Chapter 8. Sections 8.5 – 8.

6
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
So far in this chapter …
• Quantum mechanics explains atomic and subatomic realms better
• Light is both wave-like and particle-like
• Wave nature seen in its wavelength, diffraction, and constructive and destructive interference
• Particle nature seen in photoelectric effect
• Energy of light depends on its frequency not its intensity
• Atoms of elements absorb energy when their electrons transition to another energy level
• The energized atoms transition to original state releasing specific frequencies of light = line spectra
• Line spectra are characteristic of elements
•  = Distance between crests;  = number of cycles passing through a point in a second
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
•  = ; E = h; E =
 
ℎ
• De Broglie Equation:  =
𝑚𝑣

• Electrons also behave like light; wave – particle duality 2 of 17

 8.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom
• The position and velocity of an electron are complementary – simultaneously cannot be determined
• K. E. of a moving particle = ½mv2
• Energy is directly related to velocity
• Energy of an electron can be specified but not its position – Hisenberg Uncertainty Principle
• Probability distribution map – orbital is used to describe electron’s position
• Energies and orbitals for electrons in atoms are derived by solving the Schrodinger equation: H = E
•  is the wave function – describes the wavelike nature of electrons
• Plots of 2 versus distance r represent orbitals
• Each orbital is specified by three inter-related quantum numbers:
n – the principal quantum number
l – the angular momentum quantum number
ml – the magnetic quantum number (ml is pronounced em’s of el)
• A fourth quantum number, ms, the spin quantum number specifies the orientation of the spin of the electrons
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1. Principal quantum number (n)

Gives information on the size and energy of an orbital.

n = 1, 2, 3 …
Energy n levels can be calculated:
1
En = -2.18 × 10-18 × 𝑛2
J
The energy is negative because the energy of the electron in
the atoms is less than the electrons far away from the atom
which is taken as zero.
1
E1 = −2.18 × 10−18 × J = −2.18 × 10−18 J Spacing between energy levels is not
12
1 uniform:
E2 = −2.18 × 10−18 × J = −5.45 × 10−19 J
22 Low n levels are separated by a greater
1
E3 = −2.18 × 10−18 × J = −2.42 × 10−19 J amount of energy than high n levels
32
1
E4 = −2.18 × 10−18 × J = −1.36 × 10−19 J E between E2 and E1 > E between E3
42
1 and E2
E5 = −2.18 × 10−18 × J = −0.872 × 10−19 J
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2. Angular momentum quantum number (l)
Determines the shape of orbitals.
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n – 1
For a given value of n, l can be any integer including from 0 to (n – 1)
If n = 1, l = 0
If n = 2, l = 0 and l = 1
If n = 3, l = 0, l = 1 and l = 2
If n = 4, l = 0, l = 1, l = 2 and l = 3
l = 0 s orbital
l = 1 p orbital
l = 2 d orbital
l = 3 f orbital

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3. The magnetic quantum number (ml)
Specifies the orientation of the orbital.
ml = −l to +l including 0
For l = 0, ml = 0
There is just one s orbital
For l = 1, ml = −1, 0, +1
There are three p orbitals
For l = 2, ml = −2, −1, 0, +1, +2
There are five d orbitals
For l = 3, ml = −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3
There are seven f orbitals (not shown)
4f

−3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3 6 of 17
4. The spin quantum number (ms)
Specifies the orientation of the spin of the electron. Spin is quantized.
ms = +½ and −½  and  there is no or or

• Each combination of the first three quantum numbers, (n, l and ml) specifies an orbital
• Each orbital can house two electrons
• Orbitals with the same n level are said to be in the same principal level or principal shell
• Orbitals with the same n but different l levels are said to be in the same sublevel or subshell
1s
n = 1 principal level l = 0 sublevel (s) ml = 0 orbital (1s orbital)

ml = 0
ml = +1 orbital (2p orbital)
2s 2p
l = 1 sublevel (p ) ml = 0 orbital (2p orbital)

n = 2 principal level ml = -1 orbital (2p orbital) ml = 0 −1 0 +1

l = 0 sublevel (s) ml = 0 orbital (2s orbital)

