , e n g n es , 4 2 4 i s c re w ga ge , 1 2 2
l A p
. .

fo r c e a nin g, 3 68 m e re , 4 0 4
i A l i b
. .

m a c h n es , 4 2 4 n a o g es e tw ee n flo w o f wa te r a n d
p iiy l
.

co m res s o rs , 4 2 4 e e c t r c t , 40 4
A ly i f ll y ll y
. .

e n gin e , h o t , 3 9 3 na s s o a o s, s ec a o s
h i l t i
. .

a rde n n g s te e , 3 1 f o 21
c as ro n ,
p i
. .

t e m e r n g in , 365 f g o g as es s ee a s es
l f il il
. .
,
'

A a x m e ta , 4 8
li
o o s , s ec o s
f t l
. .

A gn in g t h e ta p, 1 64 o t l
s ee s ee s ee
A ll h l A gl b l t 446
.
, .

o w a n c e s fo r re a m e d o es , 1 3 0 n e e s
l i A gl db l 295
.
.
,

c os e run n n g fi ts , 1 8 7 n es a n e ve s ,
i i t bl
. .

dr v n g fi ts , 1 8 7 dt p
an f 116
a e rs , a e o
f i l 3 4 6 1 62
.
, .

o rc n g fi t s , 1 8 7 f utt i g t
o c n oo s
f i l ( utt i l
.
, , , .

ree run n n g fi ts , 1 8 7 t oo s s ee c n t oo s )
li i li i f g m t i l fig
. .

m ts fo r m t ga ge s , 1 8 7 o eo 1 1 e r ca u res ,
h i ki f pl i g t l 1 02
.

s r n n g fi ts , 1 8 7 o an n oo s ,
pp h l f l tt l 1 02
. .

e d o es , 1 4 8 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4
, 1 55
ta o t s o er o o s,
A ll y l i b A gul m illi
. .

o s , a um n um ro n ze , 4 7 n tt 34 1 n cu
A m m l il sg
ar e rs ,
i y
. .

ant m on in , 44 , 4 6 , 4 7 , 4 8 a o s,
b i l l d ti g 2 2
.

ear n m e ta s , 4 7 A n nea e cas n s

bi li g
. .
,

s m ut 1 in , 4 7 , 4 8 A nne a ti g 2 2
n c as n s,
b
. .

ro n ze , 46 d y 365 r
b b fu
. .
,

ro n z es a n d ras s es , 4 2 11 rn a c e ,
p ii b l m ll bl t i
. .

co m os t o n o f 2 4 e a rin g m e ta , 4 7 a 21
ea e c as ro n ,
i l di
.

2 6 co m m e rc a , 44 or 365 na r
pp
. .

e r-t in , 4 3 i
'

co . h
p y s o e fl ec t o f , 22 .
482 I N DEX
An n ea li n g se lf h - a rde nin g s te e l , 31 B enc h an d v is e w o r k Ch pt a er VII, 1 61
B i
.
, , .

w a t e r, 3 65 es s e m e r c as t ro n , 21
Ant i f ict i l 48 fu
. .

- r on m e ta rn ac e , 13
An t i m n y ll y
, .

20
.

o i 44 4 8 n a o s, iro n
b i g m t l 47 48
.
,

l
.

in ea r n e a s, s te e
A bo r d l 127 B
.
, ,
r s or m an re s , . e v elge a rs , c ut t in g, 3 2 3 .

x di g
an n ro t ra c to r, 1 1 4
lli g m hi 33 7 l i
.

n ac n e, Be v e s a n n g, 2 9 5
p p b
.

3 46
res s es , . B irm in g a m o r S t u a wire ga ge , 1 2 1
’
.

s c re w 3 7 zz
h ll m ill 33 7 Bi l
.
,

s e s m ut in a l o s 44
f ibl l lo
.
,

re a m e r, 1 30 in us e a y s 48
Bl k i l
. .

Arm a t u 41 2 res , a c in g ro n a n d s te e , 367

i i Bl f
. .

c rc u ts , 4 1 4 as t urn a ce , 1 2
Bl i i l
. .

dis c , 4 1 2 u ng ro n a rid s t e e , 3 66
Bl h U
. .

drum , 4 1 2 t rea d da t a , 8 S tan da rd,

;
o t am
i
. . .

r n g, 4 1 2 1 8
A rm o r pl a te te e l B l i
. .

s o ts , c a rr age , 1 44
A S M E S ta n da rd hi
.

Ma c ne Sc re w s c o u p h n g, 1 4 3
hi
. . . . .

1 55 m ac n e , 1 42
Ass e m bli n g ll ll
. .

c u t te rs , c o e ts an d co a rs , s to v e , 1 4 5
h
.

31 1 , 33 7 . s t re n gt o f, 1 4 8 .

s t ud, 1 4 5
ly B
.

A r e n i c in
s al o s, 44 o res , c o u n te r, 2 33

A xle la t h e B i IX
. .

1 90 o r n g , C h a 1 te r 2 2 0
b
.
, ,
.

a rs a n c ut t e rs , 2 3 1
h ki il
n g dr ls , 2 3 4
.

o r c uc
fi
.

de n e d, 2 2 0
ill
.

a n d f a o in m i n g, 3 1 6
B bbitt m t l 4 7 hi fi
m a c n e , io rizo n ta l , 2 2 0
.

a e a
B kg p d l h
. .
,

ac ear s ee ra th e a t e as a , 2 2 2
B kl h i tti g 2 1 1 i l
.

ac as w n s c re cu n ve rt c a , 2 2 1
B b lt b lt hi p
.
,

an d s or e s ace e s m a c n e s , o w e r rc q u 1 red fo r, 4 7 8
B b i g 231 ill h i i
. .
,

a rs or n m s , c a ra c t e r s t c 0 ; e ra t io n s , 2 2 4

i i ip i
. .
, ,

B as c ro n , de s c r t o n o f p a rts , 2 2 3
B th l d d d 3 66 f i li i i
.

a s, ea an sa n u n c t o n a n d m t a t o ns , 2 2 3
p i j f
.
, .

q h i
ue n c 3 6 5 n o e ra t o n s , a d us t m e n t on a ce
B i g m t ll y 4 7 pl
.

ea r n e a a o s a te , 2 2 7
m t l ti f i ti Op i j i
.
, .

e a 48 an - r c o n, e ra t o n s , a d us t m e n t o n c a rr a ge ,
B bbi t t 4 7
.
,

a 227
m t l m p iti p i h ki
.
, .

e a s , co f 48 os on o o e ra t o n s , c uc n g, 2 2 6
B i g d h g 43 9 l
. .
,

ea r n s an an e rs , a th e , 2 2 5
p i l h
. .

a ll v f o 45 s o r, o rd e r o f o e ra t o n s fo r at e, 2 2 7
l i g 56 ill
. .

o il f o r c ean n fo r m 2 2 7
i k
. .
, ,

m di et d ca e p re 1 a r a t o n o f t h e w or , 2 25

f
.
,

s ur a c e o f 50 to o , 9 8
B u d R h l i i il i
. .
,

ea e oc 3 86 as
’
co n c us o n s , a n d t u rn n g m ls , m o t o r dr 1 e n ,
B u it
.

ea x 2 76 e

B ll m t l 45 l dt
.
,

e e a B ox t oo s an 35 1 rrrn e rs

B l ti g d b l t 4 4 7 l ill t t i
.
,
.
,

e n an e s t oo s f 35 2 t 35 8
u s ra o ns o o
B ll y
.
, .
, ,

co tt 44 7 on, ra s s s ec a o s

l th h p w t m itt b i g 45
. .
,

ea e r, o rs e - o er ra n s ed ea r n s
b 45 1 pp i ll y 4 3
.
,

co e r-z n c a o s

m ll bl 4 6
. .

ra w id 44 7 e, a ea e,
bb 44 7 l 45
. .

r u e r, n a va
l f h p w 45 2
. .
,

r ue s or o rs e -
o e r, d 46
re
d b lti g 44 7 hf
.
.
,

an n t ou g i 4 6 or en ne s ,
w ii g t
e

gl l 99
. .
,

an 446 e, or n oo s

y ll w 4 5
.
. ,

c a re o f 44 8 e o

t if g l t i mp iti f m m i l 4 4
,
.
,

ce n r f 45 1
u a e ns o n o B ra s s c s co os on o co e rc a
dl B i g 3 68
.
,
. , ,

en 44 8 es s ra z n

h p w t m i t t d by t i
.
, . ,

o rs e - o er ra n s e ca s 3 69 ro n ,

l i g 44 8 m t l 45
.
,
ac n e a
ld 45
.
, .
,

q t t wi t 4 46
ua r c r s so e r,

p d f 45 1 B t w t w h l 39 6
.
.
,

s ee o re a s a er ee

w i dt h f 4 5 1 igg t d dpip t h d 1 3 8
.
,
.
,
’
o r s s an ar e re a
i q u hi g b t h 3 65
.

B h p i i l th 1 9 0
, . ,

e nc or re c s o n a e, .
r ne , e nc n a ,
.
48 4 I NDE X
Ch m i l b w
e ca d bl k ro ns an ac s, 3 67 C ld
o s a w n g, i
1 63
f il 5 7
. .

p ti ro r es o o s, t es t f o r o il, 55
Chill l i C ll bli
. .

21
ro ro n , o a rs , e tc , a s s e m n g, 31 1
Chippi g d it ppli t i C ll t bl i
. .

n an s a ca o ns , 1 65 o e s a n d c ut t e rs , a s s e m n g, 31 1
hi l 1 66 ill
. .

th e c se ,
. dr ,
2 54 .

th e out , 1 66 m illm 338

Cl i gb d t l 367
. .

gro o v es , 1 68 o or n , a c kin g iro n an s ee

p i h bl u g i d t l 3 66
. .
,
n e um a t c am m e rs , 1 65 in ro n a n s ee
i f h m i l bl k i d t l 36 7
.
, .

a w de s ur a c e , 1 6 7 c e ca ac s, ro n a n s ee
k h mi l b w i d t l
. .
,
t h e w o r , 1 66 c e ca ro ns ro n an s ee
Ch h p i
.
, ,
i ps , o rs e - o we r re q u re d t o re m o v e , 3 67
i d t l p p t y p
.

472 ro n an s ee re a ra o r ro
p i
.
,

re q u red, Ca m r1 b e ll s fo r
’
o we r 3 66
ce s s e s ,
C m bi t i h u k 2 3 0
.

m ul a , 4 7 1 o na on c c s,
p C m m ut t 4 1 1
. .

res s ure o f , o n t o o ls , 75 o a o rs
Chi l C m p i t i f ll y 44
. .
,

s e s , 9 3 , 1 66 o os on o a o s,
B T U 3 9 4 39 5
. .

on e , 9 3 f g
o as es
C m p u d gi 38 5
. . . . .
, , ,

c o (1 , 9 3 o o n en nes ,
i g 210
. .

ro un d n os e , 9 4 g ear n
Ch i l i
. .
,

o c e o f a n e e c t r c m o to r, 4 65 m t 4 63
o o rs ,

Ch ikl l i f m t 465
. .

ro m e n c e s t ee , 2 9 s e rv c e or o o rs ,
l d dy m
. .

s t ee , 2 8 w o un 41 4 na os ,
i l l i g ti g
. .

v a n a d u m s t ee , 3 2 C mp u d i f
o r s a r c ean n
gég
or c as n s,
Ch i i fl
.

ro m um , n ue n c e o f , 1 6
Ch ki j h k i bl t f up l
.

uc n g, a dus t m e n ts in c uc s , 2 2 6 a r as 42 5 or c o as
b i b i
. .
,
o r ng a rs a n d c ut t e rs , 2 3 1 g en 4 24 n es ,
b hi
. .

c o u n te r o re s , 2 3 3 m ac 42 4 ne s ,
ill mi i g O i
. .

dr s , 2 3 3 f or
p t 4 2 4n n e ra o ns ,
f pl p m ti i 42 5
. .

on a ce a te s , 2 2 7 f or neu a c s e rv c e ,
i mi i
. .

o n c a rr a ge , 2 2 7 t ra n s 42 3 ss on,
C mp i di b t i 42 4
. .

re a m e rs , 2 33 o res s o n , a a a c,
l l t h 44 2
. .

to o s , 2 3 1 c u c es
Ch k j i th m l 42 4
. .
,

uc s , a d us t m e n t in , 2 2 6 so er a
h ki l
. .
,

a n d c uc ng to o s , 2 2 8 C m
o i 42 4
re ss o rs , a r,
i l ti l f i
. .

a u to m a t c , 35 1 C on u t i ity
c v d
e ec r ca o ro n an
l 20
.
, ,
c a re o f 2 3 1 t s ee
bi i l ti f w i 46
.
.
,

co m na t o n , 2 3 0 re a ve o re ,
ill h y C i l g i di g 2 7 1
. .

dr , e a v , 2 5 6 o n ca r n n
ill li h g i di g
. .
,

dr , g t , 2 5 4 r n d n f p t i 2
or 7 5 er o o e ra o ns ,
ll i C ti gy 3 7 1
.
, .

e a re d s c ro , u n v e rs a l, 2 2 9 o n s e rv a f on o e ne r
g
i p C t t u t t mi i
. .
,

n de e n de n t , 2 2 9 o ns an c rre n ra ns s s o ns , s ee eo n
p ll bi i
.

s u r-ge a re d, s c ro co m na t o n, ti n o us
p d m t 4 58
.

