U20ECST09

MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT I
BASICS OF MEASUREMENT
Basics of Measurements: Accuracy, Precision, resolution, reliability,
repeatability, validity - Errors in measurement and their analysis, Calibration
and Standards of measurement. Characteristics of measurement systems – Static
and Dynamic characteristics – Techniques for reducing error. Functional
elements of an instrument.
 UNIT 1

SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENTS

GENERAL CONFIGURATION AND FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

A systematic organization and analysis are more important for measurement systems. The whole
operation system can be described in terms of functional elements. The functional elements of
generalized measurement system.

Most of the measurement system consists of following functional elements.

1. Primary sensing element
2. Variable conversion element
3. Variable manipulation element
4. Data transmission element
5. Data storage and playback element
6. Data presentation element

1. Primary Sensing Element

The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with primary sensing element of
measurement system. The quantity is first sensed or detected by primary sensor. Then detected
physical quantity signal is converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. Transducer is defined
as a device which converts a physical quantity into an electrical quantity. Sensor is act as primary
element of transducer. In many cases the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical
quantity by a transducer. So the first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector
transducer stage.
Example, Pressure transducer with pressure sensor, Temperature sensor ect.,
2. Variable Conversion Element
The output of primary sensing element is electrical signal of any form like a voltage, a frequency or
some other electrical parameter. Sometime this output not suitable for next level of system. So it is
necessary to convert the output some other suitable form while maintaining the original signal to
perform the desired function the system.
For example the output primary sensing element is in analog form of signal and next stage of system
accepts only in digital form of signal. So, we have to convert analog signal into digital form using an
A/D converter. Here A/D converter is act as variable conversion element.

3. Variable Manipulation Element

The function of variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal offered but original nature
of signal is maintained in same state. Here manipulation means only change in the numerical value of
signal.
Examples,
1. Voltage amplifier is act as variable manipulation element. Voltage amplifier accepts a small
voltage signal as input and produces the voltage with greater magnitude .Here numerical value of
voltage magnitude is increased.
2. Attenuator acts as variable manipulation element. It accepts a high voltage signal and produces the
voltage or power with lower magnitude. Here numerical value of voltage magnitude is decreased.
Linear process manipulation elements: Amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation,
addition and subtraction ect.,
Nonlinear process manipulation elements: Modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, chopping
and clipping ect.,

All these elements are performed on the signal to bring it to desired level to be accepted by the next
stage of measurement system. This process of conversion is called signal conditioning. The
combination of variable conversion and variable manipulation elements are called as Signal
Conditioning Element.
4. Data Transmission Element
The elements of measurement system are actually physically separated; it becomes necessary to
transmit the data from one to another. The element which is performs this function is called as data
transmission element.
Example, Control signals are transmitted from earth station to Space-crafts by a telemetry system
using radio signals. Here telemetry system is act as data transmission element.
The combination of Signal conditioning and transmission element is known as Intermediate Stageof
measurement system.

5. Data storage and playback element

Some applications requires a separate data storage and playback function for easily rebuild the
stored data based on the command. The data storage is made in the form of pen/ink and digital
recording. Examples, magnetic tape recorder/ reproducer, X-Y recorder, X-t recorder, Optical Disc
recording ect.,

6. Data presentation Element

The function of this element in the measurement system is to communicate the information about the
measured physical quantity to human observer or to present it in an understandable form for
monitoring, control and analysis purposes.
Visual display devices are required for monitoring of measured data. These devices may be analog or
digital instruments like ammeter, voltmeter, camera, CRT, printers, analog and digital computers.
Computers are used for control and analysis of measured data of measurement system. This
Final stage of measurement system is known as Terminating stage.

EXAMPLE OF GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Example 1.Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge:
The simple pressure measurement system using bourdon tube pressure gauge is shown in .The detail
functional elements of this pressure measurement system is given below.
Quantity to be measured : Pressure Primary sensing element and
Variable conversion element : Bourdon Tube
Data Transmission element : Mechanical Linkages
Variable manipulation Element : Gearing arrangement
Data presentation Element : Pointer and Dial

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

In this measurement system, bourdon tube is act as primary sensing and variable conversion element.
The input pressure is sensed and converted into small displacement by a 7
bourdon tube. On account of input pressure the closed end of the tube is displaced. Because of
this pressure in converted into small displacement. The closed end of bourdon tube is connected
through mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement.

The small displacement signal can be amplified by gearing arrangement and transmitted by
mechanical linkages and finally it makes the pointer to rotate on a large angle of scale. If it is
calibrated with known input pressure, gives the measurement of the pressure signal applied to the
bourdon tube in measured

CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENT - STATIC CHARACTERISTICS - DYNAMIC

CHARACTERISTICS

Characteristics of Measuring Instruments: These performance characteristics of an

instrument are very important in their selection.
Static Characteristics: Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process condition. Performance criteria based upon
static relations represent the static Characteristics. (The static characteristics are the value or
performance given after the steady state condition has reached).
Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics of an instrument are considered for
instruments which are used to measure a varying process condition. Performance criteria based
upon dynamic relations represent the dynamic Characteristics.