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 Orbital Diagrams
l=0 l=1 l=2 l=3
4s 4p 4d 4f
n=4
ml = 0 −1 0 +1 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 −3 −2 −1 0 +1 +2 +3

l=0 l=1 l=2

3s 3p 3d
n=3
Energy

ml = 0 −1 0 +1 −2 −1 0 +1 +2

l=0 l=1
2s 2p
n=2
ml = 0 −1 0 +1

l=0
1s
n=1
ml = 0
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Question. Which of the following sets of quantum numbers are not possible?
n=3 √ l=1 √ ml = 0 √ ms = +½ √ √
n=1 √ l=0 √ ml = −1  ms = +½ √ 
n=2 √ l=1 √ ml = −1 √ ms = -½ √ √
n=3 √ l=2 √ ml = −3  ms = +½ √ 

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Now we will learn how to calculate the energy (or wavelength) that results when an electron falls
from a higher energy level to a lower, more stable energy level.
1
Recall: E = −2.18 × 10−18 × J
𝑛2

E = Efinal − Einitial

1 1
= −2.18 × 10−18 × 2 − J
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖2

Energy emitted by the atom is carried by the photon.

Atom loses energy and the emitted photon gains energy.
−Eatom = Ephoton

You can determine the wavelength or frequency of the light emitted!

𝐸 ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 𝑐
E = h or  = or E = or  = or  =
ℎ  𝐸 

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Problem. What is the wavelength of light emitted by an electron falling from the n = 5 to n = 3 level in a
hydrogen atom?
Energy of atom when an electron is falling from the n = 5 to n = 3 level

1 1
= Eatom = Efinal – Einitial = −2.18 × 10−18 × 2 − J
𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖2

1 1
= −2.18 × 10-18 × − J = −1.55 × 10−19 J
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−Eatom = Ephoton
Therefore, the energy of the photon resulting from the n = 5 to n = 3 electron transition = +1.55 × 10-19 J
ℎ𝑐 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽∙𝑠 × 3.00 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
= = = 1.28 × 10−6 m
𝐸 1.55 × 10−19 𝐽

We will see if we can express our answer in nm because nm values of  fall in the visible region.
 = 1.28 × 10−6 m = 1280 × 10−9 m = 1280 nm

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 8.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
Orbital shapes are important as they determine the shape of atoms.
s orbitals: l=0
The lowest energy orbital is 1s.
The image is a three-dimensional plot of the wave function squared, 2, which represents probability
density.
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
Probability Density =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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Node – The 1s orbital has no nodes. The 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, and all other orbitals have nodes.
There is no probability of finding electrons at nodes.

Figure 8.23. Dot density diagram, probability density and radial probability for 1s orbital.
Radial distribution function explains that the total probability of finding the electron within a spherical
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
shell at a distance r = × volume of shell at r.
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Notice that at the nucleus of the 1s orbital, the probability of finding an electron is high!

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 The energy of 2s > 1s and 3s > 2s.
The size of 2s > 1s and 3s > 2s.
The 1s orbital does not have a node but the 2s and 3s do!
Shape of l = 1, 2p orbitals:
• Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three p
orbitals. ml = −1, 0, +1
• Each of the three orbitals points along a different axis:
px, py, pz
• Second lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state,
Two-lobed, dumbbell shaped
• Node present at nucleus

Figure 8.26. Radial distribution curves for 2s and 3s orbitals.

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Shape of l = 1, p orbitals

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Shape of l = 2, d orbitals:
• Each principal energy state above n = 2 has
five d orbitals. ml = −2, −1, 0, +1, +2
• Four of the five orbitals are oriented on
different planes: dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2 – y2
• The fifth is aligned with the z axis, dz2
• The d orbitals are the third lowest energy
orbitals in a principal energy state
• (s – lowest energy, p – second lowest
energy orbitals)
• Mainly four-lobed, one is two-lobed with a
toroid
• Planar nodes – all lobes lay on axes
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 Shape of atoms
• The s, p, d and f orbitals have different shapes.
• Atoms are drawn as spheres because most atoms contain
many electrons occupying a number of orbitals.
• The shape of an atom is obtained by superimposing all
of its occupied orbitals.
• When we superimpose s, p, d and f orbitals, the result is
a spherical shape.

Chapter 8 Ends

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