RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MBA 3rd Semester (DDE)

UNIT – I

Q. Define Research. Also explain its nature, objectives and Types.

Ans. Introduction : Research is an art of scientific investigation. Research covers the
search for and retrieval of information for a specific purpose. Research has many
categories, from medical research to literary research. Basically research is a search
for truth with the help of some study, observation, comparison and experiments. It is
search for knowledge with the help of objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem.
Meaning of Research : Research in common man's language refers to "search for
knowledge".
Research is simply the process of finding solution to a problem after a complete study and
analysis of the situational factors.
Research is purposeful investigation. It provides a structure for decision making. It provides
an analytical framework for the subject matter of investigation. It establishes the
relationship between different variables, especially the relationship of the dependent
variables with the valuable independent variables. In short, the search for knowledge
through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
Research is required because of the following reasons:
Ø To identify and find solutions to the problems
Ø To help making decisions
Ø To develop new concepts
Ø To find alternate strategies
(1) To identify and find solutions to the problems : Research is required to understand
the problem in depth. For Example:
Ø Why is that demand for a product is falling?
Ø Why is there a business fluctuation once in three years?
By identify the problem as above; it is easy to collect the relevant data to solve the
problem.

112
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(2) To help making decisions : Research is helpful for making the decision. For
example: Should we maintain the advertising budget same as last year? Research will
answer this question.
(3) To find alternative strategies : Research is helpful to find alternative strategies. For
example: Should we follow pull strategy or push strategy to promote the product.
(4) To develop new concepts.

Definition of Research:
According to P.M. Cook
"Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings
for implications with reference to given problem. It is the process of arriving at dependable
solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data. The best search is that which is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so
that it provides information in which we have confidence".
Characteristics of Research :– The characteristics of research are as follows: -
1. Systematic Approach :– Each step must on your investigation be so planned that it
lead to the next step.
2. Objectivity : – It implies that true research should attempt to find an unbiased answer
to the decision making problem. Its means true research have a pre-planned
objective.
3. Relevancy : – A research should be relevant according to objective and according to
information required for that. It furnishes three important tasks:-
a) It avoids the collection of irrelevant data or information and saves money and
time.
b) It compares the information to be collected with researcher's criteria for action.
c) It enables to see whether to research is proceeding in right direction.
Nature of Research : The nature of research are as follows :–
(1) Objective & Logical : – Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every
possible test to validate the procedure employed, the data collected and the
conclusion reached.
(2) Future Occurrence : – Research emphasizes the development of generalization,
principles of theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
(3) Courage : – Research some times requires courage
(4) Solve the Problem : – Research is directed towards the solution of a problem. It may
attempt to answer a question to determine the relation between two or more variables.
(5) Experiences :– Research is based upon observable experience

113
(6) Recording and reporting : – Research is carefully recorded and reported.
(7) Expertise : – Research requires expertise; the researcher knows what is already
known about the problem and how others have investigated it.
(8) Collection of Data : – Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or
using existing data for new purpose.
(9) Research demands accurate descriptions.
Objectives of Research : All researchers aim at finding answer to questions by applying
certain scientific procedures. Research investigates the truth, which is hidden and tries to
find solution to existing problem which have not been discovered yet. Different research
studies have different purposes depending on nature and type of research. Generally, we
have following categories of objectives of research:
(1) To investigate a Subject : Research is undertaken in a specific field of knowledge. It
may be pure science or social science; one may be interested in verifying a fact or
principle in any discipline of his choice like physics, chemistry, botany, commerce or
economics. For that matter, every discipline is a body of knowledge. An activity
undertaken to verify or revise these facts or principles becomes research.
(2) To collect the data regarding a problem : Research gathers new knowledge or data
from primary or first hand sources. It is not research when on simply restates what is
already known or what has been written. Research endeavors to research the first
hand source of data instead of serving its purpose with the data available from second
hand sources.
(3) To conduct logical and objective study : Research is logical and objective, applying
every possible test to verify the data collected and the procedure employed. The
researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences from his research activity.
He works with in the scope and relevance of his data.
(4) To conduct a systematic inquiry of the subject : Research is said to be a careful
and systematic inquiry. It means that research is a scientific study of facts.
(5) For carefully recording, reporting and presenting the facts : Research is carefully
recorded and reported. Every term is carefully defined, all procedures are described in
details, all limiting factors are recognized, all references are carefully documented and
all results are objectively recorded.
Types of Research : On the basis of the objectives of the research, we can classify
research into following types:
(1) Applied Vs. Fundamental Research : Research can either be applied or
fundamental. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

114
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(2) Descriptive vs. Analytical Research : Descriptive research includes surveys and
fact finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business
research, we quite often use the term Ex-post facto research for descriptive research
studies. The main characteristics of this method are that the researcher has no control
over the variable; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most
ex-post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items :
Ø Frequency of Shopping
Ø Preference of people etc.
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
(3) Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research : Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity. It is research methodology that seeks to quantity the
data and typically applies some form of statistical analysis. Quantitative research is
structured in nature and recommends a final course of action. Qualitative research, on
the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon. Qualitative research is
important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the various
factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people
like or dislike a particular thing.
(4) Conceptual vs. Empirical Research : Conceptual research is related to some
abstract ideas of theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop
new concepts. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data based
research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. We can also call it an experimental type of research.
(5) Historical Research : Any research which makes use of observations based on past
events is known as historical approach.
Q. What do you mean by the Research? Explain it's significance in business
decision making?
Ans: Introduction : Research is an art of scientific investigation. Research covers the
search for and retrieval of information for a specific purpose. Research has many
categories, from medical research to literary research. Basically research is a search
for truth with the help of some study, observation, comparison and experiments. It is
search for knowledge with the help of objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem.