231 s ee o o rs ,
ppi p d i f m t 4 65
. .

ta n g, 2 56 s ee s e rv c e or o o rs ,
i l C m pt i mp ti l
. .

u n v e rs a 229 o ns u on , d
co a ra ve co a an
Ci i i id
.

rc u ts , d v e d, 4 0 6 t m 385
s ea
l i C ti u u t t m i i 41 6
, .

e e c t r c , 40 6 on n uo s c rre n ra n s ss on,
C t l p d f l t i m t 467
. .

fo r m o t o rs , 469 o n ro s ee o e ec r c o o rs ,
p d l ti
. .
, ,

gro un de d, 4 0 6 s ee 468re a o ns ,
p ll l ytm d w i i g 4 68
. .
,

a ra e , 40 6 s s e s an r n
i C pp ll y ll y
. .
,

s er e s , 40 6 o er a o s , s ee a o s.
Ci l pi h ll y 4 3
.

rc u a r tc , 3 2 8 ti- n a o s,
pi h b wi
. .

tc ta le , 33 0 - 46 re ,
Cl i i f i i ll y 4 3
. .

e a n n g c a s t n gs a n d o r n 3 6 7 -z n c a o s,
g g s
Cl l i l ll y 43
. .
,

e a ra n c e a n g e o f c u t t n i ti
g to o s , 6 1
-z nc- n a o s,
lip l C d p
. .

a nd a n g e s o f to o ls 72 or e, s e c ro e
l h b
. .
,
C ut c e s , 44 2 C i
o rn s 48
ro n z e ,
i
. .

c o m p re s s o n , 44 1 C or un d m 277 u
fi i i
. .
,

r c t o n , 440 C t f m t u m
o or e t 453 en
os o q p
C h C tt
. .
,
o ac s c re w s , 1 4 2 o e rs ,1 45
l pi b l ti g 447
. .

Co a c o n s um t o n , 3 8 5 C tt
o on e n
Cbl i fl m ill p d i 42
.
.
,

o a t , n ue n c e o f 1 8 s, ro e r ve , 6

l p t m i i 43 1
. .
,
s t ee , 3 3 ro e ra n s ss on,

C i p i C l m b 40 4
. .

o e ffi c e n t o f e x a n s o n , iro n a n d s te e l, ou o
t b h u ki g 2 33
.
,

20 C o un e r o re s c c n
f f i ti b m bi ti
. .
, ,

o 51
r c on , o re s co 2 3 5: na on,
C l d hi l 9 3 b i g
.
,

o c se , . or n ,
 I N D EX 4 85

Co un te rb ores , s a tin g, 43 7 h f G ut t i n a n d s iz n g i ge a r w h l ee s , 32 7
k il bi h pw q ui d
. .

s in a n d dr l c o m ned, 2 5 2 so t ates ] o rs e - o er re re
i i
.
,
s n kin g, 2 3 7
l

4 /s
i i k p d f d i ll 2 4 7
.

s n k n g b it s t o c s , 2 5 1 s ee s or r s,
ill fil 2 0 5
. .

a n d dr in g, 2 0 1 f or es
C p bl i i
. .
,

o u ling o ts , 1 4 3 f g d g 2 7
or 2 r n n
C upli pl
.
,

o g 442
n s, f 294 or a n e r,
mp l ut i f 88
. .

co i re s s o n , 4 42 p d s ee s , re v o o ns o r,
l t l ll y 34
.

fla nge 44 2 t oo s ee a o s,
t l 72
. .
,

j a w 44 3 s ee
p l h t IV 61
. .
, ,

la t e , 44 2 t o o s, c a er
l
. .
,

s ee v e , 44 2 g f 3 4
an es o
i d l
. .
,

un v e rs a l, 443 l f lip
an an c ea ra n ce ,
C k hf l h g2 es o
.

ra n - s a t a t e, 1 9 0 y
C fil h tt f 7 9
.

ro s s in g, 1 69 c a er o
C p ll y li g th t l 7 8
. .
,

ro wn ing , u e , 44 4 c oo n e oo
C ibl l ut t i g f
. .
,

ruc e c as t s t ee , 2 6 c d 84n o rce a n a re a ,

C d pt h d f d
. .

urre n t , a lte rn a t in m o to rs , 42 0 f ut
e o c an ee on
i p d 81
.

co n t n uo us , 4 1 41 7 s ee
i du bili t y f 6 1 83
. .
,

d re c t , 4 1 6 , 4 1 7 ra o
C bi f gi g d g i di g 73 8 1
.
, , .

urtis t ur n e , 3 8 1 or n an r n n
bi l b k i g di t i
. .
, ,

t u r n e n o z z es a n d uc e ts , 38 1 vo rn n 61 co n o ns ,
hippi
.
.

Cuts , c n g, 1 67 f 61 ee n ne s s o
l th 9 7
. .
,
dry , 60 a e,
p li f f 80
. .

q
h o rs e - o w e r re uire m e n ts fo r, 4 7 2 e o
fil l
. .
,

of es , 1 7 0 1 00 a n e r,
p
pl i p u f hip 7 5
. .

a n n g un de r c uts , 2 9 5 re s s re o c
pl i i h l f m t l b i g
. .
,

a n ing , t e rm na t n g in a s o u de r, qu lity t e a e n cu
g2
o ,
29 5
i hi t p ti w i t h high
. .

ro ughin and fi n s ng, 2 9 4 rece n ra c ce

i p d t l 89
.

s d e an do w n , 2 9 4 s ee s ee s ,
C i l ti p iti
. .

ut te r d a m e te rs , 3 1 0 re a f t l ve os o ns o oo s
i i l dw k 61
.

g r n d e r u n v e rs a , 2 6 1 an or
il
.

f m t i l t
, , .

Cut te rs , s ec m ls h b ut a er a
gg
s e o o e c
l illi
.
,
a ngu a r m ng, 34 1
b i
o r n g b a r, 2 3 1 l id ul 8 2 s e r es
illi l tt 1 0 2
. .
,

c a re o f m n g, 3 40 s o e r,
l ifi i lli p df t i
. .

c a ss ca t o n o f m i ng, 338 s ee 87 s or cas ro n s

ll ll bli p d d t x t u 84
. .
,

co e ts a n d c o a rs , a s s e m n g, 3 1 l s ee an e re ,
i i gt h d du bili t y
.

c ut t n g a c t o n o f, 3 1 2 t s re n f an ra o
i illi
.

des gn o f m ng, dg 6 1 e e,
il i w ugh t i pw
.

e n d m l n g, 3 4 2 ro h ro n , o rs e - o er
f illi i
.

ace m ng, 34 0
q u d 4 7 4 re re
illi Cy l l k 3 8 7
.
,
By m n , 34 2
g c e , c er
f ill i f 38 7
. .
,
o rm m n , 34 2
g o u r,
f ill i
. .

o rm e d m n g, 3 4 2 O tto , 38 7
illi
.

a ng m n g 34 5 t wo , 3 8 7
g
Cy l i l
.

n s e rt e d to o t h, 3 4 2
.

i c o da e ngi n e ,
y t m G t 33 1
.

’
k e y wa y , 2 9 0 s s e ra n s,
k h t h t bl
. .
,

n ic e d t o o t , 3 40 t ee f 33 2 a e o
p Cyli d il 5 7
. .
, ,
a a ge o f , 3 39 n er o s
l Cyl i d i l g g t d d 1 1 8
. .
,

s c re w s o t t e rs , 344 n r ca a es s an ar
i illi g i di g 2 7 1
. .
, ,

s de m n g, 34 1 r n n
li i i i p i
. .
,

s t t n g s a w s , 344 g d r n
g d f t n o r er o o e ra o ns , 2 75
pi l illi w k l yi g ut 1 61
. .
,

s ra m ng a , 3 2 5 or a n o
dl
.
, ,

s t ra d e , 34 5

”
C i i il
.

utt n g a c t o n o f m ls , 3 1 2
b l i
.

e v e a n d m t e r ge a rs , 3 2 3
i h p q i
.

ca s t ro n , o rs e - o we r re u re d,
476 D dr , 2 4 9 ill
D l 32
. .

ca r, 3 1 6 a m as c us s te e
l h i b
. .
,

a r d s t ee o rs e -
po w er re q u re d ro n z e 48
D b i i g fu
, , .

,
4 73 eca r ur z n13 rn ac e ,
y D i m l ui l t f i h
. .

ke y w a s , 1 7 4 ec a va e n s o an nc 1 5 2
l i i
.
.
,

m e t a s , a rt o f, 34 q u e t f u g g
v en s o va r o s a es , 1 2 2
l D (w l f t ) 54
.
.

o ff to o , 9 7 oo a
D g
e as

il l tu bi 3 79
. .
,

o s , 58 . e a va r ne , .
48 6 I NDE X
D e L a v a l t ur bi ne n o z z es l an d bu k c e ts , D ill
r ta ppi n g a tt a c hm e nt fo r, 2 3 9
i
, .

379 tw s t, 2 50
D l t m t l 48 f h d 251
. .

e a e a le t an
D i t y t t f il 5 5 l 2 42
. .
, ,

ens es or o s u i n v e rs a
D pt h g g 1 2 6 u p i gh t
.
, .
,

e a e, r 2 39
Di g l fil i g 1 69 w k l yi g
.
.
,

a ona n or t 1 62
a n ou
Di m t l pi t h 3 2 8 D ill h ki g 2 3 4 2 4 9
. .
, , ,

a e ra c r s, c uc n
Di m d p i t l t h t l 9 7 il t ub 2 35
.
, .
, ,

a on o n a e oo O e,
p i tg
.
, .

o n 94 ra v e r, d
an m 2 35 2 5 1
re a e rs ,
p i t pl l 101 li i g 3 2 7
. .
,

o n t a ne r oo re ev n
Di h d t m ti p i l d u t i k 251
.
, .
,

e ea au o 35 9 a c, s ec a an co n e rs n s,
m k g 3 50 D illi g ll w m d h l
.
,
,
.

a in r n a f o a n ces or re a e o es ,
p
,
.
,

3 46
re s s e s , 1 30
Di dj u t bl 1 3 7 ll w t pp d h l
. .

es , a s a e, a o f a n ce s 1 48 or a e o es ,
li g 350 h pt X 2 3 7
. .

c ur n c a er
d w i g 3 50 h t i ti p ti
. .
, ,
ra n c a ra c e r s c o e ra o ns ,
mb i ki g 2 0 1
.
,

e i g 35 0
oss n d
an t c o un e rs n n
di p d p t h f t pp d h l
.
, , .

f or e 3 50 res s e s , e o 1 65 a e o es
f m i g 350 d w i g t h d ill 2 4 5
. .
,

or n ra n e r
hi li d b l t 1 3 7 f d d p d 9 2 2 46
.
, ,
.

