MODULATION

PIII
Modulation
q Modulation is the process of imposing information contained in a lower-frequency
electronic signal unto a higher frequency signal. The higher-frequency esignal is
called the carrier and the lower-frequency signal is called the modulating signal
(Baseband).
q It could be referred to as a process that moves the message signal into a specific
frequency band that is dicted by the physical channel.
q It produces a number of benefits as ealier enumerated
q It could be analog or digital.
q Traditional communication systems such as AM / FM radios and PAL / NTSC
television signals are based on analog modulations while, more recent systems such
as 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G cellulars, HDTV etc. are all digitals.
q Baseband is used to designate frequency band of the original message signal from the
source or the input transducer. In TV the video baseband is the video band
occupying 0 to 3.58Mhz / 4.3MHz for PAL / NTSC. For digital data or pulse code
modulation (PCM) that uses bipolar signaling at rate of Rb pulses per second, the
baseband is approximetely 0 to Rb Hz.
 Modulation
q In baseband communication, message signals are directly transmitted without any
modification and, because they contain significantly low-frequency content, they
cannot be effectively transmitted over radio link. Instead, dedicated user channels
such as twisted pairs of copper wires and coaxial cables are used.
q Communication that uses modulation to shift the frequency spectrum of a signal is
known as carrier communication. In analog modulation, one of the basic parameters
of a sinusoidal carrier of high frequency is veried linearly with the baseband signal.
q Carrier Frequencies and Bandwidths

q Although, the parameters B and fc would seem to be unrelated theoretically,

practical factors cause them to be connected, albeit rather loosely.

q As a rough rule-of-thumb, the fractional bandwidth � � must be bounded by

�

0.01 < � � < 0.1

�

otherwise, there will be signal distortion from the system.

 Modulation

Therefore, large bandwidth requires high carrier frequencies.

See table below for some selected carrier frequencies and nominal bandwidth

Observation shows that � ≈ 0.02��

Modulation
Consider a sinusoidal signal

�(�) = �(�)��� �� � + �(�) (3.1)

Three variables can be identified
1). Amplitude 2) Instantaneous frequency 3) Phase

The message �(�) can be used to modulate any one of these three parameters to
allow �(�) to carry the information from the transmitter to the receiver.
It can result in either:
Amplitude modulation -------- when amplitude varies with �(�)
Frequency modulation --------- when the frequency varies with �(�)
Phase modulation ----------- when the phase varies with �(�)
Amplitude modulation is linear while, the other two are similar and nonlinear, and
are referred to as angle modulation.
 Linear Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)

The unique feature of AM is that the envelope of the modulated carrier has the same
shape as the message waveform.

This is achieved by adding the translated message to thr unmodulated carrier.

��
Consider, an unmodulated carrier of �� ����� � where, �� = 2� and a modulating
signal designated as �(�). The modulated signal becomes

�� (�) = �� ��� �� � + ��(�)�� ����� � = �� 1 + ��(�) ����� � (3.2)

where, � is the modulation index.

�� (�) = �� 1 + ��(�) ����� � is the envelope of the modulated carrier. It is a linear

function of the message hence, the designated as amplitude modulated
Linear Modulation
 Linear Modulation
Amplitude Modulation

The envelope of the modulated carrier has the shape of �(�) provided that:
1) �� ≫ �� 2) �≤1
m � = 1 ⟹ 100% modulation, � > 1 ⟹ overmodulation
Note: for easy signal recovery using simple demodulation scheme, the signal amplitude
has to be small and the DC component of the signal has to be zero, that is,
.1
�(�) < 1, and lim �(�)�� =0
�→∞ � �

In the frequency domain, the spectrum of the AM signal is given by

�� ���
�� (�) = �(� − �� ) + �(� + �� ) + �(� − �� ) + �(� + �� ) (3.3)
2 2

The spectrum consists of the translated message plus a pair of impulses at ± ��

representing the carrier itself.
 Linear Modulation

Figure: Amplitude modulation. (a) Sinusoidal message signal. (b) AM signal.

(c) Message spectrum for an arbitrary x(t). (d) Modulated signal spectrum.
 Linear Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
The modulation index can be defined as
�(�) ��� − �(�) ���
�= (3.4)
�(�) ��� + �(�) ���

Transmit Power
Let the unmodulated carrier be represented as ����2��� � and if we assume a single
audio tone as the modulating signal such that the message signal be represented as
� ���2��� �.
The modulated wave can be represented mathematically as
�� (�) = (� + ����2��� �)(���2��� �)

= � 1 + � � ���2��� � ��� 2��� � ⟹ �� 1 + ��(�) ����� �

if we use the identity ���� ���� = 1 2 ���(� − �) − 1 2 ���(� + �), then

�� ��
�� (�) = ���� 2��� �+ ��� 2�(�� − �� )� − ��� 2�(�� − �� )� (3.5)
2 2
 Linear Modulation
Since power is proportional to the square of voltage / amplitude, then
�� 2 �� 2
�� = + + �2
2 2

� 2 �2 � 2 �2 2 �2 �� �2 ��
= + +� = + + ��
4 4 4 4

where, �� is the power content of the carrier and, it is independent of the modulation
index in the AM transmission.
�2 �� � 2
�� = + �� = �� 1 + 2 (3.6)
2

Under optimum condition (� = 1), only one-third of the power transmitted is located in
the sidebands. Two-third of the power is located at the carrier frequency.
Note:

q No information is contained at the carrier frequency

q All information is contained within the upper and lower sidebands

q The two sidebands contain identical information

q The simplicity of the AM depends on the power in the carrier (detail later) hence, the
carrier is not altogether a waste.
 Linear Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
In order to make the better use of the available power being transmitted, other more
efficient schemes such as DSB-SC, SSB and VSB were introduced. In each of this
schemes, power is put where the information is.