115
Meaning of Research : Research in common man's language refers to "search for
knowledge".
Research is simply the process of finding solution to a problem after a thorough study
and analysis of the situational factors.
Research is purposeful investigation. It provides a structure for decision making. It
provides an analytical framework for the subject matter of investigation. It establishes the
relationship between different variables, especially the relationship of the dependent
variables with the valuable independent variables. In short, the search for knowledge
through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
Research is required because of the following reasons:
Ø To identify and find solutions to the problems
Ø To help making decisions
Ø To develop new concepts
Ø To find alternate strategies
(1) To identify and find solutions to the problems : Research is required to understand
the problem in depth. For Example:
Ø Why is that demand for a product is falling?
Ø Why is there a business fluctuation once in three years?
By identify the problem as above; it is easy to collect the relevant data to solve
the problem.
(2) To help making decisions : Research is helpful for making the decision. For
example: Should we maintain the advertising budget same as last year? Research will
answer this question.
(3) To find alternative strategies : Research is helpful to find alternative strategies. For
example: Should we follow pull strategy or push strategy to promote the product.
(4) To develop new concepts

Definition of Research:
According to P.M. Cook
"Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings
for implications with reference to given problem. It is the process of arriving at dependable
solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data. The best search is that which is reliable, verifiable and exhaustive so
that it provides information in which we have confidence".
Significance of Research in Business Decision Making
The role of research has greatly increased in the field of business and economy as a
whole. In modern of development three factors increase the interest in a research to
business decision making.

116
Q. Define Research Process.
Ans. Research Process : Research process can be explained with the help of following
diagram:

RESEARCH PROCESS

STEPS TASK TO BE PERFORMED

1. Formulation of Identification of Research Problem.

Research Problem Selection of Research Problem.

2. Review of Literature Review of concepts & Theories

Review of previous Research Findings

3. Formulation of Discuss the Problem with colleagues

Hypothesis Examine the data & Reports
Developed tentative assumptions

4. Operationalisation of Define concept to be used in the study

Concept Construct Index
Construct scale for measuring variables
Operationalisation of concept

5. Preparation of the The means of obtaining information.

Research The availability and splits of the researchers.
Plan/Research Design Explanation of the ways in which selected
Means of obtaining information will be
organized.
Time Schedule
Cost of Scheme

6. Determine the Sample Define Population

Design. Determine Sample Size
Choosing the sample Techniques

120
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

7. Construction of the Observation

Tools for Data Personal Interview
Collection Telephone Interview
Questionnaire
Schedule

8. Collection of data Primary Source

Secondary Source

9. Processing of Data Editing

Classification
Coding
Transcription or Decoding
Tabulation

10. Analysis of Data Percentage

Average
Time Series Analysis
Index Number Analysis
Use of other Statistical Tools

11. Hypothesis Testing chi-square Test

F-Test
Z-Test
T-Test

12. Interpretation and Draw meaning from the analysis

Generalization Reach to the conclusion
See of the Conclusion are applicable
Universally.
Make Generalization.

13. Report Writing The Preliminary Pages

Or Dissertation Main Text
Introduction
Main Reports
Summary & Findings
Conclusion

121
Q. What is a Research problem? What are the steps involved in formulating the
Problem?

Ans. Introduction : There is a famous saying that "Problem well defined is half solved".
This statement is true in market research because if the problem is not stated properly,
the objectives will not be clear. Once objective is not clearly defined, data collection
becomes meaningless.

Meaning of Research Problem : A research problem, in general refers to some difficulty

which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

Characteristics of Research Problem:

(1) A basic characteristic of a research problem is that it is "researchable". Researchable
problem is first one that can be investigated through the collection and analysis of
data.
(2) A second major characteristic of a good problem is that it has theoretical or practical
significance.
(3) A third major characteristic of a good problem is that it is a good problem for you.

Components of Research Problem:

(1) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(2) There must be some objectives to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
(3) There must be alternative means for obtaining the objectives one wishes to attain.
This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he
has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(4) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection
of alternatives.
(5) There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.

Defining and Formulating Research Problem:

(1) Statement of the problem in a general way : First of all the problem should be stated
in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some
scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse
himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a
problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field
observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary
survey. Then the researcher can himself state the problem.

122
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(2) Understanding the nature of the problem : The next step in defining the problem is
to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem
is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem
originally came about and with what objectives in view. If the researcher has stated the
problem himself, he should consider once again all those points that induced him to
make a general statement concerning the problem.
(3) Surveying the available literature : All available literature concerning the problem at
hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research
problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with
relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature.
He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related
problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available
for operational purposes.
(4) Developing the ideas through discussions : Discussions concerning a problem
often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such
an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and
others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problem. This is quite often known as an experience survey.
(5) Rephrasing the research problem : Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been
clearly understood, the environment has been defined, discussion over the problem
have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined,
rephrase the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through
rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible
so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of
working hypotheses.
This process can also be explained with the help of following diagram:

Statement of the problem

in a general way

Understanding the nature

of the problem

Surveying the available

literature

123
 Developing the ideas
through discussions

Rephrasing the research

problem
Q. Define Hypothesis. What is the procedure for testing of Hypothesis.
Ans. Meaning of Hypothesis : Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply
means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a
researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he intends to resolve. Thus a
hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an
explanation for the observed phenomenon.
Definition of Hypothesis:
According to George A. Lundberg
"A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. In
its most elementary stage, the hypothesis may be a mere bunch, imaginative data which
becomes the basis for action or investigation.
According to William E. Emory
"When propositions are formulated or empirically tested, they are called hypothesis.
Propositions are combinations of concepts designated by statements that may be judged
true or false, if they refer to observable phenomena.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
(1) Clarity of Concepts : Concepts should not be abstract. If concepts are not clear,
precise problem formulation will be difficult leading to difficulty in data collection.
Concepts are important because it means different to different people.
(2) Specific/ Clear : Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If hypothesis is not clear
and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(3) Ability to Test : Hypothesis should be capable of being tested.
(4) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relational
hypothesis.
(5) Limited in Scope : Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A
researcher must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and
he should develop such hypotheses.