Static Characteristics:
1) Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness with which an instrument
reading approaches to the true value of the quantity being measured. It determines the
closeness to true value of instrument reading. Accuracy is represented by percentage of
full scale reading or in terms of inaccuracy or in terms of error value. Example, Accuracy
of temperature measuring instrument might be specified by ±3ºC. This accuracy means
the temperature reading might be within + or -3ºC deviation from the true value.
Accuracy of an instrument is specified by ±5% for the range of 0 to 200ºC in the
temperature scale means the reading might be within + or -10ºC of the true reading.
2) Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability of a series of the measurement.
Precision is measures of the degree of closeness of agreement within a group of
measurements are repeatedly made under the prescribed condition. Precision is used in
measurements to describe the stability or reliability or the reproducibility of results.
Comparison between accuracy and precision.

S.No Accuracy Precision

1. It refers to degree of closeness It refers to the degree of
of the measured value to the agreement among group of
true value. readings

2. Accuracy gives the maximum Precision of a measuring

error that is maximum system gives its capability to
departure of the final result reproduce a certain reading
from its true value. with a given accuracy

3) Bias: Bias is quantitative term describing the difference between the average of measured
readings made on the same instrument and its true value (It is a characteristic of measuring
instruments to give indications of the value of a measured quantity for which the average value
differs from true value).
4) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change in output signal (response) to the
change in input signal (measured). It is the relationship indicating how much output changes
when input changes. Sensitivity=change in output change in input Sensitivity=∆qo∆qi If the
sensitivity is constant then the system is said to be linear system. If the sensitivity is variable then
the system is said to be non linear system.

Definition of sensitivity for (a) Linear and (b) Non linear instrument When the calibration
curve is linear as the sensitivity of the instrument can be defined as in slope of the calibration
curve. In this case sensitivity is constant over the entire range of instrument. If the curve is not
normally straight line or nonlinear instrument sensitivity varies with the input or varies from on
range to another.

5) Linearity: Linearity is the best characteristics of an instrument or measurement system.

Linearity of the instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly proportional to input over
the entire range of instrument. So the degree of linear (straight line) relationship between the
output to input is called as linearity of an instrument.
 Representation of Linearity and Non-Linearity of an Instrument
Nonlinearity: The maximum difference or deviation of output curve from the Specified idealized
straight line as shown in figure 4.2. Independent nonlinearity may be defined as Non
linearity=Maximum deviation of output from the idealized straight line Actual reading or
response X 100
5) Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest change in the input value that is
required to cause an appreciable change in the output. (The smallest increment in input or input
change which can be detected by an instrument is called as resolution or discrimination.)
6) Hysteresis: Hysteresis is Non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves on output.
Hysteresis effect shows up in any physical, chemical or electrical phenomenon When input
increases, output also increases and calibration curve can be drawn. If input is decreases from
maximum value and output also decreases but does not follow the same curve, then there is a
residual output when input is zero. This phenomenon is called Hysteresis. The difference
between increasing change and decreasing change of output values is known as hysteresis error.
(The different outputs from the same value of quantity being measured are reached by

Hysteresis Error of an instrument

7) Dead Zone: Dead zone or dead band is defined as the largest change of input quantity for
which there is no output the instrument due the factors such as friction, backlash and hysteresis
within the system.( The region upto which the instrument does not respond for an input change is
called dead zone) Dead time is the time required by an instrument to begin to respond to change
in input quantity.
8) Backlash: The maximum distance through which one part of the instrument is moved without
disturbing the other part is called as backlash. (Backlash may be defined as the maximum
distance or angle through which any part of the instrument can be moved without causing any
motion of next part of the system)

Threshold because of backlash

Reasons for the presence of backlash in an instrument include allowing for lubrication,
manufacturing errors, deflection under load, and thermal expansion. 9) Drift: Drift is an
undesirable change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to change in input, operating
conditions. Drift is occurred in instruments due to internal temperature variations, ageing effects
and high stress ect. Zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when there is zero
output. It is expressed as percentage of full range output.
10) Threshold: The minimum value of input which is necessary to activate an instrument to
produce an output is termed its threshold as shown in figure 1.5. (Threshold is the minimum
value of the input required to cause the pointer to move from zero position).

Threshold effect

11) Input Impedance: The magnitude of the impedance of element connected across the signal
source is called Input Impedance. voltage signal source and input device connected across it.
 voltage source and input device
The magnitude of the input impedance is given by Zi=eiii Power extracted by the input device
from the signal source is P=eiii=ei2Zi From above two expressions it is clear that a low input
impedance device connected across the voltage signal source draws more current and more
power from signal source than high input impedance device.

12) Loading Effect: Loading effect is the incapability of the system to faith fully measure,
record or control the input signal in accurate form.

13) Repeatability: Repeatability is defined as the ability of an instrument to give the same output
for repeated applications of same input value under same environmental condition.

