Reviewer in EARTH and LIFE SCIENCE 11 continents) which is most abundant

Module 1: Origin and Structure of the Earth

composition is oxygen and silicon.
 Mantle – solid rock layer between
 Earth is: crust and crust.
 the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest  Core – it is an iron-rich sphere
planet in the Solar System divided into 2 parts: outer core (liquid
 a terrestrial planet located in the Goldilocks zone iron-nickel-sulfur, generates magnetic
(habitable zone) o it has unique physical and chemical
field) and inner core (solid iron-
characteristics compared to other neighboring planets
nickeloy)
 the only habitable planet is known in the Solar
System • Factors that Makes the Planet Habitable Module 3: Minerals
 The right amount of the following factors makes the
planet Habitable like Earth:  Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
1. Temperature - Influences how quickly atoms &  Characteristics of Minerals
molecules move 1. naturally occurring
2. Water - Dissolves & transports chemicals within and 2. inorganic
to and from a cell 3. homogenous solid
3. Atmosphere - Traps heat, shields the surface from 4. definite chemical composition
harmful radiation, and provides chemicals needed for 5. orderly crystalline structure
life, such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide.  Properties of Minerals:
4. Energy - Organisms use light or chemical energy to a. Color – easiest but unreliable way of
run their life processes. identifying a mineral
5. Nutrients - Used to build and maintain an organism’s b. Streak – color of mineral in powdered
body. form
6. Magnetic Field - a planet requires a rapidly rotating c. Hardness – minerals resistance to
magnetic field to protect it from flares from nearby stars scratching
and from harmful radiation

Module 2: The Subsystems of the Earth

 Biosphere: This sphere is associated with living

systems such as biomes or ecosystems. This
includes life on land, in the oceans and rivers, and
even life that we cannot see with the naked eye.
 Features: coastal biomes, forests, desert, d. Cleavage – minerals resistance to being
grasslands, and other ecosystems. broken and fracture
e. Crystalline structure/habit
 Processes: photosynthesis, biogeochemical
f. Diaphaneity/Amount of transparency-
cycles (carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle..) ability to allow light to pass through
 Hydrosphere: This sphere is associated with water g. Luster – how light is reflected off a
in solid (ice) and liquid states. It composed of all surface
waters on the surface (oceans, rivers, and lakes) h. Tenacity – describes the reaction of the
and also the water underground (in wells and mineral to stress
aquifers) and may also include moisture in air -Brittleness – a mineral turns into
(visible as clouds and fogs). powder
 Features: oceans, icebergs, lakes, rivers, -Malleability – a mineral can be flattened
glaciers, snow, and so on. by pounding with a hammer
-Ductility - a mineral can be stretched
 Processes: hydrologic cycle (condensation,
into wire
evaporation..), ocean circulation
-Flexible but inelastic- Minerals are
 Atmosphere: This sphere relates to bent, and they bring back to their original
meteorological features and phenomena such as position
weather, clouds, or aerosols (particles in the air). -Flexible and elastic – Minerals are
It includes an ever‐changing mixture of gas and bent, and they bring back to their original
small particles located above and surrounding position
the Earth’s surface. i. Sectility – ability of minerals to be
 Features: clouds, weather, aurora, air sliced by a knife.
pollution/aerosols, dust, and so on. MODULE 4: ROCKS
 Processes: atmospheric circulation o Layers
of the Atmosphere  Rock is a naturally occurring solid
aggregate of one or more minerals.
 Petrology – scientific study of rocks
 Three Types of Rocks:
IGNEOUS – formed from hardening and
crystallization of magma or molten
material that originates deep within the
 Geosphere: This sphere is associated with solid earth.
portions of the Earth. It includes rocks, Types:
sediments, soils, and surface landforms. It is A. Extrusive/Volcanic – forms from lava
predominantly classified as the lithosphere: the that cools. Crystals are very small (fine-
upper mantle and crust. grained), cooling process is fast
B. INTRUSIVE/PLUTONIC – from beneath
 Earth’s Interior Layers:
the earth surface. Coarse grained. Cools
 Crust – upper portion composed of 2 slowly.
types: Oceanic crust (underlies the ocean
basin) and Continental crust (underlies the
 with Earth’s subsystems. Happens even
without movement or transportation.
a. Physical Weathering- breakdown of rocks
by mechanical forces concentrated along rock
fractures. Can occur due to changes in
temperature, pressure, or both.
b. Chemical Weathering – rocks break down
by chemical process. New or secondary
minerals develop and sometimes replace the
original properties of minerals in the original
rock or soil. Oxidation(reaction of substance
with oxygen), Hydrolysis (chemical
breakdown of substance when combined with
water)
2. EROSION – process by which Earth’s
surface is worn away by wind, water or ice.
Moves rock debris from one place to another.
3. MASS WASTING – movement of large
 METAMORPHIC – forms from pre-existing rocks: masses of materials(e.g. rocks, debris, soil,
either metamorphic, igneous, sedimentary or other mud) down a slope or steep sided hill or
metamorphic rocks that have been altered by agents
mountain due to pull of gravity.
of metamorphism.
a. Debris flow – large amount of
Types:
1. Regional – due to changes in pressure and sediments (rocks) falls down a slope.
temperature over large region of the crust b. Mudflow – combined soil and water
2. Contact – changed mainly by heat due to contact flow down a slope.
with magma c. Slump – slow movement of soil along
a curved surface.
4. SEDIMENTATION – accumulation of
materials such as soil, rock fragments, and
soil particles settling on the ground.