124
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(6) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same
is easily understandable by all concerned.
(7) Consistent : Hypotheses should be consistent.
(8) Statistical Tools : Hypothesis should be such that it is possible to use statistical
techniques. Such as
Ø Anova
Ø Chi-Square Test
Ø T-Test
Ø Other non parametric tests
(9) Logical : If there is two or more hypothesis derived from the same basic theory they
should not contradict each other.
(10) Subjectivity : Researchers subjectivity or his biased judgement should be eliminated
from the hypothesis.
Sources of Hypothesis : Hypothesis can be derived from many sources:
(1) Theory : Theory on the subject can act as a source of hypothesis. We start of from a
general premise and then formulate hypothesis.
Example : Providing employment opportunity is an indicator of social responsibility of a
government enterprise from the above several hypothesis can be deduced.
(i) Public enterprise has greater social concern than other enterprise
(ii) People's perception of government enterprise is social concern.
(iii) Govt. enterprise helps in improving the life of less privileged people.
(2) Observation : People's behavior is observed. In this method we use observed
behavior to infer the attitudes. This is an indirect method of attitude measurement.
(3) Past Experience : Here researcher goes by past experience to formulate the
hypothesis.
(4) Case Studies : Case studies published can be used as a source for hypothesis.
Normally this is done before the launch of a product to find customer taste and
preferences.
Role of Hypothesis :
(1) Hypothesis helps to guide the investigator in the right direction.
(2) What is to be studied is clear to the researcher through hypothesis.
(3) The type of research be it exploratory, descriptive or causal is decided by the
hypothesis
(4) Statistical techniques are determined.

125
Procedure for Testing of Hypothesis :
(1) State the Null Hypothesis as well as the alternative hypothesis : In the context of
statistical analysis, we often talk about null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
Ø If we are to compare method A with method B about its superiority and if we
proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good, then this
assumption is termed as null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally
symbolized as Ho. Null hypothesis states that there is no difference between the
parameter and the statistic that is being compared.
Ø As against this, we may think that the method A is superior or the method B is
inferior, we are then stating what is termed as alternative hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis is generally symbolized as Ha.
Example : For example, let us assume the population mean=100 and set up the hypothesis
µ=100. This is called the null hypothesis and is denoted as;
Null Hypothesis Ho:µ= µ H0 =100
If our sample results do not support this null hypothesis, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis. If we accept Ho, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject Ho, then we
are accepting Ha. For Ho:µ= µ H0 =100, we may consider three possible alternative
hypothesis as follows:
Alternative Hypothesis To be read as follows
Ha:µ ? µ H0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population means is not equal to 100
Ha:µ> µ H0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population mean is greater than 100
Ha:µ< µ H0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population mean is less than 100\
(2) Establish a level of Significance : This is a very important concept in the context of
hypothesis testing. The level of significance signifies the probability of committing
Type 1 error a is generally taken equal to 0.05. Sometimes the value is established as
0.01. , but it is at the discretion of the investigator to select its value, depending upon
the sensitivity of the study. To illustrate per cent level of significance indicates that a
researcher is willing to take 5 per cent risk of rejecting the Null Hypothesis when it
happens to be true.
(3) Choosing a suitable test statistic : Now the researcher would choose amongst the
various tests. Actually for the purpose of rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis, a
suitable statistic called 'test statistics' is chosen. There are the following tests:

126
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Ø Anova Ø Chi-Square Test

Ø T-Test Ø Other non parametric tests
(4) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value : Another step is
to select a random sample and compute an appropriate value from the sample data
concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a
sample to furnish empirical data.
(5) Calculation of the probability : One has then to calculate the probability that the
sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if null hypothesis
were in fact true.
(6) Comparing the probability : Yet another step consists in comparing the probability
thus calculated with the specified value for a, the significance level.
Ø If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the a value in case of one-
tailed test, then reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Ø If the calculated probability is greater than the a value in case of one-tailed test,
then accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis
Flow Diagram for Hypothesis Testing:

State Ho as well as Ha

Specify the level of significance

Choosing a suitable test statistic

Selecting a random sample and

computing an appropriate value

Calculate the probability that sample

result would diverge as widely as
it has expectations, if Ho were true.

Is this probability equal to or smaller than

á value in case of one-tailed test and
á /2 in case of two-tailed test

Yes No

Reject Ho Accept Ho

127
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MBA 3rd Semester (DDE)

UNIT – II

Q. Define Research Design.

Ans. Decision regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an
inquiry or a research study constitute a research design. There are many definitions
of research design.
• Research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data.
• Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of limited resources by
posting crucial choices in methodology.
• Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to
obtain answer to research questions.
• Research design is an agreement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.
The research design decision happen to be in respect of:-
i) What is the study about?
ii) Why is the study being made?
iii) Where will the study be carried out?
iv) What type of data is required?
v) Where can the required data be found?
vi) What period of time will the study include?
vii) What should be sample design?
viii) What technique of data collection will be used?
ix) How will the data be analysed?
x) In what style will the report be prepaid?
In brief research design is a plan or contain
• A clear statement of research problem.
• Procedures and technique to be used for gathering data.

128
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• The population to be studied.

• Methods to be used in processing and analyzing of data.
We can split the overall research design into following parts.
a) Sample Design :– It's deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study.
b) Observational Study :– It's refers to the conditions under which the
observation are to be made.
c) Statistical Design :– It's concerns with the questions of how much items are to
be observed and how the informed and data gathered are to be analysed.
d) Operational Design :– It's deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified is sampling, observational and statistical designs can be carried out.
Importance and Need of Research Design: -
Ø Minimize the Expenditure :– Research design help to reduce the expenditure of
effort, time and money by preparing the advance plan of all the research.
Ø Smooth Flow of Research Operations :– Just as for better, economical and
attractive construction of a house we need a blue print and a map of that, similarly use
need a blue print or a design for the smooth flow of the operation of research.
Ø Provide an Overview to Other Experts :– A research design provide a overview of all
the research process and with the help of the design we can take the help and the
views of the experts of that field.
Ø It's Provide a Direction :– A research design provide a proper or particular direction
to the other executives and others who are helping us in to the process.
Q. What do you mean by Research Design and what are different types of RD?
Ans. The task of defining the research problem is preparation of the design of the research
project, popularly known as the "Research Design". Decisions regarding what,
where, when, how much by what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design. "A RD is the management of conditions for collection
and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure".
RD is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the
blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
We can spilt the overall resign design into following parts:-
a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study.
b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made.