The AM Transmitter

q It is necessary to have a nonlinear device in the system in order for modulation to

occur, that is to create the sum and differencies necessary for sidebands to appear.

q The carrier wave is generated by a

crstal-controlled oscillator to
ensure stability of the carrier
frequency.

Figure 3.3: AM transmitter

q The nonlinear device in which modulation occurs is the modulator

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

1) Product Modulator
Product modulator for AM based on the AM equation
�� (�) = �� ��� �� � + ��(�)�� ����� �

Figure 3.4: AM Product modulator

2) Square-law Modulator
q Signal multiplication can be accomplished by Square-law or Power-law modulator.
q The circuit realization uses a field-effect transistor as the nonlinear element and a
parallel RLC circuit as the filter.
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Square-law Modulator

It is assume that the nonlinear element approximates

the square-law transfer curve as

���� = �1 ��� + �2 �2�� (3.7)

Therefore, with
��� = �(�) + ��� �� � (3.8) Figure 3.5a: Square-law modulator

���� = �1 �(�) + �2 �2 (�) + �2 ���2 �� �

2�2
+ �1 1 + �(�) ��� �� � (3.9)
�1

Figure 3.5b: FET circuit realization

2�2
The last term is the derived AM wave; with �� = �1 and � = �1
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Square-law Modulator

The spectrum of the square-law AM modulated wave can be illustrated as shown

2�2
���� (�) = �1 �(�) + �2 �2 (�) + �2 ���2 �� � + �1 1 + �(�) ��� �� �
�1

and �(�) = �1 �(�) + �2 �(�) ∗ �(�) + �2 �(� − 2�� ) +�(� − �� ) (3.10)

Figure 3.6: Spectral component

2�2
q In order to separate the last part of the expression in () i.e., �1 1 + �(�) ��� �� �
�1

it is important that �� > 3�.

q The required separation can be accomplished by a bandpass filter of bandwidth
�� = 2�, centerd at ��
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Note: Due to the heavy filtering required in square-law modulation, it is used primarily
for low-level modulation, i.e., at power level lower than the transmitted value. Linear
amplification is neccessary to bring ther power up to the transmitted power �� .
3) Switching Modulator
This eliminate the undesired modulation product and need not be filtered out.
Switching modulator is usually accomplished with the aid of a switching device.
Typically a transistor serves as a switch driven at the carrier frequency, closing briefly
every 1 � seconds. The RLC load called a tank circuit is tuned to resonate at �� .
�

The steady state load voltage in absence of

modulation is �(�) = � ��� �� �. Adding the
message to the supply voltage via
transformer, gives
Figure 3.7: Supply voltage-modulated class C amplifier
�(�) = � + ��(�) ��� �� � where, N is the transformer turns ratio.
If V and N are correctly proportioned, the desired modulation can be achieved without
appreciable generation of undesired components
Double Sidebands Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)
Remember: carrier-frequency component of AM is independent of the message and
represents “wasted” power. It can as well be eliminated from the modulated wave. This
results in Double Sidebands Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) or simply Double Sidebands (DSB).
Consider a message signal �(�) and a carrier waveform �� ��� �� �, the DSB-SC is
obtained as:
�� (�) = �� �(�)��� �� � (3.11)
= �(�)��� �� � , �� = 2���
This is equivalent to setting � = 1 and suppressing the unmodulated carrier frequency
component in AM.
The average transmit power of the modulated DSB signal can be evaluated as
�
1
�� = lim −�2 �2� �2 (�)���2 �� � ��
�→∞ � 2

using the trigonometric identity ���2 � = 1 2 + 1 2 ��� 2�

1 � �
�� = lim 2 1 2 2
+ 2 1 2 2
�→∞ � −� 2 2 �� � (�)�� −� 2 2 �� � (�)��� 2�� � ��
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
but,
�
2 1 2 2
�
− 2 2 � � (�)��� 2�� � �� = 0
�

Therefore,
�
�� = lim −�2 1
1 2 2
2 � � (�) ��
� (3.12)
�→∞ � 2

The spectrum of the DSB can be evaluated as

��
�� (�) = 2 �(� − �� ) + �(� + �� ) (3.13)
and can be illustrated simply as

The transmit power can be evaluated as

�2� �2 �2� �2 �2� �2
�� = 4+ 4= 2 = 2��� (3.14)
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