m ac ne o r s o o ee s an s ee s,
w pl t i g 3 63
, , .
.

j yi g t 2 44
s c re 1 37 a es, s,
dt p d d pip
. .

an t a s, 1 38 s an ar e, a n ou
Di l gi 3 9 0 hi
.
.
,

es e en ne , m ac 2 37 n es
Di m i l g g 1 1 7 hi pw i
.
, .

e n s o na a es m ac ne s ,
q df 47 8 o er re u re o r,
Di t p ti
.
, .

re c t
c u rre n t s ee c urre n o e ra 237 ons
Di i d 2 58 p ti
.
, .
,

sc n e r, d
or f er o 2 45 o e ra o ns
l t i l y t m f 41 7 p p t i f w k 2 44
. .
,

Di t i
s r ti u o n , e ec r ca s s e s o re a ra on o or
Di id 1 3 1 p d 2 46 ,
. .
,
v e rs , s ee s,
Di idi g h d d m 3 0 8 D i p 430 43 1
. .

v n ea ru r v e , ro e,

h du i l 30 6 D i f f pl t w k 2 2 6
, .
, .

ea n v e rs a r ve r or a ce - a e or
i th l th Di
.
, , , .

n e 3 69 a e, r ves m t d t g
o o r, f 4 53 a va n a es o
m illi p ti t f q ipm
.
, ,
.

n 30 6 e ra o ns m t o o r, c o s t 45 3 u
D w l gt p pi 1 4 7
o o e en
m y f 455
, .
,
.

o e a nt a er ns , eco no o
D w t bi q i i g
.
, .

o ur 37 8 ne, mp u d
re u r n co o n ser
i 4 65
.

l)ra w fi li 1 69
n v ce,
D w i g i 350 p 42 6
. .

ra n e, ro e,
D ift i g b h i g 1 7 5 i y
.
,

r n or ro a c n ro
p t
e , co n t m 42 8 n u o us s s e

D i ft d ill k y 2 5 4 2 5 5 m i ll 4 2 6
.
, , .

r or r e f tt o r co on
D ill h t i t i f 2 4 6 m l t ipl
.
, , , .

r c a ra c e r s cs o a, v t m 42 7
u e s s e
i k m bi d 2 5 2 y t m f 42 7
.
, , .

and t c o u n e rs n co ne s s e s o
D i i g fi t ll w
, .
, .

h
c kiuc 2 33 n r v n 1 87
a o a n ce s ,
h k
. .

c uc y 2 56
s, ea v fit 1 83
s
ligh t 2 5 4 hi t l m t f 458
. .
, ,

”
m ac ne oo s, o o rs o r,
t ppi g 2 5 6 p 42 6
.
, .

a n ro e,

tt i g p d 2 4 6 y t m f p 42 7
.
, .

cu n e s
e
s s, s e s o ro e,
t ili t y
. .

“
D, 2 49 D uc d b
an t t 19 ca r on co n en
f i d t l 1 3 20 25
. .
,

fi a t , 2 34 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 1 o ro n a n s ee
i Dy
, , , .

g a g e m e A
r c a n t w ns t , 1 2 1 . mna m to ar 41 2 a u res , .

rim e r, 2 6 2 mm t t
co 41 1
u a o rs ,
ip t i f 40 9
. .

i a lf ro u n d, 2 4 9 d es c r on o
fi l d m g
. .
,

h o g n o s e , 2 3 4 , 2 49 e t 41 3 a ne s,
ky if
. .

e s o r dr t s , 2 5 4 , 2 5 5 s ee
g t e n e ra o r
l ki p i ipl f 4 1 0
. .

a n ds , h a c n o il , 3 2 7 r nc es o
h li i w i di g 4 1 3
. .
,

m e t o c s o f re e v n g, 2 5 1 n n s,
lipp Dy
. .

e d, 2 48 40 3
ne ,
ifi li g 3 65
. .

m o d ed h o g nos e , 2 4 9 . D y r a nn e a n , .

m o to r driv e n , 2 4 0 t
cu s 60
i
. .
,

o il
g roo v e , 2 35 , 2 5 1 g d
rn 2 58 e r,
i l
. .

ra d a , 2 4 2
i
.

n g e dge , 2 4 9
s c ra
p
ii fi i
.

se ns t ve r ct o n, 2 38
h k
.

s an s , 2 52
E y l i lt mi i
.

Mo rse t a pe r, 2 5 3 conom o f e ec t r ca ra n s ss o n , 41 7
l dl b i
. .

s ee v e , 2 54 of go o t 53 u r ca n s ,
k ll di
. .

s o c e t s a n d c o e ts , 2 5 4 of m o t or 455 r ve s ,
f Di l gi 3 9 2
. .

s pe e ds , 2 4 6 fli c ie n c v o es e en ne ,
i h fl
. .

s t ra g t ute d, 2 50 . o f dyn a mo s a n d ge n e ra to rs , 4 1 4 .
488 I N DE X
Fil i ng a n d fil es 1 68 G
ppli i p i
.
,

a ca t on and ra c t c e ,
1 68 G a ge Am e ric a n 1 2 1 , 1 22
l Bi rm in gham b
.
, .

’
t h e to o s, 1 68 or S tu s wire , 1 2 1
Fi i hi p l th k Biih I p i l
. .

n s ng ro c ess e s a e wo r 2 04 r t s m er a s t a n da rd, 1 2 2
B h p
.
, , .

s e gm e n t a n d s po t , m illin g, ro wn a n d S a r e , 1 2 1 1 2 2
l l h 99
.
,

to o , a t e, c e n t e r, 1 2 4

Fi p
. .

re te s t f o r il 55 o de t h , 1 2 6
F i t d i i g 1 83 hi
. .
,

s r v n m a c n e a n d woo d s c re w, 1 2 3
d fitt i g 1 7 6
.
, , .

an n Roe b lin s , 1 2 2
i t i ti 1 76 i
. .
,

n ves on, s c re w , m e r ca n , 1 2 2
l im i t li m i t g g p h
. .

s or a es , s c re w itc , 1 2 4
T I
.

’
1 85 re n to n ro n Co s , 1 2 2
t b l t d d t l ti i ill
. .

a u a e a a re a ve t w s t dr , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4
i ll l i
.

t 1 87 o, t w s t dri a n d s te e w re , 1 2 4
f i g 1 77 i l f
. .

o rc n u n ve rs a s u r a c e , 1 2 6
p u f f i g 1 79 U
. .
,

ress res or o rc n 8 s t a n da rd, 1 2 1

i g 1 84 U h pl
. . .
, .

r un n n 8 s ta n da rd fo r s e e t a n d a t e
h i ki g 1 8 2 i
. . .
,

s r n n ro n , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2
F i t t i g i tig t i 1 7 6 hb
. .
,

n n ve s a o n, W as urn a n d Mo e n s , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2
’

lip
.
, .

k y 1 73e G a ges , c a e r s t a n da rd, 1 1 8

p l ifi i
. .
,

1 76
ro c e s s es c ass ca t o n , 1 1 7
Fl h t t f il 5 5 yli i l
. .
,

as es or o s, c n dr c a , 1 1 8
Fl t d ill 2 3 4 2 4 8 2 5 1 li i
. .

a r m t, 1 1 9
Fl ui d f i t i 5 2 li i li i
. .
, , ,

r c o n, m ts f o r m t , 1 8 5
Fl t i g ti g 3 1 6 b iii
. .

u n dk y an e s ea n n um e re d, c r t c s m o f, 1 2 0
Fly utt 34 2 p
. .
,

c e rs , s na , 1 1 8
F f
. .

o rc e , 40 3 tes t a n d re e re n ce , 1 1 7
F i g fi t 1 77 i h l h
. .

o rc n s w re , s ee t m e t a a n d o t e rs co m
p p
.
,

fit s 1 79 res s u re , a re d, 1 2 2
t b ul t d d t ill
. .
,

a 1 87 a e a a, G a ng m s , 345

F w d l l h
. .

o re or G a p a t e , 1 89
F gi g t ti g t l 36 40 4 2 7 3 8 1 bl
.
,

or n cu n oo s , G as , as t , 3 9 4
hy d uli 4 2 5 l
. .
, , , ,

ra c, c o a , 39 4

h l k
. .

s q u a re 3 69 o es co e o v e n , 3 9 4
F gi g l i g t i g d 3 67 i lp
. .
,

or n s c ean n c as n s an c o m m e rc a o w e r, 3 9 4 , 3 9 5

m m i lli g ut t i p
.
, .

r 34 2
n c e rs c o n s t t ue n ts o f o w e r, 3 9 5
F m d tt 3 42 i Cl k y l
. .
,

or e cu e rs , e n g n es , er c c e, 387

F mi di 35 0 i i il
.

or n e, e n gin e , d s c us s o n o f de ta s , 3 86
f y
. .

l t a 36 1
is o u r c c le , 3 8 7
l t h w k 3 63 f l
. .
,

a e or ue s , 3 9 2
F dy i
. .
,

o un r 20 ro n , K oe rtin g, 38 9
F i ti 50 h l i
. .

r c on, m e t o ds o f regu a t o n , 38 8
l t h 440 il
. .

c u c es o s , 57
ffi i p i
. .
,

co e t f 51 c en o o e ra t o n , 3 9 3
d ill iti 2 38 yl
. .
,

r s e ns ve , O t t o c c e , 38 7
fl i d 5 2 h y h
. .
,

u t eo r a nd t e rm o -dy
l w f 51
.
,

a s o n a m ie s , 386

l ub i t 5 9 yl
. .
,

r ca n t wo c c e , 3 8 7
l ub i t d l ub i t i h p h l
. .
,

r ca n s an r ca on, c a e a t v a ue o f , 3 9 5
l
.

t I I I 50
er n a t u ra , 3 9 4
d ti
. .
,

re uc 50 o n, o il, 3 9 4
li d 5 2
. .

so o il-w a te r , 3 9 4
F l g p i
. .
,

ue s , as
g i 3 9 2 en3 9 4 39 5 ne , o w e r, c o n s t t ue n ts o f, 3 9 5
Fu li g 1 3 p
.
, , .

rn a c e a n n e a n ro du c e r, 3 9 4
B m 12 13
. .
,

es se e r, w a te r, 3 9 4
li i i
. .
,

b lw t 1 2 Ga o s ne e n g n es s ee ga s e n g n es
l i i g 12 i
.
, .
,

ca c n n G ar
e c u tt n g 31 6
bu i i g 1 3 be v e l i
. .
,

d eca r r z n d m te r, 3 2 3
an

Op h t h 1 3 h bbi h l
. .
,

en ea r o n g a wo rm w e e , 3 2 2
th yl i l
. .
,

p ddh g l 3
u n t ee c c o da , 33 1
F u ibl i t l 33 3
.
, .
,

s ell a 48 ovs , n e rn a
ll y b i m ut h i 44 i l t 33 2
.
.
,

a o s, s n, n vo u e ,

p l ug 4 9 d t g p hi l yi g
. .

s . o on o ra es ,
a n o ut ,
,
33 1
k 333
.

ra c
t bl f y l id l 33 2
.
,

a e o c c o a , .
 I NDE X 48 9

G e a r te e t h ta bl e of in vo lute , 33 4 rs pb h P w t
o rseb m w 8 h t0 er o re o ve ro n
p t hip 474
.
, , .

t oo t h ar s 3 30 i ro n c s,
wh l tti g 32 7 i di t
. .
,

i i
ee s , d s z n an cu n n d 37 4
ca o r c a r
y l id l l y ut 33 1 li m it f li m it g g 1 86
.
, ,

G ea rs c c o t a ra n
’
s a o s or a es ,
m t ll u gy f i
.
, , ,
12 r ro n ,

”
s ee g ea r e a o
i t l i l ut 3 3 3 p lyph i d t i m t
. .

n e rn a n vo e, o as e n uc on o o r,
l ut G t l y ut 33 2
.

i n vo e, ra n
’
s a o p w o 3 7 4 e r,
pw um p t i
. .
,

t
no e s on 3 35 o e r co ns i m t d on n o o rs an
pl t t i g L wi l u f h i 4 56
.