MODULE 6: EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

 Sources of Heat in Earth

 PRIMORDIAL HEAT – internal heat
that gradually gathered together by
means of dispersion in the planet
during its few million years of evolution.
 Accretional Energy – energy deposited
during the early formation of a planet.
 RADIOGENIC HEAT – thermal energy
 SEDIMENTARY – provide information about surface released as a result of spontaneous
conditions that existed in the Earth’s past.
nuclear disintegration (Uranium,
-Particles of sand, shells, pebbles, and other
Thorium and Potassium).
fragments of materials called sediments accumulate in
layers and over long period of time harden into rocks.  HEAT TRANSFER
-Compaction – due to increase of pressure of layered  CONDUCTION – heat energy is
sediments it bind together to form the sedimentary transmitted through collisions of
rocks. neighboring atoms.
Example: we get burned after
touching the pan
 CONVECTION – transfer of heat by
movement of mass.
Example: After dipping the ice in a
warm drink, the temperature of the
ice becomes higher causing the
melting of the ice.
 RADIATION – process of heat
exchange between the Sun and the
Earth.
MODULE 5: EXOGENIC PROCESSES Example: Our skin gets warm due to
action of UV radiation.
 Exogenous processes are processes that
occurs on or near the surface of the Earth. MODULE 7: MAGMATISM
Driven by gravity, water, wind and
organisms. Magma – semi-liquid molten rocks located
Types: beneath the Earth. When solidified, it creates
1. WEATHERING – disintegration of rocks, IGNEOUS ROCKS.
Lava – found on the surface of the Earth.
soil, and minerals together through contact
MAGMATISM – Process under the Earth’s
crust where formation and movement of
magma occur. Happens in the
asthenosphere.
Partial melting – process by which magma is
formed. Rocks melt at different temperature
and pressure.
Melting in the mantle requires 3 of the
possible events:
1. an increase in temperature – conduction
happens when heat is transferred form hotter
molten rocks to the Earth’s cold crust. As
magma rises, it is hot enough to melt the
rock it touches. It happens in convergent
boundaries.
2. a decrease of pressure – mantle rocks
remain solid when exposed to high pressure.
However, during convection, these rocks tend
to go upward and the pressure is reduced
triggering the melting of magma, this is
known as decompression melting. This
occurs at the Mid-ocean ridge, an
underwater mountain system.
3. addition of volatiles- flux melting occurs
when water of carbon dioxide is added to hot
rocks. Adding these volatiles in a rock close
to its melting point, triggers partial melting.
Occurs around subduction zones.

MODULE 8: METAMORPHISM

Metamorphism – A change that takes place

within a body of rock as a result of it being
subjected to conditions that are different
from those in which it is formed. Comes from
the Greek word “meta” means change and
“morphe” meaning form.
Metamorphic rock – formed at the surface
through metamorphism with recrystallization
of rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature.
Types:
1. Contact metamorphism – main factors:
heat and reactive fluids Types based on texture:
2. Regional metamorphism – main factor:
1. Phaneritic – rocks have large minerals
pressure
2. Aphanitic – mineral grains are too small
Agents of metamorphism:
to see with unaided eye
1. heat – drives chemical changes resulting
3. Vesicular – rocks have many oits from the
in recrystallization of minerals.
gas escape
2. pressure – buried rocks are subjected to
4. Porphyritic – rocks have two distinct
force of stress
grain sizes, large and small
- Heat and pressure causes physical changes
5. Glassy – rocks have obvious minerals
to buried rocks
3. chemically active fluids – enhances
MODULE 10: MOVEMENT OF PLATES AND
metamorphic process.
FORMATION OF FOLDS AND FAULTS
MODULE 9: IGNEOUS ROCKS: HOW ARE
Transform Plate Boundary – also called
THEY FORMED?
strike slip fault boundary, the plates slide
Igneous rocks – derived from Latin word for
past each other horizontally. Example: San
fire, ignis or ignus. Commonly found in the
Andreas Fault
surface and beneath the Earth. They are
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY – plate
formed through the process of solidification
move toward each other and sometimes one
and crystallization of molten rocks:
plate sinks under another (subduction). In a
magma and lava.
collision of two oceanic crusts, a chain of
volcanoes results. When two continental
crust collides, the result is a range of
mountains such as the Himalayan
Mountains.
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY –
boundaries where the earth’s tectonic plates
are moving apart. For the most part, these
boundaries are located on the ocean floors,
where they form a continous chain of
volcanic mountains and rift called mid-ocean
ridge.