Figure 3.8: DSB waveform Figure 3.9: Line spectra for tone modulation: a)
Note: DSB, b) AM

q The transmission bandwidth remains �� = 2� as in AM

q The carrier component is missing from the spetrum

q The DSB envelop is not the same shape as the message. Hence full recovery of
message entails an awareness of the possible phase reversal. A simple envelope
detector that works for AM would not be sufficient in this case.- This consideration
suggests that there is a tradeoff between power efficiency and demodulation
simplicity.
 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

Balanced Modulator
DSB modulator differs from AM modulators only by the suppression of the carrirer
component. The square-law modulator previosly discussed under AM will generate
DSB if the nonlinear element is a perfect square law device such that ���� = ��2�� .
Unfortunately, perfect square-law devices are rare. In practice, DSB is obtained using
two AM modulators arranged in a balanced configuration to cancel out the carrier.
Assuming the AM modulators are
identical except for the reversed sign of
one input. the outputs are
1
�� 1 + 2 �(�) ��� �� � and,
1
�� 1 − 2 �(�) ��� �� �.

Substracting one from the other yields

�� (�) = �(�)�� ��� �� �
as required. Figure 3.10: Balanced modulator
Suppressed - Sideband Modulation: SSB and VSB

q Conventional AM is wasteful of both transmitted power and transmitted bandwidth

q Suppressing the carrier overcomes the former shortcoming
q Suppressing one sideband in whole or part reduces the latter and leads to single-
sideband modulation (SSB) or vestigial-sideband modulation (VSB)

Single-sideband (SSB)
qUpper and lower sidesides of AM and DSB are related by symmetry about the carrier
frequency
q Transmission bandwidth can be cut in half if
one sideband is suppressed along with the carrier.
qTotal elimination of carrier and one sideband
from the AM spectrum produces SSB for which
it is obvious that �� = �, and �� = ��� = 1 4 �2 �2�

qThe sideband filter is a bandpass circuit passing the

upper sideband or lower sideband Figure 3.11: SSB modulator

qFor a case of tone modulation (considered for simplicity)

�� (�) = 1 2 �� �� ��� (�� ± �� )� (3.15)

Suppressed - Sideband Modulation: SSB and VSB

Single-sideband (SSB)
Challenges: The requirement of sharp cutoff characteristic of the sideband filter cannot
be synthesized exactly. As a result, one must either attenuate a portion of the desired
sideband or pass a portion of the undesired sideband. Doing these however results in
vestigial sideband.

Vestigial-sideband Modulation (VSB)

Consider a modulating signal of very large bandwidth and having a significant low-
frequency content. Examples are television video and high-speed data signals.
q Bandwidth conservation favours the use of SSB but, practical SSB systems have poor
low-frequency response.
q DSB works quite well for low-message frequencies but the transmission bandwidth
is twice that of SSB.
VSB is a compromise derived by filtering DSB (or AM) in such a fashion that one
sideband is passed almost completely while just a trace or vestige of the other sideband
is included.
Frequency Conversion, Detection and Receivers

Frequency Conversion
q Linear modulation is primarily direct frequency translation of message spectrum.

q Demodulation, or detection is the process by which the message is recovered from

the modulated wave at the receiver. Therefore, for linear modulation, the detection
process is basically one of downward frequency translation.

q when the spectra are shifted down in frequency by �� units, the original message
spectrum is reproduced, plus a possible DC component corresponding to the
translated carrier.

q Frquency translation or conversion is also used to shift a modulated signal to a new

carrier frequency (up or down) for amplification or other processing.
q Conversion is achived analytically by multiplication by a siunsoid.

q With appropriate filtering, the signal is up-converted or down-converted. Devices

that carry out this operation are called frequency converters or mixers. The operation
itself is termed heterodyne or mixing.
Frequency Conversion, Detection and Receivers

Frequency Conversion

Figure 3.12: Frequency conversion

Figure 3.13: Satellite transponder with frequency conversion

6 GHz and 4 GHz are used on the uplink and downlink to prevent self-oscillation due to
positive feedback from the transmitting side to the receiving side.
 Frequency Conversion, Detection and Receivers

Demodulation / Detection
1) Synchronous detection
2) Envelope detection

Synchronous Detection
q Linear modulation can be generally detected by th product demodulator or detector
as shown

Fig. 3.14: Synchronous detector

q The incoming (modulated) signal is first multiplied with a locally generated sinusoid
and then lowpass-filtered
q The bandwidth of the filter being the same as the message bandwidth or somewhat
larger.
q The local oscillator must however be exactly synchronized with the carrier, in both
phase and frequency, hence the name synchronous detection.
Demodulation / Detection
Consider a generalized modulated signal of the form
�� (�) = �� + �� �(�) ��� �� � − �� �(�) ��� �� � (3.16)
which can represent any type of linear modulation.
�� = 0 for suppressed carrier �(�) = 0 for double sideband
Let the local oscillator wave be ���(�� � + �’� � + �’) where, �’� and �’ represent slowly
drifting frequency and phase errors compared to the carrier.
The output of the multiplier becomes
�� (�)��� ���(�� � + �’� � + �’)