’
33 6 m
“
o n e s va e o s, ac nes ,
k l yi ut i lut 3 33 pw l
. .

ra c a n o n vo e, o er i m t d m
os s e s n o o rs an a~
r ul f es
,

ul t i g 3 2 7
or c c a n hi 4 5 7
c n es ,
i i g d utti l 32 7 p u f t f i g fi t 1 80
. .
,

s z n an c n ru e s , ress re a c o r, o rc n s,
h p p b tw
. .

s t t
re n
g d - w
s ee o rs e o e r, l ti
re a ut t i g f
o ns d e ee n c n o rce a n
t bl t h p t 3 30
, ,

a f t e o oo ar s f ut 8 4
a rea o c s
i g h i g fi t 1 86
.
, ,

Gea r n 208
m p u d2 1 0
,
c . ru nn n s, .

co o n , . s e ries wo un d co n t in uo us m o to r,
t
no es o n, 3 35 46 1
hi l yi g ut g l i A C
. .

o d t gon o ra cs , a n o ea r s in g e ph as e s e r es m o to r,
t th
. .

ee 1 46 1
ul p i
. .
,
s im fl 2 09
e, r e, . s ee d-to ue c urv es , in du c t on
G e n e ra to r see dy na m o m t 2 o o r,
i ti ut t i g p d w i th
. .
,

m a t u re s , 41 2 va r a f o ns o c n s ee
h d t i
.

com m ut a to rs , 4 1 1 f
ar 86
n es s o ca s ro n ,
ip i i ti du bili t y f t l w i t h
. .

des c r t o n , 40 9 var a on, ra o oo

fil ut t i g p d
.

e d m a gn e ts , 4 1 3 c t i n85 s ee c as ro n ,
p i ipl i bl p d m t
.
, .

;
r nc e s o f, 4 1 0 w ht e f s o va r a e s ee o o rs ,
bi
t ur n e s e t , Cu rt s , 38 2 i 0

—
. .

D e L a va l, 3 7 9 G ra ve rs , 9 4
h P i p
. .

es tin g o us e W
a rs o ns d a m o nd o in t , 94 .

3 85 ro un d n os e , 9 5
it l
. .

win din 41 3 ra v te s t fo r oi s , 55
fi l
. .

G eo m e t rica ig ures , a n g es o f , 1 1 6 ra y o rge iro n , 2 1

il
. .

G e rm a n s v e r, 4 7 re a s es , 58
il l
. .

G e rm a n s v e r s o d e r, 4 7 re m o ving, 3 67
l l G ri
. .

G o d s o de r, 4 7 n de r, c ut te r, 2 6 1
b h l i
. .

G ra de o f a ras iv e w ee s , 2 7 9 , 2 8 1 ds c , 2 58
b i h l
. .

G ra in o f a ras v e w ee s , 2 7 9 281 drill, 2 6 2

h
c a ra c te r o f s urfa ce c u t by , 2 7 9 h
. .

dry a n da t tac m e n ts , 2 58
yb
. .

G ra ne ro n z e , 4 8 re a m e r, 2 6 1
p i b i l i l
. .

G ra h te e a r n g m e t a , 48 u n v e rs a 2 64
l bi i l lli h
. .
,

as a u r c a n t, 5 9 un v e rs a co n t ro ng m ec a n is m
ph i i l
.
, ,
G ra a dva n t n d v idua m o to r
,
i
dr ves , 4 5 i
un ve rs a l c utt e r a n d re a m e r, 2 61
l h i hi h l ipt i p
.

c oo in g a n d ea t n g c urv es , g u n ive rsa des c r o n of a rts , 2 67

p l
, .

s e e ds te e , 39 w e t , 2 60
l h ill
. .

coo in g a n d e a t in g c u rv es , o rd i we t dr , 2 63
y l G ri
.

nd ‘ c h a t e r X 1 , 2 58
'

na r s t ee , 38
h iig g
. .

c u rv e s fo r s un t a n d c o m po un d b m g, 2 0
h i
.

m o to rs , 4 5 9 c a t t e r n g, 2 7 3
b i l
. .

e ff ec t o f c a r o n c o n te n t , 1 9 c u t t n g to o s , 7 2 , 7 3 , 9 3 to 1 0 5
f p b l i i l i l
. .

ee ds a n d s ee d ras s a n d t o o c l n dr c a a n d co n c a , 2 7 1
s,
y
l di u i d l ifi t i 2 7 1
.

s t ee , 67 sc ss o n an c as s ca on ,
f p i h d 2 70
. .

ee ds a n d s e e ds fo r c a s t ro n , 68 an
f h i h d u f i g 2 70
.
.
,

eed s a n d s pee ds , fo r w ro ug t ro n an s r ac n

”
h y l
.
,

a n d m a c in e r s te e , 69 h dt l 9 3
an oo s,
f f i g h i ki g d d i i g l ppi g 2 76
. .

o o rc n s r n n an r v n a n
l th t l 9 7
.
, ,

fit 1 78 s, a e oo s
L wi lu f hi b i p ti
—
. .

“
a re, e 336 s, va e o s, m ac ne a 2 70 ras v e o e ra o ns ,
p w f m ill m p 43 2 hi p w
. .

o rs e o er o an a es , m ac ui d f
n es 47 8 o er re o r,
h quip m t f h hi
.
, .

o rs e w m t e r, o or e en o t i d m
o ns , 2 58 an an n e,
§7 6
o p rz ac
l 478
,
m i t ac ne oo s ,
h pw t m t i ti
.

o rs e - o er o re o ve ca s ro n d
or er o f p 2 75 o e ra o ns ,
hip 4 76 pl
h —
c s t
a nerl 1 03 oo s,
pw t m h d t l p p ti f t h w k 2 70
. .
,

o rs e o er o re o ve ar s ee re a ra on o e or

hip 4 7 3 put bl p t i
.
,
d
3?s
c s “ an re a e ra c ce ,
-p w ft t l
.
,

h o rs e t m o er o re o ve so s ee
hi p 4 7 5
c s, . l tt t l 1 0 2
s o er oo s , .
49 0 I N DE X
G ri n di ng s p ee ds , t ra v e rs e a n d te m p e ra Hom m we r l os s es 45 6
ill p
.
, ,

t ure , 2 7 2 m a n a ro e , 43 1
i i ip hi
. .

t r a l s e t t n gs , 2 7 3 o f m o to r e q u m e n ts fo r m a c n e
G ri
.

n ds to n es , 2 7 7 to o ls , 4 7 8
hipp i i
. .

G roo ve s , c n g, 1 68 m o t or ra t n gs , 4 69
i i i
. .

i
e n g n ee r s s t a n da r
’
d, 430 re q u re d f o r c u t t n g c a s t ro n 476
i dl 4 2 9 h
.

a rds te e l, 4 7 3
.

e r,
d L ughli f l
. .

J o n es 4 30 an a n, s o t s t ee , 4 75
pl i g 2 9 5
. .

an n w ro n h t iro n ,
d dd i
, .

t s an 42 9 ar r ve , 47
igh t i d d i 4 2 9 hi
.

t s ra s e r ve , to re m o v e c ps o f give n
i g h li l 3 2 5
.

G ro o v n e ca a re a , 4 7 2
pi l 3 1 9 3 2 5 i l i
.
, , .

s ra re q u re m e n ts , e ec t r c , 4 6 9
G u m t l 45 ip i l
.
, , .

n e a of re c ro ca t n g to o s
h d 45
.
, ,
ar 47 1
i i
. .
,
2 1 ro n , o f s te a m e n ne , 3 74
Gu l y b i yl h b l i
. s .

t ra n s m tte d
’
r e 47 s ro n z e , eat er e t n g, 45 1
i
. .

H o t - a ir e n g n e s , 3 9 3
bx b i g
.

o es s ee ear n s
H yd li f gi g 42 5
.
,

ra u c or n
i m p l wh l 3 9 9
.
,

u se ee s ,
k i
.

H a c sa w n 1 63 m t 39 6 o or
s
gill p
.
.
,

l l a lf ro un d r 2 3 4 , 2 49 346 re s s e s ,
i
H a m m e r n g a n d e e n n g, 1 6 2 p i ti wh l
. .

re a c 39 9 on ee s
mi i
.
, .

H a m m e r r fi nin 36 e
t 42 5
ra n s ss o n,
p l
. .

H a m m e rs , m a c l in is t s , c o pe r, ea d, u 42 5 ses ,
hi d 1 63 t u bi
.

ra w e, 39 6 r n es
m ti bi D bl 3 9 9
. .
,

1 65 t
d i di g 2 5 8 2 7 0
,n e u a c, ur ne , o e,
P lt 39 8
. .

H an r n n e on ,
wh l 3 9 6
. .
, ,

l t a 1 90 l o, w t a e r- ee s
u f i g 2 70
.
.
,

s r ac n
l l l 93
.
,
t oo s , c us e
s, .

g 94 ra v e rs ,

g i di g
.

du r n n an se, 93
l h l 39 6 39 9
.

s c ra us 95 Im u se w ee s ,
d im l q i l t
. .
, ,

H a n ge rs a nd a rin gs ,
~ 43 9 Inc 1 ec f 1 52 a e u va e n s o an,
I e I d p d t h k 22 9
. .
,

l a n e r s c r ws , 1 4 2 n e en en c uc s,

hi b th I d d m u i l m ill 30 8
. .

H a rt e n ing, q ue n c ng a s, 3 65 n ex ru n v e rs a e r,
l th
y f 36 I di t
. .
,

s tee eo r o n ca o r car d 3 73
d t m p i g 40 I d ti d m g t i m 40 7
. .
, , ,

an e er n n uc on an a ne s

d t m p i g d t 40 dm g t i m hi t i l
.
, .
,

an e er n a a an at 40 7 ne s s o r ca no e ,
i t b
.
, .
,

H a rr !) on 48 ro n ze , m t o 4 2 2 46 0ors

ip t i g l b i I th
.
.
, ,

H t
ea is s t a60 n u r ca n s ns e r e t dt tt 342 oo cu e rs
m i t I p ti
.
, .
,

(it) x u re s ns ec il 5 6on , o

di i p t i li g t h t l 7 8 I ti h t f 2
.
, .
,

ss a o n, coo n e oo ns t
r uc o n, c a ra c e r o
i I lg l yi g t 333
.
, .
,

p ex m t eri t h m dyen m i n er o na rs t
n e rn a e a rs a n o u
I d q uipm h pt
, .
, ,

37 2 n rot d ti uc ton an e en c a er

l t i b tw w k d 3 7 1 I 1
.
,

re a on e ee n or an
th y f I
.
,
.
,

eo r o n v a r, 34
l 35 I t ig ti th f d
.
,

t tm re a t f t en o s ee n ve s a on, d au or s,
’
ee s an
it 37 1
.
,

un d 63 6 4 s

Ni h l
s re e

f d d p d 70
.
, .
, ,
’
l v a ue of g 39 5 a s es c o son s ee s an s ee s,

H li l pi l g i g 3 2 5 T yl f d d p d 72
.
, .
,
’
e ca or s ra ro o v n a or s ee s an s ee s

H m tit I l t i t lg l yi g t 33
.
, .
, ,

e a 1 1 e n vo u e n e r na e a rs a n ou
y 40 4 k l y i g t 33 3
.
, .
, ,

H e nr ra c a n ou
H i gh p d ut t i g t l d ll y 3 4 y t m G t 332
.
, .
, ,
'
s ee c n s ee s a n a o s, s s e ra n s,
l I g t 31 t h t bl
.
.
,

f 33 4
' ‘

t s ee un s en, t ee a e o
I b i 21
.
, , ,
M h t 31 us e ro n , a s c,

H bbi g w m w h l 3 2 2
. .
,

”
o n a or ee Be s s e m e r, 2 0
H b pip
. .
,

o 1 38 e, c a rb o n c o n t e n t , 1 9

d ill 2 3 4 2 4 9 h i
.
,
.

