ABSTRACT

AM generation involves
mixing of a carrier and an
information signal. In low
level modulation, the message
signal and carrier signal are
modulated at low power
levels and then amplified. The
advantage of this technique is
that a small audio amplifier is
sufficient to amplify the
AMPLITUDE MODULATED message signal.
Saif Aldeen Saad Obayes Al-
Kadhim
SIGNALS IEEE Member, Assist. Lecturer
Presidency of the Council of Ministers,
Shiite Endowment Office, Babylon, Iraq
Generation Methods Saifaldeen.Saad@ieee.org

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Abstract
AM generation involves mixing of a carrier and an information signal. In
low level modulation, the message signal and carrier signal are modulated
at low power levels and then amplified. The advantage of this technique is
that a small audio amplifier is sufficient to amplify the message signal.

Introduction
The basic theory and equations behind amplitude modulation are relatively
straightforward and can be handled using straightforward trigonometric
calculations and manipulation. Essentially an amplitude modulated wave
consists of a radio frequency carrier - a sine wave at one frequency,
typically in the radio frequency portion of the spectrum. A modulating
wave, which in theory could be another sine wave, typically at a lower
audio frequency is superimposed upon the carrier. The two signals are
multiplied together and the theory shows how they interact to create the
carrier and two sidebands. The equations for the simple example of a single
tone used for modulation can be expanded to show how the signal will
appear of a typical sound consisting of many frequencies is used to
modulated the carrier.

Figure 1 Amplitude modulation theory & equations

It is possible to look at the theory of the generation of an amplitude

modulated signal in four steps:

1. Carrier signal
2. Modulating signal
3. Overall modulated signal for a single tone
4. Expansion to cover a typical audio signal

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These steps will be covered in greater details below:

1. Carrier signal equations

Looking at the theory, it is possible to describe the carrier in terms of a sine

wave as follows:

C(t) = C sin(ωc + φ)C(t) = C sin(ωc + φ)

Where:

carrier frequency in Hertz is equal to ωc / 2 π.

C is the carrier amplitude φ is the phase of the signal at the start of the
reference time.

Both C and φ can be omitted to simplify the equation by changing C to "1"

and φ to "0".

2. Modulating signal equations

The modulating waveform can either be a single tone. This can be

represented by a cosine waveform, or the modulating waveform could be
a wide variety of frequencies - these can be represented by a series of cosine
waveforms added together in a linear fashion.

For the initial look at how the signal is formed, it is easiest to look at the
equation for a simple single tone waveform and then expand the concept
to cover the more normal case. Take a single tone waveform:

m(t) = M sin(ωm + φ)m(t) = M sin(ωm + φ)

Where:

modulating signal frequency in Hertz is equal to ωm / 2 π

M is the carrier amplitude

φ is the phase of the signal at the start of the reference time

Both C and φ can be omitted to simplify the equation by changing C to "1"

and φ to "0".

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3. Overall modulated signal for a single tone

The equation for the overall modulated signal is obtained by multiplying

the carrier and the modulating signal together.

y(t) = [A + m(t)].c(t)y(t) = [A + m(t)].c(t)

The constant A is required as it represents the amplitude of the waveform.

Substituting in the individual relationships for the carrier and modulating
signal, the overall signal becomes:

y(t) = [A + M cos (ωmt+φ] . sin(ωct)

The trigonometry can then be expanded out to give an equation that

includes the components of the signal:

y(t) = A.sin(ωct)+A M/2[sin((ωc+ωm)t+φ)]+A M/2[sin((ωc−ωm)t−φ)]

In this theory, three terms can be seen which represent the carrier, and
upper and lower sidebands:

Carrier: A . sin (ωc t)

Upper sideband: A . M/2 [ sin ((ωc + ωm) t + φ)
Lower sideband: A . M/2 [ sin ((ωc - ωm) t - φ)

Note also that the sidebands are separated from the carrier by a frequency
equal to that of the tone.

Figure 2 Spectrum (sidebands) arising from carrier modulated by 1 kHz tone

It can be seen that for a case where there is 100% modulation, i.e. M = 1,
and where the carrier is not suppressed, i.e. A = 1, then the sidebands have
half the value of the carrier, i.e. a quarter of the power each.

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4. Expansion to cover a typical audio signal

With the basic concept of modulation and the resultant sidebands established,
the same principles can be applied to the more complicated cases of
modulation using speech, music or other audio sounds. Theory can be used
to break down a sound into a series of sinusoidal signals. These are linearly
added to each other to form the audio spectrum of the modulating signal. The
spectrum of the modulating signal extends out either side from the carrier,
one sideband is the mirror of the other, with the lowest frequencies closest to
the carrier, and highest furthest away.

Figure 3 Sidebands on an amplitude modulated carrier

when modulated

It can be seen that the audio signal covers a band of frequencies either side
of the main carrier. The theory and equations show that furthest extent of
the sidebands from the carrier corresponds to the highest frequency of the
modulating tone for the amplitude modulated signal.