= ��� �� + �� �(�) ��� �� � − �� �(�) ��� �� � ���(�� � + �’� � + �’) (3.17)

Therefore, for double sideband (DSB)
�� (�)��� ���(�� � + �’� � + �’) = ��� �� + �� �(�) ��� �� � ���(�� � + �’� � + �’) (3.18)
Using the trigonometry identity
1
��� � ��� � = ��� (� + �) + ��� (� − �)
2
1
��� � ��� � = ��� (� + �) + ��� (� − �)
2
 Demodulation/ Detection
�� (�)��� ���(�� � + �’� � + �’)
���
= 2 �� + �� �(�) ��� (2�� � + �’� t + ϕ’) + cos (�’� t + ϕ’) (3.19)

This becomes
1
for ϕ’ = 0, Eqn. (3.19) = �� �� + �� �(�) ��� (2�� + �’� )t + cos (�’� )t , (3.20)
2

for w’c = 0, Eqn. (3.19) = �� �� + �� �(�) ��� (2�� � + ϕ’) + cos (ϕ’) (3.21)
= �� �� + �� �(�) ��� �’ (LPF output)
for ϕ’ = 0, and �’� = 0, the expression in (3.19) can be evaluated as
�� �� + �� �(�) + �� �� + �� �(�) ��� 2�� � (3.22)
since cos 0 = 1.

Therefore, since �� > �, the component of the carrier frequency are rejected by the LPF
leaving only the term �� �� + �� �(�) The DC component corresponds to the
translated carrier if not suppressed in the modulated wave. This can be removed from
the output by using a blocking capacitor.
Demodulation / Detection
�� (�)��� ���(�’� � + �’)

�� �� + �� �(�) ��� (2�� + �’� )t + cos (�’� )t , ϕ’ = 0

= �� �� + �� �(�) ��� (2�� � + ϕ’) + cos (ϕ’) , �’� = 0 (3.23)
�� �� + �� �(�) + �� �� + �� �(�) ��� 2�� �, ϕ’ = 0, �’� = 0

The output of the LPF becomes:

�� �� + �� �(�) cos �’� t , ϕ’ = 0

�� (�)��� ���(�’� � + �’) = �� �� + �� �(�) ��� ϕ’ , �’� = 0 (3.24)
�� �� + �� �(�) ϕ’ = 0, �’� = 0

Effect of frequency drift: i.e., �’� ≠ 0 would have a significant effect on the detected
message especially if the drift is not small compared to the message signal. The effect is
especially more severe in DSB. Several sideband frequencies would be produced. If the
frequency drift �’ ≪ �� , the recovered audio would sounds warbling.
Demodulation / Detection
Effect of Phase error:

When �’ =± 90° the detected signal vanishes entirely (��� �’ = 0 in Eqn. (3.21)). With
slowly varying �’, we get an apparent fading effect.

Exercise: Analyse the effects of the frequency drift and Phase error on single sideband
modulation scheme.

To mitigate the problem of frequency drift and phase error in synchronous detection:

q Suppressed-carrier systems may have a small amount of carrier reinserted into the
modulated wave at the transmitter. This pilot carrier is picked off at the receiver by
narrow bandpass filter, amplified, and used in place of an LO.
q The use of phase-lock loops or highly stable, crystal-controlled oscillator at
transmitter and receiver.
Demodulation / Detection
Envelope Detection

The advantage of AM over DSB is that a very simple scheme known as envelope
detector can be used for its detection if sufficient carrier power is transmitted. If �� is
large enough so that � < 1, the envelope of the modulated wave given by �� + �(�) will
be proportional to �(�). Demodulation therefore simply reduces to detection of the
envelope with no dependence on frequency or phase of the carrier.

Although synchronous detection works for AM but the envelope provides the easier
route.

Remember, the envelope of an AM wave has the same shape as the message, hence,
demodulation can be accomplished by extracting the envelope with no worries about
synchronization.
Demodulation / Detection
Figure (3.15) shows a simplified envelope detector.

Fig. 3.15: Envelope detection. (a) Circuit; (b) waveforms

The voltage � would be just the half-rectified version of the input ��� .
�1 �1 acts as a lowpass filter, responding only to variations in the peaks of ��� provided

� ≪ 1 � � ≪ �� (3.25)
1 1
 Demodulation / Detection

�2 �2 acts as a DC block to remove the bias of the unmodulated carrier component. Since
the DC block distorts low-frequency message components (It also blocks the DC
components in the message), conventional detectors are inadequate for signals with
important low-frequency content.

Although it has a nonlinear element, the circuit in Fig. 3.15 is termed a linear envelope
detector because the output is linearly proportional to the input envelope

Exercise:

Verify the linearity or otherwise of the DSB-SC wave.

AM Receiver
The simplest AM receiver consists of a tandem arrangement of a selector-RF amplifier
combination, a demodulator, an audio amplifier, and a speaker as shown in Fig. 3.16.
The simple reciver is called a tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver.