129
 c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are
to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed,
and
d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can
be carried out.
So, we can say that the features of Research Design are:-
1. It's a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
2. It's a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysis
the data.
3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints.
So in brief, we can say that a Research Design, must contain:-
a) A clear statement of the research problem.
b) Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information.
c) The population to be studied and
d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
Need for Research Design :–
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth scailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better,
economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint well thought out and
prepared by an expert architect; similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of
data collection and analysis for our research project. Research design stands for advance
planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to
be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of
staff, time and money. Preparation of research design should be done with great case as
any error in it may upset the entire project.
Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at
and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work. Even
then the need for a well thought out research design is at times not realized by many. The
importance which this problem deserves is not gives to it. As a result many researches do
not serve the purpose for which they are undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading
conclusions. Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the
research exercise futile. It is, therefore imperative that an efficient and appropriate design

130
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

must be prepared before stetting research operations. The design helps the researcher to
organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and
inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their comments and critical
evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to provide
a comprehensive review of the proposed studies.
Features of Good Design
A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
and economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design. The design which
gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many
investigations. Similarly, a design which yields maximal information's provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many Research problems.
A Research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:-
1. The means of obtaining information.
2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
3. The objective of the problem to be studied,
4. The nature of the problem to be studied; and
5. The availability of time and money for the research work.
Types of Research Designs :–
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Diagnostic and
4. Experimental Data Collection
1. RD in case of Exploratory Research Studies :– Exploratory Research Studies are
also termed as FORMULATIVE RESEARCH Studies. The main purpose of such
studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing
the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such
studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the Research Design
appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in Research
design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is
transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact
may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data
generally three methods in the context of RD for such studies are :-

131
 1. Survey of concerning literature.
2. The experience survey and
3. The analysis of 'insight-stimulating' examples

1. The Survey of concerning Literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful
method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis.
Hypothesis stated earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated
as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated
hypothesis suggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and
build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not
yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the
relevant hypothesis from it.

2. Experience Survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For
such a survey people who are competent icon contribute new ideas may be carefully
selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience.
The so selected as may be interview by the investigator, the researcher must prepare
an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But the interview
must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise
issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. This type
of interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Thus an experience survey
may enable the researcher to define the problem not concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information
about the practical possibilities for doing different type of research.

3. Analysis of 'Insight-Stimulating' for example is also a first method for suggesting

hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of
selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose
the existing records, if any, can be examined, the unstructured inter-viewing may take
place. The intensity of study and the ability of researcher to draw together diverse
information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method
an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

2. Research Design in case of Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Studies :

Descriptive research studies are those which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual or of a group, whereas diagnostic determine
the frequency with which something occurs or associate. The studies concerning
whether certain variables are associated or not.

132
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Most of social research comes under this category. From the point. of view of
research design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common require-
ments and as such we may group together. These are two types of research studies.
In both, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and
must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of population
the wants to study. Since aim is to obtain complete and accurate information. The research
design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must maximize
reliability with due concern for economical completion of research study. Focus must be
rigid not flexible.
a) Formulating the objective of study.
b) Designing the methods of data collection.
c) Selecting sample.
d) Collecting the data.
e) Processing the data.
f) Reporting the findings.
In both, the first step is to specify objectives with sufficient precision to ensure that the
data collected are relevant. Then the selecting of methods by which data is to be obtained.
Then next step is that researched take out sample or samples and then wishes to make the
statements about the population on this basis. Then the data which are collected must be
processed and analysed and includes steps like coding, observations etc. tabulating the
date and performing computations and cost is to reporting the finding i.e. the task of
communicating the findings to other and the researcher to do in efficient manes.
3. Research Design in case of Hypothesis-Testing Research Studies : Hypothesis-
testing research studies and those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of
casual relationship between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will drawing inferences about causality.
Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence, when we talk of Research Design
is such studies; we often mean the design of experiment. Today these designs are
being used in researcher relating to phenomena of several disciplines. Since
experimental designs originated in the context of agricultural operations, we still use,
though in a technical sense, several terms of agriculture in experimental designs.
Q. Define universe survey population and sample and census survey.
Ans. Universe or Population : All the items in any field of enquiry is called a universe or a
population. A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to
make some incenses. For example we want make a research on the office employees.
And 4000 persons are working in that office. It's means our population is 4000
persons.

133
Census Survey : A survey which covers all the element of the population is called census
survey. This type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and efforts. This inquiry is
used when the greater accuracy is need in the research. But it's difficult when the field of
inquiry is too large. And this type of inquiry needs great or large resources.
Features of Census Survey
• It's covers all the elements of population.
• Provide greater accuracy.
• Need large resources (money, time, energy).
• Difficult when population is too large.
• Basically adopted by Government.
Sampling :– Selecting some of the element from the population is called sampling. Sample
is subset of the population on universe. Sample is solution of some element of population
for draw conclusion about the entire population. When the population size is large we adopt
this method for conclusion of whole population. This type of inquiry needs less money time
and energy compare to census survey.
Importance of Sampling :–
1. Lower Cost :– Sample survey have economical advantages rather than 9 census
survey. Cost and money is a large resource and much important resource. And why
should we spend thousands of money for interviewing all 4000 employee in our
company if we can find out what we need to know by asking only a few hundred.
2. Accuracy of Results :– A sample survey provide greater accuracy of results. A
research had shown that a census survey provide greater accuracy when the
population is shall. When the population is large we can get the accuracy with sample
survey.
3. Greater Speed of Data Collection :– Sampling's speed of execution reduce the time
between the recognition of a need for information. We can get very quickly the data
and the information which we require with the sampling method.
4. Single method in the case of infinite population.
5. Availability of population element :– Sample is a element of the population and
some time of situations not allowed the census method due to the large loss. So in
that type of cases we need this sample method.
Sample Versus Census
The advantages of sample over census studies are less compelling when the
population is small and the variability with in the population is very high. Two conditions are
appropriate for a census study.