Seeing a little of the theory and mathematics behind amplitude modulation

gives a better understanding of how it works. This can then be applied to
use this type of mode to its best, whether as amplitude modulation, single
sideband, or even giving a better understanding of how QAM operates.
Understanding how the modulating waveform not only generates
undulations of the envelope, but also generates sidebands, etc. enables the
basic concepts behind AM to be understood.

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Generation of Amplitude Modulated Signals

Methods for AM generation:

1. Nonlinear AM modulator: Almost any nonlinearity will work, but

a very inexpensive but strongly nonlinear device is the diode.
Transistors are also nonlinear and work well as modulators (but
more complicated).
a. Diode Operation Applied to AM Modulators &
Demodulators:
i. As nonlinear circuit components (primarily the
“square law” part).

ii. As “on-off” switches (they have to be driven hard to

do this).

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Following is the block diagram of the square law modulator

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and Ac cos(2πfct)
respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder)
block. This summer block produces an output, which is the addition of the
modulating and the carrier signal. Mathematically, we can write it as

V1t=m(t)+Ac cos(2πfct)

The diode is the nonlinear component (it has an exponential

characteristic). Using a Taylor’s series, we can express the diode current
iD as (with only first two terms of the Taylor’s series),

The voltage across resistor R is given by

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 2. Switching AM modulator: Switching is an easily attained function
with diodes and transistors in electronic circuits. Following is the
block diagram of switching modulator.

Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator. The only

difference is that in the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a

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non-linear mode, whereas, in the switching modulator, the diode has to
operate as an ideal switch.

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t) and c(t)=Ac
cos(2πfct) respectively. These two signals are applied as inputs to the
summer (adder) block. Summer block produces an output, which is the
addition of modulating and carrier signals. Mathematically, we can write it
as

V1(t)=m(t)+c(t)=m(t)+Ac cos(2πfct)

This signal V1(t) is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of

the modulating signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of
carrier signal Ac. So, the diode’s ON and OFF action is controlled by carrier
signal c(t). This means, the diode will be forward biased when c(t)>0 and
it will be reverse biased when c(t)<0.

Therefore, the output of the diode is

We can approximate this as

(Equation 2)

Where, x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T=1/fc

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

1 2 2
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = + cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − cos(6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + ⋯.
2 𝜋 3𝜋

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Substitute, V1(t) and x(t) values in Equation 2.

1 2 2
𝑉2 (𝑡) = [𝑚(𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)] [ + cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − cos(6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2 𝜋 3𝜋
+ ⋯..]

𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑐 2𝑚(𝑡) 2𝐴𝑐

𝑉2 (𝑡) = + cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + cos 2 (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2 2 𝜋 𝜋
2𝑚(𝑡) 2𝐴𝑐
− cos(6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) cos(6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + ⋯ ..
3𝜋 3𝜋

𝐴𝑐 4 𝑚(𝑡) 2𝐴𝑐
𝑉2 (𝑡) = (1 + ( )𝑚(𝑡))cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + + cos 2 ⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2 𝜋𝐴𝑐 2 𝜋
2𝑚(𝑡) 2𝐴𝑐
− cos⁡(6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)cos⁡(6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)+. . . ..
3𝜋 3𝜋

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the
remaining terms are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass
filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the remaining terms.

Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

𝐴𝑐 4
𝑠(𝑡) = (1 + ( )𝑚(𝑡))cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
2 𝜋𝐴𝑐

We know the standard equation of AM wave is

𝑠(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡)]cos⁡(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)

Where, 𝑘𝑎 is the amplitude sensitivity. By comparing the output of the

switching modulator with the standard equation of AM wave, we will get
4
the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity 𝑘𝑎 as .
𝜋𝐴𝑐

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By driving a diode with sufficient AC voltage, it acts like a switch:

3. Electronic multipliers (such as Gilbert cells): can be used as

modulators.
a. Switching Amplitude Modulator –Pulse Spectrum Generated

Uses the “Frequency Shifting” Property of the Fourier Transform.

10

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 b. Switching Modulator: Generating m(t) cos (WCt)

p(
t)

m(t)
p(t)

c. Generating m(t).cos(wCt) using Convolution

11

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keywords: {CAD/CAM;computer vision;computerised numerical
control;costing;milling;milling machines;production engineering
computing;profitability;prototypes;mini CNC milling machine;wireless
communication;computer vision component;NC machine tool monitoring;machining
table;electrical industry;medical industry;self-testing procedures;engraving machine;CAD-
CAM systems;wireless controller system prototype;Raspberry Pi technique;Arduino
technique;cost analysis;profit estimation;Control systems;Software;Pins;Wireless
communication;Computer numerical control;Machining;DC motors;Wireless controller
system;Prototype;Raspberry PI;Arduino;Mini CNC machine},
URL: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=8359046&isnumber=835
9024

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