Selector
Demodulator Audio amplifier Speaker
and
RF amplifier

Fig.3.16 Tuned Radio-Frequency (TRF)

IF amplifier Audio Speaker

Preselector Converter Detector
and amplifier
(mixer)
selector

Local
Oscillator Fig.3.17 Superheterodyne Receiver
 AM Receiver
q The TRF receiver has been replaced for the most part by the superheterodyne receiver
as shown in Fig. 3.17.
q The main difficulty with the TRF receiver is the varying passband encountered as the
receiver is tuned from the low end of the frequency band to be received to the high
end of the frequency band to be received.
q In the superheterodyne receiver, most of the high-frequency amplification takes
place in the intermediate-frequency IF section, the passband and center frequency of
which stay the same as the receiver is tuned all rhe way from the lowest portion of
the band to be received up to the upper end of the band to be received.
q To achieve this in the superheterodyne, the incoming signal is mixed or heterodyne
with a signal generated by the local oscillator.
q The local oscillator is tuned simultaneously with the RF selector in such a way that
the difference in frequency between the carrier of the station tuned to and the
frequency of the local oscillator remains the same. This difference frequency is the
intermeadiate frequency, IF, of the receiver.
q The most common intermediate frequency used with commrcial AM broadcast
receiver is 455kHz.
üModulated spectrum is basically the translated message spectrum
üTransmission bandwidth never exceeds twice the message bandwidth
üThe received S/N is no better than baseband transmission and can be improved
only by increasing the transmitted power.

The modulated spectrum is not related in a simple fashion to the message spectrum

The transmission bandwidth is usually much greater than twice the

message bandwidth
Compensating for the bandwidth liability is the fact that exponential
modulation can provide increased S/N without increased transmitted
power.

ANGLE MODULATION
ANGLE MODULATION
 Angle Modulation
Fundamental Concept
Consider a modulated carrier represented by
�� (�) = � ��� (�� � + �(�)) (4.1)
where � and �� are constants and the phase angle �(�) is a function of the message
signal �(�).
If we write (4.1) as �� (�) = � ��� �(�) (4.2)
where �(�) = �� � + �(�) (4.3)
then we can define the instantaneous radian frequency of �� (�) denoted by �� as
��(�) ��(�)
�� = = �� + (4.4)
�� ��

when �(�) = constant, then �� = ��

��(�)
The function �(�) and are known as the intantaneous phase deviation and
��
instantaneous frequency deviation of �� (�).
The quantity �� = �� − �� ��� (4.5)
is called the maximum (or peak) radian frequency deviation of the angle-modulation
signal
 Phase and Frequency Modulation
The two basic types of angle modulation
1. Phase Modulation (PM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation: The instantaneous phase deviation of the carrier is proportional to the
message signal, that is;
ϕ(t) = �� �(�) (4.6)

where, �� is the phase deviation constant, expressed in radians per unit of �(�)

Frequency Modulation: The instantaneous frequency deviation of the carrier is

proportional to the message signal, that is;
��(�)
= �� �(�) (4.7)
��
�
or �(�) = �� �0
�(�)�� + �(�0 ) (4.8)

where, �� is the frequency deviation constant, expressed in radians per second per unit
of �(�), and �(�0 ) is the initial phase angle at � = �0 . It is usually assumed that �0 =− ∞
and �(−∞) = 0.
Phase and Frequency Modulation
Hence, we can express the angle-modulated signal as

��� (�) = � ��� �� � + �� �(�) (4.9)

�
��� (�) = � ��� �� � + �� −∞
�(�)�� (4.10)

From the definition in (4.4), we’ve

��(�)
�� = �� + �� for PM (4.11)
��

�� = �� + �� �(�) for FM (4.12)

Hence,
in PM, the instantaneous
frequency �� varies linearly with
the derivative of the modulating -
signal
while, in FM, �� varies linearly
with the modulating signal.
 Phase and Frequency Modulation
Fourier Spectra of Angle Modulated Signals
An angle-modulated carrier can be reprsented in exponential form by writing
�� (�) = � ��� (�� � + �(�)) in (4.1)

as �� (�) = ℜ ���(���+�(�)) = �� ������ ���(�) (4.13)

where ‘Re’ means the ‘real part of’

Due to the representation in (4.13), the angle modulation is also referred to as the
exponential modulation.

Expanding ���(�) in (4.13) in power series gives

��� � �2 (�) �
� � (�)
�� (�) = �� �� 1 + ��(�) − − ... + �
2! �!

�2 (�)
= � (��� �� � + ���� �� �) + �(��� �� � + ���� �� �)�(�) − (��� �� � + ���� �� �) +
2!
�3 (�)
� (��� �� � + ���� �� �)
3!

�2 (�) �3 (�)
= � ��� �� � − �(�)��� �� � − ��� �� � + � ��� �� � + . . . (4.14)
2! 3!
Phase and Frequency Modulation

Thus, the angle-modulated signal consists of an unmodulated carrier plus various

amplitude modulated terms, such as

�(�)��� �� �, �2 (�)��� �� �, �3 (�)��� �� �, and so on.