14) Reproducibility: Reproducibility is defined as the ability of an instrument to reproduce the

same output for repeated applications of same input value under different environment condition.
In case of perfect reproducibility the instrument satisfies no drift condition.
Dynamic Characteristics:
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by applying some standard form of known
and predetermined input to its primary element (sensing element) and then studies the output.
Generally dynamic behavior is determined by applying following three types of inputs.

l. Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and
finite change in measured variable

. 2. Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary element is, follows a measured variable,
changing linearly with time.

3. Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the primary element follows a measured
variable, the magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are (i) Speed of response, (ii) Fidelity, (iii) Lag,
and (iv) Dynamic error.
(i) Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
(ii) (ii) Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the
measured variable without dynamic error (faithful reproduction or fidelity of an
instrument is the ability of reproducing an input signal faithfully (truly)).
(iii) (iii) Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the
measured variable. The measuring lags are two types:
Retardation type: In this case the response of an instrument begins immediately after a change in
measured variable is occurred.
Time delay type: In this case the response of an instrument begins after a dead time after the
application of the input quantity.

(iv)Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true values of a quantity changing with time
and the value indicated by the instrument, if no static error is assumed. It is also called as
Measurement Error. When measurement problems are concerned with rapidly varying
quantities, the dynamic relations between the instruments input and output are generally defined
by the use of differential equations.

TYPES OF ERRORS:

All measurement can be made without perfect accuracy (degree of error must always be
assumed). In reality, no measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is important to find
that actual accuracy and different types of errors can be occurred in measuring instruments.
Errors may arise from different sources and usually classified as follows,
Classification of Error
ross Errors
Systematic Errors
1. Instrumental errors
i. Inherent shortcomings of instruments
ii. Misuse of instruments
iii. Loading effects
2. Environmental errors
3. Observational errors
Random Errors

1. Gross Errors:
The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in
recording and calculating measured quantity. As long as human beings are involved and they
may grossly misread the scale reading, then definitely some gross errors will be occurred in
measured value.
Example, Due to an oversight, Experimenter may read the temperature as 22.7oC while the
actual reading may be 32.7oC He may transpose the reading while recording. For example, he
may read 16.7oC and record 27.6oC as an alternative.
The complete elimination of gross errors is maybe impossible, one should try to predict and
correct them. Some gross errors are easily identified while others may be very difficult to detect.
Gross errors can be avoided by using the following two ways.
reat care should be taken in reading and recording the data.

Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity being measured by using
different experimenters and different reading point (different environment condition of
instrument) to avoid re-reading with same error. So it is suitable to take a large number of
readings as a close agreement between readings assures that no gross error has been occurred in
measured values.
2. Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors are divided into following three categories.

i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors
iii. Observational Errors
i) Instrumental Errors
These errors are arises due to following three reasons (sources of error).
a) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and
c) Due to loading effects of instruments

a) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments

ese errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure due to
construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices.
ese errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.

Example, if the spring (used for producing controlling torque) of a permanent magnet instrument
has become weak, so the instrument will always read high.
Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash.
Elimination or reduction methods of these errors,
instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or calibration
against standards may be used for the purpose.
Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.

b) Misuse of Instruments
In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement due to the fault of the operator than that of
the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give wrong results.
Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do zero adjustment of instrument, poor initial
adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and ill practices of instrument beyond the
manufacturer’s instruction and specifications ect.
c) Loading Effects
The errors committed by loading effects due to improper use of an instrument for measurement
work. In measurement system, loading effects are identified and corrections should be made or
more suitable instruments can be used.
Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading (may be false) voltage reading when
connected across a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter, when connected across a low
resistance circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable or steady or true value).
In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual circuit conditions
by measurement process. So errors caused by loading effect of the meters can be avoided by
using them intelligently.
Environmental Error
Environmental error occurs due to external environmental conditions of the instrument, such as
effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic or electrostatic
fields.
Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable errors are
Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible. Example,
temperature can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in the temperature controlled region.
The device which is used against these environmental effects.
Example, variations in resistance with temperature can be minimized by using very low
resistance temperature co-efficient of resistive material.
Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances. For example, the effect
of humidity dust etc., can be entirely eliminated by tightly sealing the equipment.
The external or electrostatic effects can be eliminated by using magnetic or electrostatic shield
on the instrument.
Applying computed corrections: Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of application of
computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and are necessary, they are
incorporated for the computations of the results

iii) Observational Errors

There are many sources of observational errors. As an example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests
slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of PARALLAX will be acquired
unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize parallax errors
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales as shown in figure 2.1.

Correct reading 250V

Errors due to parallax

When the pointer’s image appears hidden by the pointer, observer’s eye is directly in line with
the pointer. Although a mirrored scale minimizes parallax error, an error is necessarily presented
through it may be very small.

Arrangements showing scale and pointer in the same plane

The observational errors are also occurs due to involvement of human factors. For example, there
are observational errors in measurements involving timing of an event Different observer may
produce different results, especially when sound and light measurement are involved.
The complete elimination of this error can be achieved by using digital display of output.