H g o nose r ca s e a rde n n g, 366

m difi d
. .
, ,
“
D 2 49 o e or eas t, I 3 , 2 1

H l d pt h f t pp ed 1 65 p i i
. .
,

o es e o a e a s t, o w e r re q u re d f o r c utt n g,
e f i
.
, ,

q s ua r g g 3 6 9 or n 476
p w ( m pb ll f m l 4 7 1 h
. .
, ,

c a rc o a l, 2 0
’
H
‘
o rs e - o e r, a e s or u a.
m pti di l i
. .

co ns u m t 4 56 on o or r ves co o r ng, 3 66
i g 33 5 i ity l
. .
, ,

f g o ea r n ,
. co n duc t v o f s te e a n d, 20 .
49 2 I N DE X
Lu bi r c a n ts h ea t d s s a t n g, 60 i ip i M g t i m d i du t i 40 7
a ne s an n c on,
li bl i d i du t i hi t i l t 40 7
,

n g fi ts , 1 7 8
.

n s ee d o il fo r a ss e m an n c o n, s o r ca no e ,
lifi i M g tit 1 1
. .

q ua c a t o ns o f a go o d, 5 4 a ne e,
pi p i M g t l t t ti
. .

fo r s e ra n t ur e n t n e , 1 7 3 a ne e ec f 40 8 ro -, ra c on o
l i fi ld 4 1 3
.
, , .

s e ec t o n 0 53 e
M g t dm t i l w 40 7
. .
,
t a l c , 60 a ne s a n e c a s
li
.

h
.

us e o f s o d, 5 9 d an l i t
s o e nog t f 40 8 s, s re n o
bi i il lifi i M li m t l 4 8
.
, .

L u r c a t ng o s , q ua ca t o ns o f , 54 o a e a
il il M bl b
. .
,

o s , s ec o s ca e46 ras s
L ub i t i h pt t i
.
, .

r ca o n, c a er 1 1 1 , 50 ca s 21 ro n ,
M d l b
. .

an re s , s ee a r o rs
xp di g 1 2 9
.

e an n
M g b
.
,

an a ne s e 4 7 48 ro n z e ,
i flu
.
,
n f 15 e n ce o
M hi b l t 1 4 2 l 30
, .

ac ne o s t s ee
b i g h i t l 2 20 M ipul t i dp
.
, .
,

or n o r zo n a an a on an w ut roces s es s c re c
ti l 22 1
.
, , ,

ver ca ti 2 1 1 n
d h d g i di g 2 58 2 7 0 ig t t u i g 2 0 2
. .
,

an an r n n t s ra rn n
m ill i g h M i i d 58
, , .
,

n t l 298 o n zo n a a r ne a ndw t e s e rv c e o s,
di y typ 2 9 8 M t i l h pt II 1 1
, , . .

or na r e, a er a s, c a er
pl i 2 9 8 M u m t t d d f 1 05
. .

a n, e as re en s , s an ar o
u i l 30 2 u i d m ll t l h pt V
. .
,
n v e rs a M e as r n an s a oo s , c
1 0g
a er
ti l 29 8
.
, ,
ve r ca
il 5 7 l 1 05
.
,

o s, t oo s ,
pl i g k y w y t t 2 9 0 b l p t t 1 14
. .

an n e - a cu e rs e ve ro ra c o r,
w p p ti d th
, , . .

sc re d t
ro or o ns an o er a a, g g 1 1 7 a es
ld t yl mi li p 1 0 6
.
.

o t d d 1 54
s e s an ar m t c ro e e r ca e rs ,
w t p lip
. .
,

s c re 1 36 a s, mi m t qu c ro e er ca er s a re ,
d th
.

w t p
s c re d dt A S a an re a a a 1 09
ul
, , . . .

ME t d d 1 50 s an ar 1 05 r es
d th igh t dg 1 1 3
. . .
, ,

w t p
s c re d dt ld
a an re a a a, o t s ra e e,
t yl
.

s1 49 e, t y qu 1 06 r s a re ,
i 111
. .

s c re ws , 1 38 ve rn e r,
i li
. .

s c re ws sta n da rd pro 1 12
v e rn e r ca e rs ,
p ti M h i h p t X I 3 70
, .
,

or o ns an d da t a , 1 5 5 ec a n cs , c a er
l h f d m t l p i ipl 3 7 1
.
, .
,

s c re ws , f at fi llis te r e a d, un a en a r nc es
y qu hi g b t h 3 65
,

s ta n da rd 1 5 9 M e rc u r e nc n a
M t l dm i l t y 4 5
, .
, ,

s c re ws , fl a t h e a d s ta n d e a a ra
ll y m p it i f 24 b i g
.
, , ,

a rd, 1 5 7 a o s, co os on o ea r n
l h
.
,

s c re w s , o v a fi llis te r e a d, 47
Aj x 4 8
.

s t a n da rd, 1 60 a
h Am i
.
.
,

sc re ws , ro un d e a d, 48e r ca n ,
ti f i ti
.

s ta n da rd, 1 5 8 an - 48 r c on,
il B bbi t t 4 7
. .

s c re w s , s pec a s ta nd a
b i g 47
.
, ,

a rd, 1 56 e ar n

l h l h b ll 4 5
.
.
,

t oo u ipm e n t fo r s c oo s o rs , 6 e
l i b i g 45
.
. ,

t oo s , o rs e -po we r o f m o to r e q u p ra z n
b h 45
.
,

m e n ts fo r, 4 7 8 us
l
.
.
,

to o s , m o to rs fo r, 4 5 8 , 4 7 8 b
ca r- 48 ox
i l i i m li
.
.
,

u n v e rs a gr n d ng, 2 64 car 48 e a,
d lt
. .

a n d woo d s c re w ga ges , 1 2 3 48
e a,
M hi b i
.
.

ac n es , o r ng, 2 2 0 E 48
x
phi b i
. . .

c a re o f , 4 .
g t
ra g 4 8 e ea r n ,
.

c o m p re s s e d a ir, 4 2 4 g u 4 5 n,
illi li 48
. .

dr n g, 2 3 7 m g a no a,
i i Mu t 45
. .

gr n d n g, 2 5 8 n z,
illi
.
.

m n g, 2 9 8 s a lge e , 48
pl i
. .

a n n g, 2 85 s te a m , 45
l i h
. .

p la n in g, c as s es o f , 2 8 5 re m o v e d w e g t o f, 4 7 7
hi
.
. ,

s c re w , 35 9 w te , 4 8
i M l i l
. .

t ur n n g, 1 88 e t a l urg ca no t es , 1 3
ll gy f i
.
.

t u rre t , 3 50 Me ta ur 1 1 o ro n

M hi y i y dth i du t i
.
.

ac ne r ro n , a n a l se s o f, 2 1 o re s a n e r re c on, 1 1
U S t d d fl h
.

il
.

o s , 57 Me te r s an ar o e n gt 1 05
Mi lip 1 0 6
.

M i i i
.
,
. .
,

a gn e t c c rc u ts , 40 7 c ro m t e e r ca e rs
fil h li
.
. ,

e d, s t re n gt o f , 40 7 1 09
d
ua re
iig 0 8
ca r

l
.
.

non s te e , 30 . re a i ,
.
 I NDE X 49 3

Mill e r, uni ve rs a l, 30 2 Mi ll
sc e u m
a n eo hi t s l d ac ne oo s a n a c ces
Op ti h h pt X I V 3 46
.

c a ra c t e ris t ic e ra o ns , i s o r es , c a er
Mi t g tt i g
.
,

2 7 5 30 8 er e a rs , c u t 32 3 n e c
ipt i f p t 3 0 2 M ix t u l y i g ut 1 6 1
. .
, ,
,
.

d es c r on o ar s, res ti g f co a n or a n -o

di i di g h d 3 0 6
.
. ,
,
v n ea utt
c 5 8 60 2 0 1
in
fu t i d lim i t t i h t i t i g 60
.
.
, ,

nc on an a o ns , ea a n
ki g pi g 1 7 2
.
,

m ar n or s c ra n
i d x d um 30 8 h b h
.
,

n e r q u ie nc
g t 3 6
n5 a
i i g bl k 30 8
.
.
,

ra s n oc d w t
so a 60 a e r,
d th ft p 60
. .
,

t d t s tea v res an o er a so so a
M dul u f l t i i t y 2 0
.
,

t hm t 30 8 ac en s o s o e as c
wi l i 30 8 M lybd um i fl
.
, .
,

s ve v se , o en f 17 n ue n ce o
t il t k 30 8 M it l t h 360
.
.
, ,

a s oc on or a es ,
M illi g h t X I II 2 9 8 M t p
. .
,

n c a er o rs e a 206 e rs ,
c ll t t p h k 2 5 2 2 53
.
, , .

mb i g
as s e tt n d cu e rs o e s an a er s an s,

ll 3 1 1 M t dj u t bl p d
, ,

co a rs o or a s a e s ee
b ki g h d ill l d 32 7 ti g
.
,

lt
,
'

ac n o r an s a e rn a t 42 0
n c u rre n
b l d m it g h i f 465
.
, .
,

e ve an 32 3 er e a rs , c o ce o
i g d f i g 31 6 m p u d 4 63
.
.
,

b or n an ac n co o n
t p d 4 58
. .
, ,

ut t
c 33 8 t 34 5
e rs , o t
co ns an s ee
m ill di b i m ill
.
,

see s r ve n or n
d i ll 40
.
,
f 33 9
a e o r
d l t 31 l th 1 9 7
, .
, .

en s o s, a e,
f 31 4 pl
.

ac e , 292 a n e r,
f di g d p d 3 1 1 t y 30 1
. .

ee n an s ee s, ro a r
f d d p d 90 9 1
. .
,
ee s an s ee s driv es , 4 53
tti g 3 1 6
. .
, ,

a r cu n a dv a n t a ges 4 53 o f,
li i g i g 3 2 5 ip
. .
,

c ca ro o v n co s t o f e q u m e n t, 4 53
h bbi g w m w h l 3 2 2 y
.
, .

o n a or ee ec o n o m of 4 55
i fl di m t di hi
. .
,

n f
ue n ce o tt 31 0 cu er a e e rs , a n d m o to r r ve n m a c ne
l h p XX
.

k y e ti g se a d fl ti g 3 1 6
n an u n t oo s , c a t e r 45 3
hi b 33 7 f h
.
, .
,

m ac ne a r o rs re e re n ce to o t e r da ta , 4 6 4
h i t l 298 q ii j bl p
. .
,

o r zo n a re u r n g a d us ta e S ee d
di y t yp 2 9 8
, .

or na r es , i s e rv c e ,
pl i 2 9 8 i i p i
.

a n, q u g mre u d r n co o n s e rv c e ,
u i l 3 0 2 t 30 9
.

n v e rs a o
ti l 29 8 q i i g i
.
,

ve r ca re t t u r n co ns an s e rv c e ,
l tu 3 1 0
.
,

nom en c a re ,
p ti q i i g i bl
.

ord f er o 31 2 o e ra o ns re i
u r n va r a e s e rv ce ,
p i k
.
,

p re t a raf w 30 9
on o or
d p t fi i hi g 3 1 6 l t i p i ipl f 4 1 8
.
,

segm t en an s o n s n e ec r c , r nc es o
l t 31 4 q uipm t h pw f i
.
, .
,

s o e en s o rs e - o er o r va r
pi l 3 1 9 3 2 5 hi t l 4 7 7
.
, ,

s ra u m o s ac ne oo s ,
wi dj tm
.
,

s i ve v se a t 31 2 us en s , 386
as
pw um p t i
. .
,

t m er d s anti 31 0 o e ra o ns o rs e - o f 4 56
er co ns on o
Mill gu l hyd li 39 6
. .
, ,

s an 34 a r, ra u c,
b i g d tu i g 2 2 3 i du t i
.

or n an rn n n 42 2
c on,
b i g d tu i g h t i t i p lyph
. .
,

or n an rn n c a ra c e r s c o 42 1 as e
Op t i
.
, ,

e ra224 o ns , ti
ra 46 9 n
b i g d t i g d ipt i hi l
. .

or n an f urn n es c r on o f orp sd m o t d ani ac ne oo r v

p t 223
,

ar s, i g 4 58 n
b i g i g f ti i gl ph
.
, .

or n d t an d u rn n un c on an s n e 41 6 as e ,
l im i t t i p d g l ti l t i 42 0
.
,

223a o ns , s ee re u a on , e ec r c,
y h
. .

c a ref tt o d 3 40
cu e rs an s nc 42 1ro n o us ,
l ifi t i d d ig i bl p d 4 60
, . .

c as s ca f utt
o n an es n o c e rs var a e s ee
i bl w i gh t
.

d 33 8
an va r a e f 4 70
s e s o
ut t i g ti w ki g ppli ti
.
, , .

c n f 31 2
ac on o or n f 46 5
a ca o ns o
M ul t iph p lyph
, .
, .

end 342 a s e , s ee o as e
f 340 M l t ipl i it
, . .

ace , u e a rc c rc u s
fl y ut t Mu t m t l 45
.
,

c 3 42 e rs , n z e a
f m 34 2 Mu h t t l 1 7 3 4
. .
,

or s e s ee
f m d 34 2
. .
, , ,
or e , .

g g an3 4 5
th 34 2
.
,

i t dt
ns e r e oo
d l tt
.
,

saw s an 3 44 s o e rs ,
id 34 1 ph t h
.

s e, Na a e n gin e s 39 3
t ddl N t l
. .
,

s ra 3 1 4 3 4 1 3 45
e, , , . a u ra gas ,
s ee ga s .
49 4 I N D EX

Ni k l h m t l 2 9
c e c ro e s ee O p i
e ra t o nsh d b i 2 70 an a ras v e ,
i flu l th b i g 2 2 5
. .
, ,

f 16
n e n ce o , a e or n
t l 28 hi g i di g 2 7 0
. .
,

s ee m ac ne r n n
m t l m b m illi g d fi
.
, , .