Its Fourier spectrum consists of unmodulated carrier plus spectra of �(�)�, �2 (�),
�3 (�), ... centred at ��

The Fourier spectrum of an angle-modulated signal is not related to the message signal
spectrum in any simple way as was the linear modulation.

Narrowband Angle modulation

if �(�) ��� ≪1 (4.15)
then (4.14) can be approximated by (neglecting all higher-power terms of �(�) )
�� (�) ≈ � ��� �� � − � �(�) ��� �� � (4.16)
The signal represented by (4.16) is called the narrowband (NB) angle-modulated signal.
Phase and Frequency Modulation

����� (�) ≈ ���� �� � − ��� �(�)��� �� � (4.17)

�
����� (�) ≈ � ��� �� � − � �� −∞
�(�)�� ��� �� � (4.18)

Equation (4.16) indicates that a narrowband angle-modulated signal contains an

unmodulated carrier plus a term in which �(�) (a function of m(t)) multiplies a � 2
(rad) phase-shifted carrier. This multiplication generates a pair of sidebands, and if
�(�) has a bandwidth �� , the bandwidth of an NB angle-modulated signal is 2��

Sinusoidal (or Tone) Modulation

Modulation Index
If the message signal m(t) is a pure sinusoid, that is
�� ��� �� � ��� ��
�(t) = (4.19)
�� ��� �� � ��� ��
then from (4.6) �(�) = �� �(�) ⟹ �� �� ��� �� �
�� �� ����� �
and from (4.8) �(�) = �� �(�) ⟹
��
Phase and Frequency Modulation

�� �� ��� ��
where, � = � � �� (4.21)
��� ��
��

The parameter � is known as the modulation index for angle modulation and is the
maximum value of phase deviation for both PM and FM.

Note: � is defined only for sinusoidal modulation and it can be expressed as

∆�
�= (4.22)
��

��(�)
Remember, ∆� = (�� − �� ) = �� for PM from (4.11) and, ∆� = (�� − �� ) =
��
�� �(�) for FM from (4.12)
 Phase and Frequency Modulation
Fourier Spectrum
If we substitute (4.20) i.e., �(�) = ���� �� �

into (4.1) i.e., �� (�) = ���� �� � + �(�) ,

we can obtain
�� (�) = ���� �� � + ���� �� � (4.23)
which is the angle-modulated signal with sinusoidal modulation.
It can be shown (though not here) by the use of the Fourier series that this signal can
also be written as
∞
�� (�) = � � (�)���(��
�=−∞ �
+ ��� )� (4.24)

where, �� (�) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order � and argument �.
Table 1: Tableof Bessel Function
 Phase and Frequency Modulation
From Equation (4.24) and the Table of the Bessel function, we can observe that
1) The spectrum consists of a carrier-frequency component plus an infinite number of
sideband components at frequencies �� ± ��� (� = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
2) The spectrum amplitude of the spectral lines depends on the value of �� (�) and the
value of �� (�) becomes very small for large value of �.
3) The number of significant spectral lines (that is having appreciable relative
amplitude) is a function of the modulation index �. With � ≪ 1, only �0 and �1 are
significant, so two sideband lines. But if � ≫ 1, there will be many sideband lines.

Figure 4.1: Amplitude spectral of angle-modulated signals for different �

 Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Signals
Sinusoidal Modulation
From Fig. (4.1) and the Table 1, we can see that the bandwidth of the angle-modulated
signal with sinusoidal modulation depends on � and �� .
�� ≈ 2(� + 1)�� (4.25)
when � ≪ 1, the signal is an NB angle-modulated signal and its bandwidth is
approximately equal to 2�� . Usually2, a value of � < 0.2 is considered to be sufficient
to satisfy this condition.

Arbitrary Modulation
For an arbitrary modulating signal �(�) band-limited to �� rad/s, we define the
deviation ratio D as
������� ����. ��������� ∆�
�= = (4.26)
��������ℎ �� �(�) ��

The deviation ratio D plays the same role for arbitrary modulation as the modulation
index � play for sinusoidal modulation.
Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Signals

Arbitrary Modulation
By replacing � by D and �� by �� in Equation (4.25), we can have
�� ≈ 2(� + 1)�� (4.27)

The expression for bandwidth is generally referred to as Carson’s rule

Analogous to the sisusoidal modulation,

� ≪ 1, �� ≈ �� : Narrowband Angle Modulatio (NB)

∆�
� ≫ 1, �� ≈ 2��� = 2. . �� = 2∆� : Wideband Angle Modulation (WB)
��
Bandwidth of Angle-Modulated Signals
Examples

1. An angle-modulated signal is described by

�� (�) = 10 ��� 2�106 � + 0.1 ��� 103 ��

a) Considering �� (�) as a PM signal with �� = 10, find �(�)

b) Considering �� (�) as FM signal with �� = 10�, find �(�)

3. A 20MHz carrier is frequency-modulated by a sinusoidal signal such that the maximum

frequency deviation is 100 kHz. Determine the modulation index and the approximate bandwidth
of the FM signal if the frequency of the modulating signal is