134
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• A census study is possible when the population is small.

• A census study is necessary when the elements are quite different from each
others.
Q. Define sample Design? What are the basis criteria of selecting a sampling
procedure? Write down the characteristics of Good Sample Design.
Ans. Sample Design : A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample for a given
population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting items for the sample. Sample design is determined before the data
collected.
Steps in Sample Design :–
1. Type of Universe :– The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define
the set of objects or universe. Either the universe is finite or infinite or other features of
the universe.
2. Sampling Unit :– A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample. It may be a geographical one such as a city, state etc. or a
construction unit such as house, flat etc. or it may be social unit such as family, club,
school etc. or it may be individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more
such units that he has to select for study.
3. Source List :– It is also known as 'Sampling Frame' from which sample is to be drawn.
It contains of all items of a universe. It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of population as possible.
4. Size of Sample :– This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe
to be constituting a sample. It's an important step because the size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum which fulfills the
requirement of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
5. Parameters of interest :– In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of specific population parameters which are of interest.
6. Budgetary Constraint :– Cost have a major impact upon the decision relating to size
of sample but also to the type of sample.
7. Sampling Procedure :– The researcher must decide about the technique to be used
in selecting the items for the sample. There are many techniques, out of which the
researcher must choose one for his study.
Criteria of selecting sampling procedure a researcher must consider all the points
which can create a error in our result. And all those points and error must consider which
comes in sampling procedure. These factors and error are following:-

135
 • Inappropriate sampling frame.
• Defective measuring device: if our measuring devices are defective like wrong
or non proper questioner and interview creates error in our result.
• Indeterminacy principal: Some time we find that individuals act differently when
kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations.
Characteristics of a Good Sample Design :–
• Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
• Sample design must be such which results is a small sampling error.
• Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research
study.
• Sample design must be such so that systematic first or error can be controlled in
better way.
• Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied.
Q. Write down the various types of sampling.
Ans.
Sampling

Probability Non-probability
Sampling Sampling
1. Probability Sampling :– Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selection - in probability sampling every element of population have a equal chance of
choose as a sample. It's a controlled procedure that ensures that each population
element is given a known non-zero chance of selection.
• It gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the
sample, and all choices are independent of one another.
• It gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen.
2. Simple Random Sampling :– In simple random sampling we close the element with
simple lottery system. We then mix all these slips thoroughly in a container and then
drawn as a lottery either blind foled or by rotating a drum. In simple random sampling
each and every element has equal probability of selection.
Sample Size
Probability of Selection = ---------------------------
Population Size

136
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A simple random sampling is very easy to understand and implement. But it's
take or need a list of population elements and it can be time-consuming and
expansion.
3. Complex Random Sampling :– Probability sampling under restricted sampling
techniques, as started above, may result in complex random sample design. Some of
the popular complex random sampling design are:-
i) Systematic Sampling :– A versatile form of probability sampling is systematic
sampling. In this approach every Kth item or element in the population is
sampled, beginning with a random start of an element in the range of 1 to K. The
Kth element or skip interval is determined by dividing the sample size into
population size to obtain the skip pattern applied to sample frame.
Population Size
K = Skip Interval = ----------------------------
Sample Size
For example we have a population of 100 persons and we need 4 persons as a
sample:-
• Firstly we divide 100 persons in four equal parts K = 25.
• After that we choose one element randomly from first group or 1 to 25th
element.
• After that add every 25th element on that element.
For example if 5 is came in drawn from first selection. Add every 25th item in that
than sample elements are 5th, 30th, 55th, 80th element.
ii) Stratified Sampling :– If a population from which a sample is to be drawn from a
heterogeneous group. It's containing following steps.
• Population is divided into several sub-populations that are individually
more homogeneous then the total population. These sub groups are
called 'strata'.
• After that select randomly one element from each strata to constitute
sample. Basically it is used when the population contain element with
different characteristic for cover each characteristic we used this
sampling. So strata are formed on the basis of common characteristic.
iii) Cluster Sampling :– If the total area of population is too big then we used
cluster sampling. In this we divide our population into a number of smaller and
non over lapping areas and then we select these smaller areas as a sample.
Basically these smaller areas are called cluster.
After converting our population into cluster we select randomly the no. of
cluster which we require for sample.

137
 iv) Area Sample :– If we divide our cluster to be some geographic subdivision, in
that case cluster sampling is better known as area sampling.
v) Multi Stage Sampling :– When the total population is divided into several
stages. The sampling process is carried out through several stages. For
example we want to select 1000 colleagues from southern stage. In first stage
we select any state. In second stage we select some city from that state. After
that we select some colleagues from that city. It's called a multi stage sampling.
2. Non-probability Sampling :– Depending upon the object of inquiry and other
considerations a predetermined number of sample unit is selected. It's called non-
probability sampling.
The probability of selection of the element from the population is unknown.
There is a unequal chance of each element for selection. In this type of sampling a
researcher can select according to their convenience.
Methods of Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience :– In this the researcher have freedom to select any one
according to their convenience.
• Judgement Sampling :– The choice of sample items depends exclusively on
the judgement of the investigation. The investigator's experience and
knowledge about the population will help to select the sample unit.
• Quota Sampling :– Under this design quotas are set up according to some
specified characteristic such as age group, income group etc.
For example :– The sampling quota would call for sampling students at a 55 to 45
percent ratio.
Q. Write down the various methods of Data Collection?
Ans. Methods of Data Collection :– While collecting data, the researcher should keep in
mind about the types of data viz., primary and secondary.
• Primary Data :– are those data which are collected afresh and for the first time
and thus happen to be original in character.
• Secondary Data :– are those which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
The researcher would have to decide which type of data he would be using for
his study and accordingly he will have to select one or other method of data collection.
Several Methods of Collecting Primary Data are :–
i) Observation Method
ii) Interview Method