N o n -c oi ro s v e d 31 0
z7 g e a an a n e se ro n z e , n e ne
yli d i l d i l
.
, ,

dor f er o c n r ca an co n c a
p di g t l (I
.
,

ex an n s ee n va r ) 34 i di r n2 75 n
m g ti t l 30 illi g 2 4 5
. .
, ,
a ne c s ee o f er o r n
N wyi uf i di g 2 7 5
.
, , .
,

or m tu ro n , an re o f, 24 r n n
gt h b i g 2 2 7
a ac
N m b dg g 1 20
. .
,

u e re a es a e or n
it i i m 1 2 0 m ill b i g 2 2 7
.
,
.
,

g g a es , cr c s or n
N ut 1 45 ,
m illi g 3 1 2
.
,

s n
d dth d b lt l
, .
, .

t s an ar re a o an dn ut da ta p 2 9 7 a n e r,
w ut t i g 2 1 3
.
, ,

1 48 s c re c n
h p 296
. .
,

s a e r,
i gh t t u i g
.

f t or s ra rn n 203
f p ti p ti
.
,

d
O r er o o e ra o n s , s ee o e ra o ns

d th i du t i
.

O re s , a n 1 1 e r re c on,
phi l yi h
.

O do n to gra es , a n g-o ut ge a r te e t ,

33 1 .

O hm , 40 4
lt i
.

O il co m po u n ds an d a du e ra t o n s , 53
Di l 3 9 0
.

e ng nes i th e es e P a ra ffi n e , 54
f l 3 9 2 39 4 ll i i l ipl
, , . .

ue s , 39 5 P a ra e l c rc u ts (m u t e a re ) , 40 6
i p ti 39 3 i l
.
, , .

eng n e o e ra o n, P a rt n g to o , 9 7
i p ti li f i
. .

ns ec o n, 56 P e a r t e , s o te n n g c a rb o n , 3 6
i h i
. .

te s t s , 55 P ee n n g a n d a m m e r n g , 1 6 2
ili h l
. .

O ng, 4 P c lt o n w a te r-w e e , 3 9 9
il i y l
. .

O s , ac dit te s t, 55 P e t ro e u m e n gin e , 3 0 0
i l f l
. .

a n m a , 54 ue , 5 6 , 3 9 2 , 3 9 4
h i l phy i l p p t i
. .

c em c a a nd s ca ro er es P e w t e r, 4 7
yp l
.

o f, 5 7 a ndt e m e ta , 4 8
l h ph b
. .

c o d t e s t , 55 P os or ro n z e , 4 3 , 4 5
p ii b i
. .

com o s t o n o f, 53 ro n z e , dra w n w re , 4 6

yli Ph h i fl
. .

n de r, 5 7 o ro us , n ue n c e o f , 1 4
c os
p
i t y d g i ty t t 5 5 p p i ll y
. .

d ens an ra v es P l i vs i c a l ro e rt e s o f a o s , 4 2
gi i l
. .
,

en 57 ne , r on an d s te e
fl h fi t t 55
.
,

as or re es 18
l b i ti g 5 4
. .
,

u r ca n o il , 5 7

hi y 5 7 l i i f i
. .
,

m ac ne r P ic k lin c e a n n g c a s t n gs a n d o rg n gs
i 58
, .
,

m a r ne , 7
bj t i bl f t i
. .

o ec 54
o na e ea u re s , P ig ro n , b a s ic , 2 1
B
. .

p fii a ra 54 ne , ess e m e r, 2 0
dl b i h l
. .

q l ifi t
i ia i f g ca t o ns o a oo u r ca n c a rc o a 20
l ifi i i l
.
, ,

s‘ ‘
c as s cat on o f co m m e rc a
f ig ti g 5 8
,

re r e ra n 20
fi i ili F
.
, .

p s i tec 57 ca o ns e rm i -s co n , 21
t m p i g 3 65 dy 20 f
. .
,

e er n o un r
y f
.
, .
,

t t es 55 s g g ra o r e,

th di g d t ppi g 58 1 6 4 Fi i 204
.

f or re a n an a n nn n

g t bl Pi dt p
. .
, ,
ve e54 a e, w l
ns , o e an a e r, 1 47
i i t y fl i di t y t t 55
. .

v s co s or u es fih 1 68 n
l t il 56 Pip h 1 3 8
.
, .
,

vo a e, . e, o

w l f t 54 oo a re a m e r, 1 38
Op h th f i h
.
,

en ear 13 u rn a c e , s t a n da r d di m e n s o ns of w ro ug t
l 2 7 36 i
.

t s ee ro n , 1 51
ti i p i
. .
,

Op e ra g on, g 38 7 as en ne ta s an d de s s t a n da rd, 1 3 8
Op ti h t i t i b i g m ill Pi t h i l 3 2 8
.
. ,

e ra o ns , c a ra c e r s c, or n c c rc u a r,
di m t 3 2 7
.
,
224 a e e r,
h t i ti l th 1 9 9 di m t l 3 2 8
. .

c a ra c e r s c, a es a e ra
pl f m i lli g
.
, .
,

29 2 a n e r, o tt n cu e rs , 3 38
h p 2 88
. .

s a e r, o f s c re w s , 1 35
l g i di g
. .

i u n v e rs a r n n s c re w ga g e , 1 2 4
Pl be i
.
,

2 69 a n e r, lt dr v e 2 90
i l m ill 3 0 8 i i p i
.
. .

u n v e rs a e r, c h a ra c t e r s t c o e ra t o ns , 29 2
ip i
.

d illi g 2 3 7
.

r n de s c r t o n 2 9 1
i f u y l gi f ti d lim i t t i
.
. .
,

n o r c387 c e en n es un c on an a ons , 290

j k 293
.

i i
.
,

g d r n
g 2 5 8 n ,
. ac s, .
49 6 INDE X

Ro pe driv es , co n t in uo us s ys t em 42 8 S c re w d pin da ta , c h a pte r VI,

l ipl y g
.
,

mut e s s te m , 4 2 7 l g
i l i y i
.

v e rt c a , c o n t n uo us s s te m tc h ga ge 1 24
g l d i 1 37
.
,
42 8 t a sa o r es ,
i l tt
. .

dr v ing, 42 6 s o 3 44
e rs ,
p ll y th
. .

u e s , 42 9 d 29 A m
re a t d d 217 °
c e s an ar
h t bl f p t 218
. .
,
s e a ves , 4 2 9 a e o ar s ,
li i
. .

s p c n , 43 2 S c re w s , ca
p 1 4 0
g
y h 1 42 :
.
.
,

t ra n s m ws io n s s te m s , 42 7 c oac
i h g 1 42
.
,

w re , t ra ns m is s io n , 4 2 6 an e r,

gi B t h h d 385
. .

R t
o a en ne ro e r oo l g 1 42
a
p hi 1 3 8
.
,

298
, ,

a n e r, m ac ne,
t t i g fi l d i du t i
. .

a n m t
e 42 2 n c on o o rs , t d d p s an ar ro
R t i du t i m t p ti
.
,

o o r, n c on o o rs , 1 55 or o ns ,

R ughi g t l l t h 9 7 ld t yl
.

n ni r o ns,
p
gfi
o oo a e, o s e,
t o l pl
,
o 1 00 a n e r,
hi l 9 4
.
,

R u d
o n -n o se c se se t 1 40
d d p t b ul t d d t
, . , .

n os e 95 v e r, t
s an ar 1 53
ca a a e a a,
th t l 97 t t b ul t d d t
.
, .

s e oo 1 53
se a a e a a,
Rubb b l t i g 44 7
, .
, .

er e n w d 1 38oo
R ul ib
, . , .

es , 1 05 Sc r e rs , 1 31
l ul ti g g t fi i hi g 3 1 6
. .

f o r ca c 32 7 a n e a rs Sc en n s n
l t i t f d d p d 63 f h d i g t l 1 7 3 1 34
.
, .

re a ve o ee s an s ee s Se - a r en n s ee
h l h p 9 li g 32
.
, , , , .

f or sc oo s o s, a n ne a n
t p i g 2 06 l h ld l t h
.
, .

f t
o r se tu o v e r, a er rn n t oo o e rs , a e,
h p 2 9
.
,
s o 1 03
li d 82 pl
.
, , .

s e, a n e r,
l m f h l h p 7
.

t oo ro o or s c oo s o s, 1 04
i g (it 1 84 f i t i d ill 2 38
. .

Ru nn n s, S e ns iti ve r c on r
l ll w i i uit 40 6 ,
.

fit s , c ose a 1 87 o a nc e s , S e r es c rc s

f ll w w u d dy m
. , .

1 87
re e a o a n ces , o n g t 41 4na os o r e n e ra o rs ,
Ru t j i t 3 69
. .

s o n s, . m o to rs , 4 6 1 .

Se t sc re ws 1 40
b ul
, .

s c re s ta n da rd t a a te d da ta ,
ig
g
s

S h ft i
a 43 6
n g,
f l
.

S g
a l ee a n t i- ric t io n m e ta , 4 8 a rra n ge m e n t o f, 44 4
b th i b i h
. .

Sa nd a t e rn r ng, 3 66 e a r n gs a n d a n ge rs , 43 9
i
,
h ft
. .

Saw n b a c k, 1 3 c o u n te rs a 43 7
i
.
.
,

S a ws , a c k , 1 63 de flec t on o f, 4 38
li tt i g d l tti g 3 44
. .

a c k,
'

s n an s o n 437
p 95
. .
,

S c ra e rs , ne , 43 7
lii i
. .

fl t 96 44 7
df:
a n n u
th
. .
,

d 96
re e -c o rne re s pe e o 438
i ill h
. .
,

S e ra p n d g d e 2 49 e r s t re n gt o f, 4 3 7
l t h 1 73 pp
. .
,

in t e a e, su o rts , 4 38
l th w k 2 0 5 h k b
. .

a e or S a n s , a r o r, 2 0 6, 33 7
pl u f ill
. .
,

a ane s 1 71 r ace , dr , 2 0 6 , 2 5 2
f tu p M p
. .

us e o ti i 1 73 r en ne n, o rs e t a e r, 2 0 6 ,
b m illi g 3 3 7 h p l
.

