CHAPTER 2

The Basic Chemistry

Matter:
anything that occupies space and has mass (solid, liquid, or gas)
Mass:
amount of matter in an object
Weight:
gravitational force acting on object
Element:
• simplestformofmatter
• Example: C, H, O, N, Ca, K,
Na, Cl
Atom:
• smallest particle of an element
• contains protons,electrons, and neutrons

Subatomic Particles
Proton:
• positive charged particle located inside the nucleus
Neutron:
• neutral charged particle located inside the nucleus
Electron:
• negative charged particle located outside the nucleus

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Atomic number:
• the number of protons in each atom
Mass number:
• the number of protons and neutrons in each atom
• No. of protons + no. of neutron = mass number

Chemical Bonds
occur when outermost electrons (valence shell electrons) are transferred or shared between atoms

Types of chemical bonds

• Ionic
• Covalent
• Hydrogen

IONIC BONDING
Ion:
• a charged atom formed because of a donation or gain of an electron(s)
• Example:Na+
Donates an electron in order to achieve octet configuration

Ionic bonding
• occurs when there is an attraction between two oppositely charged ions
• Example:NaCl

Note: the charge of an element is based on the number of protons and electron present in an atom

Covalent Bonding
• occurs when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
• Example: hydrogen molecule

Polar covalent
• bonds form when there is an unequal sharing of electrons
• Polar molecules have an asymmetrical electrical charge
• Polar covalent bonded molecules, like water, have a positive end and a negative end
• Example: water (H2O)

Nonpolar molecules
• have a symmetrical electrical charge

Hydrogen Bonding
 • Polar molecules, like water, have a positive end and a negative end
A hydrogen bond forms when the positive end of one polar molecule is weakly attracted to the negative
end of another polar molecule

The hydrogen bond is a weaker bond than the ionic or covalent bonds

Molecules and Compounds

Molecule:
• 2 or more atoms chemically combine
• Example:water(H2O),H2,O2
Compound:
• chemical combination of 2 or more different types of atoms
• Example:NaCl

Chemical Reactions
• occur when there is a formation or breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, ions, molecules, or
compounds.
Reactants: substances that enter into the reaction
Products: substances that result from the reaction

Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis reaction:
• build a new molecule
• energy-requiring
• Example: ADP + P → ATP
Decomposition reaction:
• breakdownmolecule
• energy-releasing
• Example: ATP → ADP + P
Exchange reaction:
• combination of synthesis and decomposition reactions
• Example: AB + CD → AC + BD
Reversible reactions
• occur when the reaction can run in the opposite direction, so that the products are converted back
to the original reactants.
• CO2+H2O = H + HCO3

ENERGY
Energy
• is the capacity to do work.
Work
• is the moving of matter.
Kinetic energy
o is energy in motion
Potential energy
o is stored energy

Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is a form of potential energy stored in chemical bonds

Food molecules such as glucose contain potential energy

An example of a reaction that releases energy is the breakdown of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) to ADP
(adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group

Rate of Chemical Reactions

The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is influenced by several factors:
• concentration of the reactants
• Increased concentration of reactants will increase the rate of reaction
• Higher concentration of a reactant will lead to more collisions of that reactant in a specific
time period
• within limits the higher the concentration of reactants the faster the rate
• Temperature
• Increase temperature = increase rate of reactant
• within limits, the higher the temperature the faster the rate
• Catalyst
 • A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction
• increases the rate of a reaction without itself being permanently changed or depleted.
• Example: Enzyme

Acids and Bases

Acid: a proton H+ donor
• pHbelow7
• Example:HCl(hydrochloricacid)
Base: a proton H+ acceptor
• pHabove7
• Example: NaOH (sodium hydroxide)

pH Scale
“pH” - Potential of Hydrogen
• Determines the concentration of hydrogen

Inorganic Chemistry vs Organic Chemistry

Inorganic chemistry
• deals with those substances that do not contain carbon
Organic chemistry
• is the study of carbon- containing substances

Exception: some carbon containing compounds are not organic in that they do not also contain
hydrogen, such as CO2 (carbon dioxide)

Organic Molecules
Carbon’s ability to form covalent bonds with other atoms makes it possible the formation of large,
diverse, complicated molecules for life.

The four major groups of organic molecules essential to living organisms are carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids.

CARBOHYDRATE
Characteristics of Carbohydrates
• Contain C, H, O
• H:O is a 2:1 ratio
• Example:C6H12O6

Monosaccharides are the building blocks.

-Monosaccharide:
• simple sugar(1sugar)
• Examples:glucose and fructose
-Disaccharide:
• 2 sugars
• Example: glucose + fructose = sucrose
• Example: glucose + galactose = lactose
-Polysaccharide:
• many sugars
• Example: starch, grain, vegetables, glycogen

Functions of Carbohydrates
• Short-term energy storage
• Converted to glucose quickly
• Glucose is used to make ATP (energy)
• Brain cells require glucose

LIPIDS
Characteristics of Lipids
• Contain C, H, O
• Contain a lower proportion of oxygen to carbon than do carbohydrates
• Insoluble in water
Examples: fats, oils, cholesterol, triglycerides,phospholipids
Glycerol and Fatty Acids are the building blocks

Functions of Lipids
• Long term energy storage
• Insulates against heat loss
• Protective cushion for organs
• Cholesterol is part of the cell membrane structure

Types of Lipids
Saturated:
• single covalent bonds between carbon atoms
• Examples: beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, eggs
Unsaturated:
• one or more double covalent bonds between carbons
• Examples:olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil

PROTEIN
Characteristics of Proteins

• Contains C, H, O, N
• Amino acids are the building blocks
• 20 different naturally occurring amino acids
• Amino acids contain an amine (NH2) group and carboxyl group
• Amino acids are not stored, so a daily supply is required.

Amino Acids are the building blocks

Functions of Proteins
• Used to make skin, hair, nails, muscles Part of the hemoglobin molecule
• Act as enzymes
• Immune system functions
• Muscle contractions (actin and myosin)
• Part of the cell membrane

Protein Denaturation

• Protein denaturation occurs when the hydrogen bonds that maintain shape of a protein are
broken and the protein becomes nonfunctional.
• Factors that can cause denaturation are: high temperatures and/or improper pH

Enzymes
• Enzymes are organic catalysts that increase the rate at which biochemical reactions proceed
without the enzyme being permanently changed.
• Enzymes work by lowering the energy of activation.

Nucleic Acids
• Composed of C, H, O, N, P
• Examples: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogen base, phosphate, and 5-carbon sugar

Nucleotides are the building blocks

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

• ATP is an especially important organic molecule found in all living organisms.
• It consists of adenosine (the sugar ribose with the organic base adenine) and three phosphate
groups.
• ATP is often called the energy currency of cells because it is capable of both storing and
providing energy.