138
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

iii) Through Questionnaires

iv) Through Schedules
v) Other methods include
a) Warranty Cards
b) Distributor Audits
c) Pantry Audits
d) Consumer Panels
e) Content Analysis
f) Depth Interviews etc.
i) Observation Method :– Under the observation method, the information is sought by
way of investigation own direct observation without asking from the respondent e.g. in
a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator, instead of asking from
respondent about the brand of wrist watch he use, may himself look at the watch.
The main advantages in using this method is that: -
• The subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
• Secondly, the information obtained is related to what is currently happening.
• Thirdly, this method is independent of respondent's willingness to respond.
Some limitations are:-
• It is an expensive method.
• Information provided by this method is very limited.
• Sometimes, unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task.
Observation may be structured, unstructured, participant, non-participant, controlled,
uncontrolled.
While using observation method, the researcher should keep in mind things like:-
• What should be observed?
• How the observations should be recorded?
• How the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
ii) Interview Method :– This method involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through
• Personal Interviews
• Telephonic Interviews

139
a) Personal Interviews :– There are two persons, one is an interviewer who asks
questions and an interviewer, who respond generally maintaining face-to-face
contact. This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it
may be indirect oral investigation.
This method is usually carried out in a structured manner and as such we call the
interviews as Structured Interviews. There are pre-determined questions and of
highly standardized techniques of recording.
The unstructured interviews are characterized by flexibility of approach to questioning.
• Focused interviews is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects.
• Clinical interviews are concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations
or with the course of individual's life experience.
• Non-directive interviews: - In this, the interviewer's function is simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about a given topic with a base minimum of
direct questioning.
b) Telephonic Interviews :– This method consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself it is not a widely used method but plays a vital role in industrial surveys.
iii) Collection of Data through Questionnaires :– In this method, a questionnaire is
sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions
and return the questionnaire.
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order
on a form or set of forms.
Merits
a) Low cost involved.
b) Free from the bias of an interviewer.
c) Respondents have adequate time to give answers.
Demerits
a) This method can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating.
b) Slowest method of collecting response of respondents.
c) Low rate of return of dully filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is
often indeterminate.
Main Aspects of a Questionnaire:-
1. General Form :– It can either be structured or unstructured. It may be closed (i.e. of
the type 'Yes' or 'No') or open (i.e. inviting free response).

140
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. Question Sequence :– A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the

chances of individual questions being misunderstood.
• Questions that put too great a strain on the memory should be avoided.
• Questions of personal character should also be avoided.
• Questions related to personal wealth should not be asked.
3. Question Formulation and Wording :– Questions should be very and impartial in
order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. In general all questions
should meet the following standards:-
• Should be easily understood.
• Should be simple.
• Should be concrete.
• Should conform as much as possible to the respondent's way of thinking.
4. Collection of Data through Schedules :– Schedules are a set of questions
contained in a Performa and there is a little difference lies in schedules and
questionnaires.
Schedules are being filled in by enumerators, who are specially appointed for
the purpose.
These enumerators, along with the schedules, go to respondents, put to them
the questions from the Performa in the order the questions are listed and record the
replies in the space meant for the same in the Performa.
This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or
assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very
carefully selected and should be trained to perform their job well.
This method is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable
results, but however, very expensive and is usually adopted in governmental
investigations or some big organizations.
Collection of Secondary Data
Secondary data means data that are already available i.e. they refer to the data which
have already been collected and analysed by someone else. Secondary data may either be
1. Published Data
2. Unpublished Data
1. Usually Published data are available in:-
• Various publications of the central, state or local governments.
• Various publications of foreign governments.
• Technical and trade journals.

141
 • Books, magazines and newspapers.
• Reports and publications of various associations connected with business and
industry, banks, stock exchanges etc.
• Reports prepared by research scholars, universities etc. in different fields.
• Public records and statistics, historical documents etc.
By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they
possess following characteristics:-
a) Reliability of Data :– The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the
said data :-
i) Who collected the data?
ii) What were the sources of data?
iii) Were they collected by using proper methods?
iv) At what time were they collected?
b) Suitability of Data :– The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily
be found suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be
unsuitable, they should not be used by the researcher.
c) Adequacy of Data :– If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for
the purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should
not be used by the researcher.
Selection of an appropriate method for Data Collection
• Nature, Scope and object of enquiry :– An important factor affecting choice of
a particular method is nature, scope and object of an enquiry. The method
selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is to be conducted by
the researcher.
• Availability of Funds :– Finance, in fact, is a big constraints in practice and the
researcher has to act within this limitation.
• Time Factor :– Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a
particular method of data collection.
• Precision required :– It is also another vital time of selecting the method of data
collection.

142
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MBA 3rd Semester (DDE)

UNIT – III

Q. What do you means by scaling? Write down the types of measured scale and
problems of scaling?
Ans. Scaling is the procedure for assignment of numbers or other symbols to a property of
objects in order to impart some of the characteristic of numbers to the properties in
question. We can assign numbers to indicate of the properties of objects.
The scheduling being a function of the rules under which the number are
assigned.
Types of measurement scales
a) Nominal Scale :– Nominal scale is simple a system of assigning number or symbols
to event in order to label them. For example provide the number. to cricket player for
identify them. These numbers are just convenient labels, the way of keeping events
and as such have no quantitative value. For example if we provide no. 1 to 10 to ten
player. It does not mean that 10 > 2 etc. This is just a label.
Nominal scale is a least power full tool of measurement. It indicates no order or
distance relationship and has no arithmetic origin. It's simply describing difference
between things by assigning them to categories.
b) Ordinal Scale :– Ordinal scale only permits the ranking of the item from highest to
lowest. The ordinal scale place event into order, but there is attempted to make the
interval of the scale equal in the team of some rules. Rank order repugnant the ordinal
scale. For example providing the rank to the student in a class is a ordinal scale like
Ram have 10th rank in the class and Sham have 30th rank in the class. It does not
mean that Ram's position 3 times good than the Sham. Because of there is no interval
scale in that. It is first order from highest to lowest.
In this scale we can say that which element is highest and which is lowest but we
can not make any comparison on them. It's just told which one is highest. Because of
the difference between the rank 1 and 2 may be equal or unequal with the difference
between 5 and 6. So it's first for the ranking.