S c re w ar o rs , n S a e o f to o , 6 2
ut t i g 2 0 8 h p h
.
, .

c n S a e r, c a ra c te ris t ic o pe ra tio ns , 2 88
th k
. .
,

t hi d 211 ca c n rea s, c ra n , 2 87
m t i t pi
. .

d 2 14 e r c re a s, des c ri t o n o f 2 85
f i dli i i
. .

t 214 no es on, un c t o n s a n m ta t o n s , 2 85
p ti
. .

d f f
o r er o o e ra ons o r, g e a re d 2 8 6
h i h U
.
,

213 S e a r n g s tre n gt o f s t a n da rd 8
ipu l t i l
. . .

dm ro c e s a n an on, b o ts , 1 4 8
zl f
p a
Sh i i
.

e a v es , ro t ra n s m ss o n , 4 3 0
Sh p
.

f 125 ee t m e a a n d wire gag e s co m are d,

g
u t g g se o ce n e r a e,
Am i
.

g g a e 122 e r ca n , 12
d m hi S h ll ill
.
,

w d oo 123 an ac ne, e e nd m s , 342

hi 35 9 ill b
. .

m ac n es , m a r o rs , 33 7
p t l d 1 35 S hi li b hi
. .

ar s , ea m s o r n e rs f o r ro a c n g, 1 7 6
l tu 1 35 Sh p f l
, . .

m no e nc a re , o , ca re u n e ss in t h e , 3
pi t h 1 3 5 ip
. .

c e qu m e nt , 6
th d p i h 1 35 hi
.
, .

re a s er nc et cs , 2
i h 1 35
. .
,

tu t rn s o an nc , . o rde r in t h e , 2 , 5 .
 I N DE X 49 7

S h ppo ,
ro c es s es a n d ki k n s ,
cha pt X V er , S p
ee d, re gu a tio n , e ec t r c ,l l i 466 .

3 65 m o to r, 4 2 0
l i h fi
. .

re l a t on, 6 o f s a t n g, 4 3 8
fl 2
. .

ru to r ue c urv es , 46 2
s,
q
l m 6 i bl i 465
. .

t oo ro o var a e s e rv c e ,
S h i ki g fi t ll w p dm t
. .
,

r n n a o a n c es , 1 87 s ee o o rs ,
Sp d f b i wh l 2 7 7
.

fit 1 82 s, ee s, o a ras v e ee s ,

S hu t w p d illi g 9 2
. .

n d o un co ns ta n t s ee d m o to rs , ut ti g f
c n or r n
d ill 2 46
, , .

4 5 9 460 f or r s
ddy m fil 2 0 5
.
.
,

w o un na os o r ge n e ra t o rs, 41 4 f or es

S i d m illi g 3 1 4 g i di g 2 7 2
. .
,

e n f or r n n
m illi g 9 0 9 1
.
, ,
.

c ut t e rs , 34 1 f or n
i pl i g 9 3
.
.
, ,

c ut t e r , a c t o n o f , 31 2 34 1 f or an n
l l th 9 7 q ui d f
.
, , .

to o s a e w 477 e r re re o r,
l t ight dg pl
. .
,

to o s ra e e, a n e r, 101 t i 70 8 9 or u rn n
i i df d f
. .
, ,

S de r t e 1 1 an ee d p d s , s ee an s ee s
ili t t h 3 35
.

S c o n bro n ze , 46
.

f g o ea r ee
i fl S pi g l i
.
.
,

n f 16
ue n c e o e 27
e e sen,
t l 31 S pi l g d pl
. .
,

s ee ra ea re 29 1 a ne r
S il ld 4 7 i m illi g 32 5
. .
,

ve r, G m er a n so e r,
g ro o v n
g d an n
ld 47 i
. .
,

so e r, S ph gcln t m i p 4 32
ra n s s s o n rO e,
S i gl h m t mi i i
.
, .

n e 4 1 6 461
as e o o rs , t ra ns p d t l t t
ss o n ro e, a a re a ve o,
S i ty h
.
,
x g e V t d
ree o r 2 1 6 re a 4 30
Sp t f i
. .
,
S lit t w 34 4 o 2 37
ac n
fi i h gg 3 1 6
in sa s
Sl t
.
, .

o s t il 3 1 7
o ve a n s i
d m illi g 3 1 1 h l f gi g 369
.
, , .
,

en n Squ a re o es , or n
m illi g 3 1 4 mi lip 1 0 9
.
, ,

n m t c ro e e r ca e r,
th
.
, .

tt f 34 2 cu e rs o r, d 215 re a
pl i g T 2 1 5
. .
,

an n t y 1 06 r
i p t i 2 89 p
.
.
,
,
Sl t t
o d
e rs es c r on, St ma 1 11 346 res s es

w (m illi g ) 34 4 i f w ugh t i
.
, , .

s c re n St an dim
a e n s o ns o ro ro n
Sl tt l 1 02 2 9 0 pip 1 5 1
.
,

o t er oo s , e,
S m ll t l 127 t bl
.
, .

a oo s , k y e t -s e a f 1 75 s, a e o
b d l hi w p p ti
. .
,
m
a r o rs o r 127 an re s , m ac ne ld s c re ro or o ns , o
lip 1 30
.

ca e rs , t l 1 54s e,
pu h 1 3 1 w p p ti
. .
'

tce n e r nc es , m ac ne A S s c re ro or o ns ,
di i d
. . .

v1 31 e rs , M E 1 55
t hi t i l 1 05
. . . .
,

m re a 1 29 e rs f m o u m e as re en s o r ca
ib 1 3 1 pi p t d di
.
, , ,
.

s cr e rs e 1 38
a an es ,
h 1 34
, . .

w re n c es t se p an w 1 53 ca s c re s,
pg g 118 t p
. .
,

S na a es 1 36
a s,
t l th d b lt U S
.
, .

S oa t o n e , s ee a c re a d ut d t o an n a a,
ll t f m i ll i g b
. . .
,
S oc t e s o r co e s or n a r o rs , 33 8 1 48
d ill 2 5 4 th d p p ti
. .

r re a 215 ro or o ns ,
U S g 1 2 1 1 22
, . .

S d w t
o a 60a e r, a e,
S ld U S t d 215
. .
,
.
,

o 46
e rs , re a
B i g 45 y d 1 05
. . . .
,
ra z n ar
l t i i t y 40 3
. .
, ,

mm
co 46 on, St d d
an ar s, e e
c
r c
il
. .
,
G m er 47 an s v e r, f m o u m t m t
ea s 1 05 re en e e r,

g ld 47 i du t i m t 4 2 3
.
, .

o St ta o r, n c on o o rs
ti l t bi
.
, , .

p w t e 4 7 e r, St mea f iac D L on o n e a va ur ne ,
il
.
,

s 47 v e r, 3 79
S ld i g t m l um p t i t bl
. .

o er n 3 68 er s d an co a f c o ns on , a e o
S l id t h f 40 8 mp ti
, , .

o e no s s re n o co 3 85 a ra ve ,

gi
, , . .

S p d dj u t b
ee a m t 4 60
s a e o o rs en 376 ne
i 4 65 fl w f i C ti t u bi
, , . .

s e rv c e , o o 3 83 n ur s r ne ,
mp u d i 46 5 m t l 45
. .

co o n se rv c e , e a
m p ut t i
.
, .

t
c o ns t m t 45 8
an o o rs dp w
an o 374 e r co a o ns ,
i 4 65 bi 3 7 8
, , . .

s e rv c e , t ur ne ,
t l f C t i 38 1
. .

c o n ro m t 46 7 or o o rs ur s
l ti f m t
. .
,
re a o ns or o o rs , 46 8 D e L a v a l, 37 9
y t m d wi i g
. .

s s e s an r n 46 8 Do w 3 7 8
f d ill 2 4 6
.
, .

o r s P v le , 3 7 8
h d l th 1 9 0
, .

We s t in gh o us e P a rs o n s
.

or an a e,
df d
.

ff e t f ec t o 81 cu an ee on , 3 83
l ll y l i
. .

e ffec t o f t e x t ure o n , 8 4 S te e a o a um n um 33
b lt
. .
, , ,

ra n ge s , m o t o r, 4 6 6 . co a , 33 .
49 8 I NDEX

S te e l al o l y d high d, 3 4 S t re n t h o f c ut t ng ed i 61
gl
, ,
an s pe e .
ge ,
t in , 33 0 e ec t ro m g a t ne s, 40 8
i t h 3 35
. .

t t a nium 33 of gea r t ee
ll y
. .
, ,

a o s, 28 o f s h a f t in 43 7
i l i 3 66
. .

an d ro n co o r ng, o f s o le n o i s , 40 8
w ki g 365 bl
. .

or n s h ea ri fo r s ta n da rd o ts , 1 48
li g l f h d i il l
.
, .

a nn ea n se - ar e n n g, 32 t e n s e o r s t a n da rd b o ts , 1 4 8
pl t 2 8 b Bi h
.
, .

St u s o r
’
a rm o r rm i ng a m wire
a e,
ga ge , 1 2 1
B i i
. .

e s s e m e r, 26 ro n w re e, 1 2 2
bli
. .

s t e r, 26 S t ru c t ura l s 1 6, 36
b
. .

ca r o n, 1 4, 2 7 S t uds , 1 4 5
i i fl
. .

c a rb o n co n te n t o f ro n a n d 19 S u l h ur, n ue n c e o f , 1 6
h i i
.
, .

ca s e - a rde nin g ro n a n d, 3 66 S u a c e ga ge , un v e rs a l , 1 2 6
i h
. .

ca s t n gs , 35 ga ge , uni v e rs a l m e t o ds o f us in g,
h
.

c ro m e , 2 8 1 28
l ifi i pl
.

c a ss c a t on of 25 a te , s c ra in 8 a 1 72
mp i h f i h g
.

w th S ur a c ng , a n , 2 7 0 i
.

co a ris o n ca s t a n d w ro ug t
i
23ro n , i
S we a t ng, 36 8
i y i l l l
. .

co n duc t vit of ro n a n d, 20 S y m b o s , e ec t ric a , 40 3 , 40 4

y h
. .

co n v e r e t d o r ce m e n te d, 25 S n c ro n o us m o t o rs , 4 2 1
li dh ti y h k
. .

co o n an ea n g c urv es , 38 , 3 9 . S s te m , c ec , 7 .

c ru c ib e ca s t , 26 re co rd, 7
D y l i i
. .

a m a s c us 32, . S s t e m s , e ec t r c t ra n s m s s io n , a lte m a t
G e rm a n , 26 ing c u rre n t , 4 1 6
h i d t m p i g 40 l i i i i
. .

d
a r e n ng a n e er n e e ct r c t ra n s m s s o n co n t n uo u s
h h p w q ui d f
, .

a rd, o rs e o e r re re o r cut c u rre n t , 4 1 6

t i g 4 73 i i i y
.

e l c ric t ra ns m s s o n , e ffic e n c o f,
ef
n
high p d u t t i g t i
.
,

s ee c n o n c as ro n , 82 4 5
t p i i i
. .

rec e n ra c t c e , g o v e rn n g c o n d t io ns , 4 1 5
h
.

89 m e t o ds o f , 4 1 6
xp di g 34 y
. .

I n v a r , n o n -e an n m o to r d n a m o , 4 1 7
l w p d i t ig t i l ip h
. .
,

o s 64 ee n v es a o n, m u t le p as e , 4 1 7
l ipl
. .
,

m a n a n es e , 30 . mu t e wire , 4 1 7 .

me lu rgic a l n o te s , 1 3 rege n e ra t in g, 4 1 7
i l ph
. .

m e t a llu o f, 1 1 s ng e as e , 4 1 7
ikl h i
. .

n c e t re e w re , 4 1 7
ikl h i
.
,

n c e -c ro m e , 29 t wo w re 4 1 7
ibl l ib
.
,
.

n o n -co rro d e, 2 8 o f e ec t ri c a l d is t r utio n , 4 1 7

I p i i
. .

n o n -e x p di g 34 an n n v a r, o f ro e t ra n s m s s o n , 4 2 7
ti l
.
, .

no n - m g 2 8 30
a ne c, to o ro o m , 6
h t h d p ddl d 2 7 i
. .
,

0 en ea r an u e a n d w rin g, 468
p y i l p p ti 1 8
. .
,

s ca ro er es
l t p i t 37
.
,

re c a es ce n o n , .

s h 26 e a r,
ili T l 60
.

s 31
co n , a c, 2 76
ft h m p w qui d f T p pi
. .