(a) 1 kHz (b) 100 kHz (c) 500 kHz

4. Consider angle-modulated signal

�� (�) = 10 ��� (�� � + 3 ��� �� �)

Assume PM and �� = 1 ���. Calculate the modulation index and find the bandwidth when (a) ��
is doubled, and (b) �� is decreased by one-half.
Generation of Angle Modulated Signals
A. Narrowband Angle-Modulated Signals

The generation of narrowband angle-modulated signals is easily carried out using

Eqn., (4.16) or (4.17) and (4.18) as shown in Figure xxx

Figure 4.2: Generation of narrowband

angle-modulated signal
Generation of Angle Modulated Signals
B. Wideband Angle-Modulated Signals
There are two methods of generating WB angle-modulated signals:
(i) the direct method and
(ii) the indirect method

Here, an NB angle-modulated signal is produced first as in Figure xxx and then

converted to a WB angle-modulated signal using frequency multiplier, Figure xxx
The frequency multiplier multiplies the argument of the input sinusoid by �.
Let the input of a frequency multiplier be
�(t) = Acos (�� t + ϕ(t)) (4.28)
then the output of the frequency multiplier becomes
y(t) = Acos (n�� t + nϕ(t)) (4.29)
 Generation of Angle Modulated Signals

Fig. 4.3 Frequency multiplier

Fig. 4.4: NB-to-WB Conversion

Note: The use of frequency multiplication narmally increases the carrier frequency to an
impractically high value. To avoid this, a frequency conversion (using a mixer or DSB
modulator) is neccessary as shown in Fig xxx to shift the spectrum.
Generation of Angle Modulated Signals

In this case, the modulating signal directly controls the carrier frequency. A common
method used in generating FM directly is to vary the inductance or capacitance of a
tuned electric oscillator. Any oscillator whose frequency is contrlled by the modulating
signal voltage is called a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).

Main advantage: Large frequency deviation are possible, and thus less frequency
multiplication is required.
Major disadvantage : Carrier frequency tends to drift, and so additional circuitry is
required for frequency stabilization.

Exercise

Can you design a simple FM transmitter based on the direct method described above
 Demodulation of Angle-Modulated Signals
Demodulation ofan FM signal requires a system that produces an output proportional
to the instantaneous frequency deviation of the input signal. Such a system is called a
frequency discriminator. If the input to an ideal discriminator is an angle-modulated
signal
�� (�) = � ��� �� � + �(�)
then the ouput of the discriminator is
��(�)
�� (�) = �� (4.30)
��
where, �� is the disciminator sensitivity
For FM, �(�) is given by Eqn (4.8), i.e.,
�
�(�) = �� �(�) ��
−∞

so that (4.30) becomes

�� (�) = �� �� �(�) (4.31)
Demodulation of Angle-Modulated Signals

The frequency discriminator also can be used to demokdulate PM signal, where �(�) =
�� �(�).
��(�)
such that �� (�) = �� �� 4.32
��

Integration of the discriminator output yields a signal that is proportional to �(�). A

demodulator for PM can therefore be implemented as an FM demodulator followed by
an integrator.

A simple approximation to an ideal discriminator is an ideal diffrentiator followed by

an envelope detector (Figure 4.4).
Let, the input to the differentiator be represented by
�� (�) = � ��� �� � + �(�)

then the output of the differentiator becomes

��(�)
�’� (�) =− � �� + ��
��� (�� � + �(�)) 4.33
 Demodulation of Angle-Modulated Signals

Fig. 4.5: Frequency discriminator

The signal �’� (�) is both amplitude and angle-modulated.

The envelope of �’� (�) is

��(�)
� �� + ��
Therefore, the ouput of the envelope detector is by Eqn. (4.4)
�� (�) = �� (4.34)
which is the instantaneous frequency of the �� (�)
Note

We have seen that an FM spectrum has infinite extent. As a result, the generation and
transmission of pure FM requires systems of infinite bandwidth whether or not the
message is bandlimited. However, practical FM systems having finite bandwidth do
exist and perform quite well. Their success depends upon the fact that, sufficiently far
away from the carrier frequency, the spectral components are quite small and may be
discarded. True, omitting any portion of the spectrum will cause distortion in the
demodulated signal; but the distortion can be minimized by keeping all significant
spectral components.

Therefore, determination of FM transmission bandwidth narrows down to the question;

How much of the modulated signal spectrum is significant?