143
c) Interval Scale :– In this we provide the intervals. The intervals are adjusted in term of
some scale that has been established as basis for making the units equal. For
example increase in the temperature from 300 to 400. We can say that the increase of
100 C in the temperature. But we can't say that 600 are twice than the 300. Because
of both are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the
temperature of freezing point of water.
d) Ratio Scale :– Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of
physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance etc.
Problems in Measurement Scaling
1. Problem Related with Respondent :– If the respondent have a very little knowledge
but may not admit his ignorance. He gave the answers with guesses and many other
major which create problem to respond accurately and fully.
2. Situation :– Situational factor may also come in the way of correct scaling. A
respondent can gave the different answers in the different situation.
3. Measurer :– The inter viewer can distort responsibility rewarding or reordering
questions. His behaviour, style, look may encourage or discourage certain replies
from respondents. Careless mechanical processing may distort the findings.
4. Instrument :– Error may create because of using defective measuring instrument.
The use of context words, ambiguous meaning, poor printing, and inadequate space
for replies, etc. which makes the measuring instrument defective.
Q. Write down the validity and reliability of scale and the relationship among
them?
Ans. Validity of Scale :– A valid measure is one that provides the information that it was
intended to provide. The purpose of a thermometer, for example, is to provide
information on the temperature, and if it works correctly, it is a valid thermometer.
Test of Validity
Validity indicates the degree to which an instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure. Validity is the extent to which differences found with a
measuring instrument reflect true differences among those being tested.
Type of Validity
a) Content Validity :– It is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides
adequate coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a
representative sample of universe, the content validity is good. It can be determined
by the using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument
meets the standards.

144
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

b) Criterion-related Validity :– This form of validity reflects the success of measuring

used for some empirical estimating purpose criterion related actually refers to
i) Predictive Validity
ii) Concurrent Validity
i) Predictive Validity :– It's refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting some
future performance.
ii) Concurrent Validity :– It's refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to
other measure of other validity.
c) Constraint Validity :– A measure is said to possess construct validity to the degree
that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical proposition. It is the
extent to which your items are tapping into the underlying theory. It's how well the
items hang together or distinguish different people on certain traits or behaviour.
Reliability :– It's means that the findings would be consistently the same if the study were
done overaghan. A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results.
The Reliability contains two aspects:-
i) Stability
ii) Equivalence
Stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent result with repeated
measurement of the same person and with same instrument.
Equivalency aspect considers how much error may get introduced by different
investigator or sample of the items being studies. We can improve this by two ways:-
i) By standardizing the conditions under which the measurement takes place.
ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group
to group.
Methods of Measuring Reliability:-
i) Test Retest :– The Test Retest in the same group technique is to administer your test,
instrument, survey, or measure to some group of people at difficult point in time.
ii) Multiple Forms :– The multiple forms technique has other names, such as parallel
forms and disguised test retest, it's simply the scrambling or mixing up of questions on
your survey. For Example: - Giving it to the same group twice. It's a more vigorous
test of reliability.
Relationship Between Reliability and Validity: - A reliable instrument need not be a
valid instrument. For instance, a scale that consistently overweighs objects by five
Kgm., is a reliable scale, but it does not gave a valid measure of weight. But the other
way is not true means a valid instrument is always reliable.

145
 Reliable but Not reliable Reliable and valid
not valid but valid

Q. Write down the rating and ranking scale and the basis of classification of
scales?

Ans. 1. Rating Scales :– The rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited
number of aspects of a thing or of traits of a person. We judge an object in absolute
term against some specific criteria. These ratings may be in such forms as "like-
dislike", "above average, average-below average. There is no specific rule whether to
use two point scale, three paint scale, or scale still with more points.

Rating scale may be either a graphic scale or an itemized rating scale:-

i) The Graphic Rating Scale :– In this various prints are usually put along the line to
form a continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply making a mark (such as
ü) at the appropriate point on the line.

Example of five points scale

How do you like the Product?

Like Very Like Some Neutral Dislike Some

Dislike
Much What What Very Much

Limitation of Graphic Scale

• Find the real meaning of like, dislike is a difficult work for the respondent so it's
always very difficult for respondent to analyse the question?

ii) The Itemized Rating Scale :– It's also known as numerical scale. Its presents a
series of statements from which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his
evaluation. These statements are ordered progressively in the term of more or less of
some property. Example, suppose we wish to inquire as to how well does a worker get
along with his fellow workers? In such a situation we may ask the respondent to select
one, to express his opinion, from the following:-
• He is almost always involved in some friction with fellow workers.
• He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers.
• He sometime gets involved in friction.
• He infrequently becomes involved in friction with others.
• He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers.

146
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Advantages of Rating Scale

• Provide favourable results compare with other methods.
• Requires less time.
• Easy and interesting to use.
• Wide range of applications.
2. Ranking Scales :– In this respondents directly compare two or more objects and
make choices among them.
a) Method of Paired Comparison :– Under it, respondent can express his attitude by
making a choice between two objects, say between a new flavour of soft drink and an
established brand of drink. But when there are more than two to judge. The number of
judgement required in a period comparison is given by formula.
n(n-1)
N = --------------
2
N = number of judgement
n = number of object to be judged
b) Method to Rank Order :– Under this method of comparative scaling, the respondents
are asked to rank their choices. For example with 10 items according to Paired
comparison we takes 45 pair comparisons to complete the task, whereas the method
of rank order simply require ranking of 10 items only.
Classification of Scale on the Basics
a) Subject Orientation :– Under it a scale may be designed to measure characteristics
of the respondent who competetes it or to judge the stimulus object which is presented
to the respondent.
b) Response Form :– Under this way may classify the scales as categorical and
comparative. Categorical scales are also knowing as rating scales and comparative
scales we also known as ranking scales. In this respondent is asked to compare two
or more objects.
c) Degree of Subjecting :– With this basis the scale data may be based on whether we
measure subjective personal preferences or simply make non-preference judgement.
In subjective personal, the respondent is asked to close which person he
favours.
In non preference simply asked to judge which person is most effective in some
aspect.

