3.3. Special Orbits

3.3.
1 Geosynchronous and geostationary orbits

Space Mission Design and Operations
Prof. Claude Nicollier
Credits: Inmarsat
Geosynchronous and geostationary orbits
● Look for r satisfying T = 23h 56min 4.09s.
● Geostationary = Geosynchronous circular

on the equatorial plane (e = 0 and i = 0).
• If the rotation period of a satellite is equal to a sidereal day, the
satellite will rotate around the Earth at the same pace as the
Earth rotates around itself: this is called geosynchronous orbit.
• Geostationary orbit is ideal for communication satellites.
• To avoid a swing of the satellite in longitude, its orbit should be
perfectly circular. To avoid a swing North and then South, the
inclination should be 0.
Strategy to reach the geostationary orbit
The line of nodes is the intersection between the plane of the satellite orbit and the Equator.
To reach the geostationary orbit, a Hohmann transfer is necessary followed by a plane change of the orbit from the initial plane to the
Equatorial condition. The apogee shall be at the geostationary altitude, 36,000 km above the Earth's surface.
The geostationary transfer orbit is not on the Equator, it has a certain inclination versus the Equator which is equal to the latitude of the
launch site. Typically, seven degrees for a launch from French Guiana, in Kourou, the European launch site, 28.5 degrees if the launch
takes place from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Space Mission Design and Operations
Combined maneuver
Exemple of a combined maneuver for insertion into a geostationary equatorial orbit for
a launch from Kennedy Space Center, Florida (Lat. 28.5°).
There are two options to reach the
geostationary orbit:
1. a plane change and then an
acceleration to the circular condition
at that orbit.
2. a combined maneuver of the plane
change and acceleration to the
circular conditions

Visibility of Earth’s surface from GEO
The Inmarsat system

blankets the Earth,
connecting geostationary
satellites for near total
coverage.
Credits: Inmarsat
Ground track
This is a ground track of the

Hubble Space Telescope, which is
on a 28.5 degrees inclination orbit.
Its obit in LEO is approximately 90
min, One equatorial crossing is
further to the west by 22.5 degrees
from the next one
For satellites on geostationary

orbits, the ground track is one
point.
Credits: Aerospaceweb.org
3.3.2 Nodal regression and Sun synchronous orbits
Equatorial bulge
● The flattening of the Earth’s surface is 1:298
(which corresponds to a radius difference of 21.38
Planet Earth is not a perfect sphere. the major
km of the Earth radius 6378.13 – 6356.75 km).
deviation from the sphere is the equatorial bulge.
● The Earth’s equatorial bulge has two
For orbits with an inclination of more than 0 and less
than 90, orbits are to the east and the line of nodes is consequences:
moving to the west: this is the nodal regression
1. Nodal regression
For inclinations larger than 90 degrees, the line of 2. Rotation of the line of apsides
node will be drifting to the east: this is the nodal
progression.
(not covered in this course)
Credits: Wikipedia, AugPi

Nodal regression for LEO – Forces and torques
The force exercised on the satellite by the Earth is

not exactly a central force directed to the center of
the Earth but there is a component downwards
because of the equatorial bulge.
In the case a perfect equatorial orbit, the line of

nodes does not exist and there is no nodal
regression or progression.
In the case of a polar orbit, inclination 90 degrees,
There is no torque on the and no nodal progression
or regression.

Nodal regression for LEO – Forces and torques
! ! !
! Spacecratft T =r ×F
dω
! dt ! ! !
ω r ! dω
F⊥ IΔ =T
dt
!
F dΩ
Ω i <0 i < 90°
x dt
Ascending node dΩ
>0 i > 90°
dt
dΩ
=0 i = 90°
dt
Nodal regression rate for LEO
in degrees per mean solar day with the

semi-major axis a in kilometers.

Nodal regression rate vs. orbital inclination and altitude
● The line of nodes drifts:
● To the west for i = 0 – 90°

(posigrade or direct orbit).
● To the east for i = 90 – 180°
(retrograde orbit).
The nodal regression has also an influence on
the altitude for a given inclination.

Sun-synchronous orbit
Requirement on for a Sun-synchronous orbit:
Sun-synchronous orbit is an orbit that keeps the same orientation versus the Sun as the Earth
is going around the Sun in a full year.
The line of nodes is drifted to the east day by 0.9856 degrees per day in order to keep that Sun-
synchronous condition.
Orbital inclinations and altitudes for a Sun-synchronous orbit
In order to have a drift line

of nodes to the east, the
orbit should have a little
more than 90 degrees
inclination, typically
between 95 and 105
degrees inclination
depending on the altitude.

3.3.3 Lagrange points
Credits: NASA, WMAP Science Team

Restricted three-body problem
Assumptions:
The general three-body problem is complex and not
covered in this course. We will consider only the
restricted three-body problem: two relatively large ● The two main bodies are on circular orbits around
bodies and a smaller body : the spacecraft.
the center of mass of the system.
● The mass of the third body (satellite) is very small

compared to the mass of the two main bodies.
● The third body is in an orbit contained in the plane

of the orbits of the two main bodies.
Lagrange points
The gravitational fields of two massive
bodies combined with the satellite’s circular
motion are in balance at the Lagrange
points, allowing the third body to be
stationary with respect to the first two
bodies.
The Lagrange points are five positions where the
small body keeps the same position with respect to
the other two bodies which are revolving around each
other.
In the Sun-Earth system, the distance to the Earth of
the L1 Lagrange point is about 1.5 million km, 1/100 of
the distance between the Earth and the Sun. The
Lagrange point L2 is 1.5 million km away from the
Earth in the anti-Sun direction.
L4 and L5 are stable points.
For L1, L2, and L3 there is stability across the plane.
Red arrows indicate stability, blue arrows instability.
Credits: NASA, WMAP Science Team
Lagrange points
Sun-Earth system - not at scale.
In the case of L3, the spacecraft is not exactly on the orbit of the Earth but slightly further away, but very small distance. L3 is rarely used.
L1 is used for spacecraft looking at the Sun: Solar and Heliospheric Observatory.
The James Web Space Telescope, will be located on L2.
Spacecraft on L1 Spacecraft on L2 Spacecraft on L3

Credits: ESA

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3.3.

1 Geosynchronous and geostationary orbits

● Look for r satisfying T = 23h 56min 4.09s.

● Geostationary = Geosynchronous circular

Space Mission Design and Operations

The Inmarsat system

This is a ground track of the

For satellites on geostationary

Credits: Wikipedia, AugPi

The force exercised on the satellite by the Earth is

In the case a perfect equatorial orbit, the line of

Space Mission Design and Operations

in degrees per mean solar day with the

Space Mission Design and Operations

● The line of nodes drifts:

● To the west for i = 0 – 90°

Space Mission Design and Operations

Requirement on for a Sun-synchronous orbit:

In order to have a drift line

Space Mission Design and Operations

Credits: NASA, WMAP Science Team

● The mass of the third body (satellite) is very small

● The third body is in an orbit contained in the plane

Spacecraft on L1 Spacecraft on L2 Spacecraft on L3

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