The rule-of-thumb criteria based on studies has lead to useful approximation as

represented in Eqns. (4.25) and (4.27) in conjuction with the significance of � or � for
tone modulation and arbritary modulation respectively.
 FM Transmitter and Receiver
FM receiver is similar in many ways to the AM receiver. Both are usually superheterodyne
receivers.
The commercial FM broadcat receiver usually has an intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz
(AM has IF of 455 kHz).
Exciter
(means of
providing Power
RF oscillator amplifier
FM RF
signal)

speaker Audio Pre-emphasis

amplifier Fig. 4.6 : FM Transmitter
circuit

RF amplifier De-emphasis Audio

& Mixer IF amplifier Limiter Detector
circuit amplifier
pre-selector

Local
oscillator Fig. 4.7 : FM Receiver speaker
 FM Transmitter and Receiver
Major difference includes the addition of a limiter circuit, and a de-emphasis circuit in the
FM reciver and, and a pre-emphasis circuit in the FM transmitter.
: The purpose of the limiter circuit is to clip all amplitude variation which
may exist in the signal. This clipping removes any AM noise which may have become
part of the signal but, does not affect the information content which is embedded in the
frequency variation
circuit located in the transmitter causes the higher frequency
information content of the audio signal at the transmitter to be amplified more than the
lower frequency information.
circuit compensate for this by reducing the gain of the higher
frequency audio signal.
The reason for these two circuit in the chain is to reduce frequency modulated noise
which enters the transmitted signal while en route from the transmitter to the receiver as
well as any such frequency modulated noise which may enter at the front end of the
receiver.
Studies showed that frequency modulated noise occurs with greater likelihood and
disturbance in the higher audio frequencies. Hence, the pre-emphasis, de-emphasis
system functions to reduce the frequency modulated noise.
 FM Transmitter and Receiver

Note:

q The FM modulated transmitted are prone to both AM noise and FM noise.

q Most noise appear as an additional AM on the signal. Therfore, upon being

received,
q Variations in amplitude are eliminated prior to demodulation by the limiter circuit
without affecting the information content contained in the frequency variations.
q For the FM noise, the pre-emphasis, de-emphasis network at the transmitter - receiver
system reduces the effect of the FM noise.
Center Frequency & Bandwidth Allocations
The frequency deviation �� is the maximum change in frequency (in Hz) the modulated
wave undergoes.
q The total variation in frequency, from the lowest to the highest, is referred to as the
carrier swing.

q Thus, for a modulating signal which has equal positive and negative peaks, such as a
pure sine wave, the carrier swing is equal to two times the frequency deviation.

Carrier swing = 2 × frequency deviation

q The spectrum regulatory commission requires that frequency modulation be used as

the modulation technique for the frequencies between 88 MHz and 108 MHz. This is
known as the commercial FM broadcast band.
q Frequency modulation is also mandated as the required modulation technique for
the audio portion of the television broadcast band.
q A maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz is set for FM broadcast stations in the 88 -
108 MHz band.
Center Frequency & Bandwidth Allocations

q Each commercial FM broadcast station in the 88 - 108 MHz band is allocated a 150
kHz channel plus a 25 kHz guard band at both the upper and the lower edges of the
station allocation by the reguratory both.
q A total channel width of 200 kHz is provided to each station in the commercial FM
broadcast band i.e., 150 kHz + 2(25 kHz) = 200 kHz.
q In addition, only alternate channels are assigned within any particular geographic
area.
q In VHF band, of which the commercial FM broadcast band is a part, reception is
limited to distances only slightly farther than the horizon. Thus, assigning only
alternate channel in any given geographic area limits the possibility of interference.
Therefore, the deviation ratio � for stations in the commercial FM broadcast band is
∆���� 75 ���
Deviation ratio, 88-108 MHz = = = 5 ⟹ �� ≈ 2∆���� = 150 kHz
��, ��� 15 ���

and for the sound portion of commercial tevision

∆���� 25 ���
Deviation ratio, TV = = = 1.67 ⟹ �� ≈ 2∆���� = 50 kHz
��, ��� 15 ���

∆�������
We can also expressed modulation index (or deviation ratio) as D =
∆����
Practice Questions:
1. A 107.6 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a 7 kHz sine wave. The
resultant FM signal has a frequency deviation of 50 kHz.
a) Find the carrier swing of the FM signal Ans = 100 kHz
b) Determine the highest and lowest frequencies attained by the modulated
signal Ans = 107.65 MHz, 107.55 MHz
c) What is the modulation index of the FM wave? Ans = 7.143

2. Determine the frequency deviation and carrier swing for a frequency-

modulated signal which has a resting frequency of 105.000 MHz and whose
upper frequency is 105.007 MHz when modulated by a particular wave.
Find the lowest frequency reached by the FM wave? Ans = 7 kHz, 14 kHz,
104.993 MHz
3. A frequency-modulated signal which is modulated by a 3 kHz sine wave
reaches a maximum frequency of 100.02 MHz and minimum frequency of
99.98 MHz.
a) Determine the carrier swing Ans = 40 kHz
b) Find the carrier frequency Ans = 100.00 MHz
Practice Questions:

c) Calculate the frequency deviation of the signal Ans = 20 kHz

d) What is the modulation index of the signal? Ans = 6.667

4. What is the frequency deviation and carrier swing necessary to provide

75% modulation in the FM broadcast band? Ans = 56.25 kHz, 112.5 kHz
Repeat for an FM signal serving as the audio portion of a TV broadcast
Ans = 18.75 kHz, 37.5 kHz
5. Find the normalized average power in an angle-modulated signal with
sinusoidal modulation.
Ans = 1 2 �2

6. If a 6 MHz ban were being considered for use with the same standards
that apply to the 88-108 MHz, how may FM stations could be
accommodated within a geographical area? Ans = 15 stations