,
so o e- o e r re re o r cu t a er ns ,1 47
ti g 47 5
.
,

n t urn in g, 2 0 5
l 1 6 36 h
.
, .

t
s r u t
c u ra , , . a tta c m en t , 1 99 .

s t u t r cf 35 u re o rule fo r s e t -o v e r
T yl W hi t t t m t f 4 2 h i l h ight f l
.
,

a o r- e re a en o ,
. t eo re t c a e o to o ,

t mp i g d t
e 40
er n a a, 2 07
th y f h d i g 36 T p t bl
. .

eo r o ar en n a e rs a n d a n Ice , a e o , f 1 16
l b 14 27 B h
. .
,

t oo o r ca r on, ro w n a n S a rpe , 2 0 6
h
.
,

a n d its t re a t m e n t , 8 1 . m e t o ds o f t urm ng, 2 0 5 .

t re a t m e n t o f 3 5 Mo rs e , 2 0 6, 2 5 3
M p h k
. .

t u n gs t e n o r us h e t , 1 7 , 3 1 , 3 4 Mo rs e ta e r s a n s , 2 5 3
i i h ill hi
. .

v a n a d um a n d v a na d u m -c ro m e, T a p dr s fo r m a c n e s c re w s , 1 3 7 1 4 9
hi
.

32 fo r m a c n e s c re ws ,
ki g 36
.

wo r n 1 50
b l t 1 45 pip p
. .
,

S to ve o s fo r e ta s , 1 5 1
l t i
. .
,

a e 2 1 ro n , f o r s e t a n d c a p s c re ws , 1 53
dl m ill 3 4 1 34 5 b
. .

St e s, fo r s t a n da rd o l ts , 1 4 8
igh t dg h h
. .
,

S t ra 1 13e e, a nd t re ad da t a f o r m a c in e
i d t l pl yl
.

e dg e s e oo a n e r, 101 s c re w s , o ld s t e, 1 4 9
fl t d d ill 2 50 T
. .
,

u e r a p p in g, 1 64
h l y h k
. .
,

S t re n gt f l o4 3 4 6 a o s, ,
. c uc s , 2 56 .
500 I N DE X

T l high p
oo s , s ee d, c u t t ng o n i ca st i ro n , Tu rni n g , h p w q ui d f
m a c in es , o e r re re o r,
82 478
i ig ipul t i 2 0 2
. .

n v es t 72 a tio ns , m an a on,
i f p ti
. .

re c e n t
pra c t c e , 8 9 d or er o 20 3 o e ra o ns
p li hi g 2 0 5
.
, .

h o rs e po w e r re u re m e n ts o f re q i o s n
p ti
.
,

c ip ro c a t in g, 4 7 1 reca u63 ons,

k pi 2 0 5
. .

ee n n ess o f, 6 1 s e ra n
l h t p
. .

a t e, 9 7 a e r,
i i i h ight f t l 2 0 7
.

lo w s peed n v es t ga t o n o f , 64 e o oo
h p Tu t i h 1 35
. .
,
m s ob w e , o rs e o we r of m o to r rns o an nc
Tu t l th 1 9 0 35 0
.
,

pl
ec

a n e r, 1 0 0
m
ipm e n ts fo r 4 7 8
m a c n e m o to rs fo r, 4 58
‘
.

. m
t
rre
hi 35 0ac
l 35 2 t 35 8
oo s ,
a
nes
e,

o
,

.
.

l i p ii k Tw t y i d g w th
.

re a t ve o s t o n s o f wo r a n d, 6 1 en -n n e d m e re e s c re re a ac e

q ui i g mp i
.
,

re r n co o un d m o t o r s e r v c e , t d d 217
s a n ar
w th dp t 2 1 8
.
,
i dg
n ne e ree s c re re a ar s
l w m th
.
,

s o t te r, 1 02 d 217 or rea
k Tw i t d ill 2 50
. .
,

and wo r 5 s r
i i d ill m illi g
. .
, ,

T o rq ue 3 c urves , n du c t o n m o t o r, r 32 7 n a,
d ill d t l wi
,

a
.

6
‘
r an
g g 1 22 s ee re a e,
T i i
b l t 44 7 T yp m t l 4 8
.

ra n s m ss o n , e e e a
m p
.
, .
,

co d i 42 3 re s s e a r,
dt l t i 41 6
a a e ec r c,
l t i 41 5
.

e ec r c ,
i i
.

g g d t i 41 5
o v e rn n co n ons ,
m th d U i t l t i l 40 3
.

f 41 6 41 7 e o s o n e ec r c a
h b l f h t B it i h th m l
, , .
, , .

o rs e
p w f ti 4
g 51 o er o e n o ea it 3 7 1 r s er a un
hyd uli 42 5
.
, , , ,

ra c, 39 5
pull y 4 36 U it d S t t b m t l 45
. .

e n e a es ox e a
p 43 1 y m p i t i ll y 4 5
. .
, ,

ro e, na v co os on a o

h ft 4 36
,
. .

s a t d dg g 1 2 1
s an ar a e,
wi p 42 6 h t d pl t
. .
,

re ro e g g f a e or s ee an a e
T p id l t h d 2 1 9
, .

ra e zo a re a 122
T t I C wi g g 1 2 2 th
. .
,

re n o n ro n o s
’
re a e, d 215 re a
th d b lt
.
. ,

T y qu
r s 1 06 a re , d ut d t re a o an n a a,
T g t i flu
.

un s en, f 17 n en ce o 1 48
M u h t t l 3 1 34 U i l f g g 126
. .
,

or s e s ee n v e rs a s u r ac e a e,
T bi w h l 3 9 9 hu k 2 2 9
. .
, ,

ur ne ee s , c c s,
T bi 3 78 g i d
. .

ur n es , tt cu d m
er a n 2 61 re a er r n e r,
ti di i d 2 60
. .

ac f t m i D L
on o l 370 s ea n e a va sc r n e r,
l hyd uli 3 9 8 g im h t i ti p ti
. .
,

c as s es du an s es , ra c, r e r, c a ra c e r s c o e ra o ns ,
C t i 38 1
.

ur s, 2 69
ip t i f p t
. .

D L l 3 79
e a va g i d d
r n e r, 2 67 es c r on o ar s
D bl (w t ) 3 9 9 f ti d lim i t t i
. .
, ,

o e a er , . un c on an a o ns ,

D w 37 8 o 2 64
llip id l b k t 40 0 m ill
. .
,

e so a uc e s, 30 2 e r,

fl w f t m i C t i 3 8 1 3 83 di i di g h d 3 0 6
. .

o o s ea n ur s v n ea
l w h l hyd l i 3 9 9 m illi g m hi 3 0 2
.
, , .
,

im u se ee s , ra u c, n ac nes
d di l d ill 2 4 2
. .
,

P t (w t ) 39 9
e on a er an ra a r s,
Pyl 3 7 8 Up igh t d ill 2 3 9
. .
,

e, r r
ti w h l hyd uli 39 9
.
.
,

re a c on ee s ra c,

g l ti g l 40 0
, .

re u a n no z z e , .

t sm 37 8 ea
t bl mp ti
.
,

a f e o t m d co a ra ve s ea an
l um p t i
co a 3 85 co n s o n, V a n a di um i flun e n c e o f, 17
th y 378 h m t l 32
.
.
,

eo r c ro e s ee

th y d di u i hyd uli l 32
.
,
.
,

eo r an sc ss on, ra c, t s ee

V i bl p d m t
.
,

39 6 ar a e s 4 60 ee o o rs
p d m t w igh t
.
.
,

“ e s t in gh o u se P a re 0 n 8 , 3 83 s o f, 47 0
'

s ee o o rs , e
i f m t
. .

T u m b uc k le s , 1 4 7 s e rv c e or o o rs , 46 5
T l V g t bl il 5 4
. .

u rn e rs a n d b o x to o s , 3 5 1 e e a e o s

ill i lip 1 1 2
.
. ,

u s t ra t o ns o f 1 4 3 5 2 to 35 9 V i
e rn e r c a e rs

h p di g 1 1 1
. .
,

T urn in c a t e r V l l l, 1 88 re a n

b i ill
.
, .

an o r ng m s, 2 23 d it
an 1 1 1 s us e ,
f d Vi i t y t t f il 55
. .

ee s and s pe e ds, 89 s co s es or o s,
fili g Vi l ll 2 4 5
. .

2 04
‘

n se ( l l

i hi i t b h 6
, , .
.
,
’
m a c h n es , 1 88 .
m ac n s s enc , .
 I N DEX 50 1

”
V is e pl a n e r 2 9 6, 2 9 7 Wire l i i it y f 46
re a t v e c o n duc t v o
i l l t i t mi i
.
, ,
.
, ,

a d us 31 2 i d f
'

s w ve tm e n ts re u re or e ec r c ra n s ss o n ,
wi l li
.
, ,

s ve m i n g, 30 8 16
V l t il il p t m i i 42 6
. .
,

o a e o s 56 ro e ra ns ss o n ,
V l t 40 4 i h t m t l g g
. .
,
an mp e a co a re d,
i2 2
o . s ee a es

V or 60 °
t h re a d, 2 1 6
ili b
. .

s co n 46 ro n z e ,
St b Bi m i gh m g g 1 2 1
.

’
u s or r n a a e,
S t ub i
.

’
g g s 122 ro n a e,
t l ph d t l g ph 46
.

e e o ne a n e e ra
W a s hburn th y t m 469
.
,

a nd Moe n Co ’
s ga ge 121 ree , s s e
T t I C g g 1 22
.
, , ,
’
122 re n o n ro n o s a e,

Wa s h r 1 4 5 y t m 4 69
. .

e s tw o, s s e
W a te r a n a lo gi es be t wee n W i i g y t m 468
.
, .
,

flo w of an d r n s s e s
e l ec t i i t y 4 0 4
.
, ,

r c W doo w 1 38
s c re s,
W l f t (d g ) 5 4
. .
,

a n ne a lin 3 65 oo a e ras
W k 3 70
. .
,

c ut , 60 72 or
dj u ti g l t h 2 03
.
, . ,

a s n a e,
m illi g Op ti
.

f or n e ra o ns ,
31 2
b
.

re as t, fo r la n e r, 2 9 7
j b i ill
.

B o de n , 4 0 2 a d us tm e n t 0 in o r n g m 227
i
.
.
,

D o le 39 9 , o f , in ca rr a ge , 2 2 7
i d3 9 9 h k
.

G ra r o f , in c uc 226
f p
.

la te , 2 2 7
.
,

L lf l 40 1 o f , in
’
e e ace
h t 39 6 b h i l yi
. .
,

o v e rs o e nc an d v se , a ng o ut , 1 6 1
P lt 39 9 h ppi p p i
. .
,

e on, c i n g, re a ra t o n fo r , 1 66
R i d 4 02 x pl i i
. .

s on, e am es o f m ll n g, 3 1 4
Sw i f i l h
. .

40 2 a n, o rm ng a t e 3 63
d h t 39 6 l y
a in g o ut c l n dr c a , 1 6 1 yi i l
. .

un e rs o
il
.
, .

W a tt dr l , 1 62
'

3 7 0 , 40 3
kil ii
. .
,

o w a t t , 3 70 re c t l n e a r, 1 6 1
i h l p p i i
. .

W e g t o f m e t a re m o v e d, 4 7 7 re a ra t o n o f , fo r b o r n g,
l illi illi
.

o f m e ta re m o v e d, dr n g, 9 2 o f , fo r dr n g, 2 44
illi i i
. .

m n g, 9 0 , 9 2 o f , fo r gr n d n g, 2 7 0
pl i il i
. .

a n n g, 9 3 o f , fo r m l n g , 30 9
i pl
. .

t urn n g, 9 0 o f, fo r a n in g, 2 9 3
bi i
. .

W es t in gh o us e P a rs o n s t ur n e , 3 83 o f , fo r t u rn o 201
P bi l i b h
. .

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