147
d) Scale Properties :– We can classified the scales as nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio scale.
e) Number of Dimensions :– In respect of this basis scales are classified as
'undimensional' and 'multidimensional' scale. In first we measure only one attribute
of respondent or object. But in second an object might be described better by using
the concept of an attribute space of 'n' dimensions.
f) Scale Construction Techniques :– According to different techniques of the
construction of scales.
i) Arbitary Approach ii) Differential Scales
iii) Sumnated Scales iiii) Cumulative Scales
Q. Write down the various scale construction techniques?
Ans. 1. Arbitary Scales :– These scales are developed on adhoc basis and are designed
largely through the researcher's first collects few statement or items which he believes
are unambiguous and appropriate to a given topic. Some of these are selected for
inclusion in the measuring instrument and then people are asked to checking list the
statement with which they agree.
Advantages :–
• It can develop very easily, quickly.
• It's very less expensive.
• It can used in various applications.
• It can be designed to be highly specific and adequate.
Limitations :–
• We do not have objective evidence that such scales measures.
2. Differential Scale (or Thurstone-type Scales) :– The L.L Thursontone developed
that scale. The procedure to developed that scale is following:-
a) Firstly researcher gather large number of statements, that express the points related
to the topic area.
b) These statements are then submitted to a panel of judges, each of whom arranges
them in eleven groups or piles ranging from one extreme to another in position. Each
of the judges is requested to place generally in the first pile the statements which he
thinks are most unfavourable to the issue, in the second pile to place those statements
which is thinks, are next most unfavourable and he goes on doing so in the manner till
in the relevant pile he puts the statement which he considered to be most favourable.
c) This sorting by each judge yields a composite position for each of the item. In case of
market disagreement between the judges is assigning a position to an item that item is
disordered.

148
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

d) For item that are retained, each is given its medium sale value between one and
eleven as established by panel.
e) A final selection of statements is then made. For this purpose a sample of statements,
whose medium stores are spread evently from one extreme to other is taken. The
statements so selected, constitute the final scale to be administered to respondents.
This type of scale considers more appropriate and reliable when used for
measuring a single attitude. But its too costly and required more efforts. Another
weakness is that the value assigned to various statements by the judges may reflect
their own attitude.
3. Summated Scales (or likert type scales) :– This scale consist of a number of
statements which express either a favourable or unfaverable attitude towards the
given object to which the respondent is asked to react. The respondent indicates his
agreement or disagreement with each statement in the instrument.
Each response is given a numerical score, and the scores are totalled to measure the
respondent's attitude. In likert scale, the respondent is asked to respond to each of
the statement in terms of several degrees, usually five degrees (but at times 3 or 7
may also be used) of agreement or disagreement.
Example
Strongly Agree Undivided Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree
Each point on the scale carries a score for example Strongly agree (Say 5) and
strongly disagree (Say1). Normally these sore are not printed on the instrument.
Something are done or each and every statement in the instrument. For example a
instrument contain 40 statements. The following score values world be revealing.
40 x 5 = 200Most favourabal response
40 x 3 = 120Neutral Attitude
40 x 1 = 40 most on favorable response
So the store of an individual world fall between 40 to 200, and if the total is more
than 120 it's means it shows a favourable opinion.
Procedure to Develop Likert Scale
1. Collects the large numbers of statements which are relevant to studies. After that
provide definite favourablen or unfavourable to a particular point of view or the
attitude.
2. After that statement has being gathered, a trial test should be administered to a
number of subjects.

149
3. The response to various statements are stored in such a way that a response
indicative of the most favourable attitude is given a highest score.

4. Then the total score of each respondent is obtained by adding its scores that he
received for separate statements.

5. The next step is to array these total scores and find out those statements which have a
high discriminatory power. And determined which statements consistently carrelate
with low favourable and which with high favourable.

6. Only those statements that are correlated with the total test should be retrieved in the
final instrument and all others must be discarded from it.

Advantages of Likert Scale

a) Its very easy to constant.

b) Likert Scale is considered more reliable and also provides more information and data
compare to thrustone type scale.

c) Its too less time consuming and less costly limitations.

d) We can simply know that respondents are favourable or unfavourable to a topic. But
we can tell how much.

e) There is no basis for belief that the five positions indicated on the scale are equally
spud.

The interval between 'strongly agree and agree' may not be equal to 'strongly disagree
and disagree'.

From above discussion, we can say that Likert type scale is regarded as the most
useful in a situation where in it. It is possible to compare to respondents score with a
distribution of score from the well defined group.

4. Cumulative Scales :– Cumulative scale is also known as Louis Buttman's Scalogram

analysis. This scale consists of series of statements to which a respondent express his
agreement or disagreement. The special feature of this type of scale is that
statements in it form a Cumulative series.

The statements are in order and related to one another in such a way that an
individual, who replies favourably to say item No. 3, also replies favourably to item No.
2 and 1, and one who want to replies No. 4 also replies 3, 2 and 1.

The individual's score is worked out lay counting the number of points concerning the
number of statements the answer favourably.

150
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Item Numbers Respondent Score

4 3 2 1
ü ü ü ü 4
- ü ü ü 3
- - ü ü 2
- - - ü 1
- - - - 0
A score of 4 means that the respondent is in agreement with all the statements
which is indicative of the most favourable attitude. And score 3 means respondent
agree with first three statements but not for fourth.
Procedure for Preparing Scalogram
a) We must lay down in clear terms that issue we want to deal within our study.
b) Develop a number of items relating the issue and to element by inspection the items
that are irrelevant.
c) The third step consists in pre-testing the items to determine whether the issue at hand
is scalable.
In pre-test we include more items and fewer respondents and in the pre-test
respondent are asked to reward their opinions on all selected items using a likert-type.
Point scale, ranging from strongly agrees to strongly disagree. And provide the
strongest favourable response is highest scored (say 5) and lowest to most
unfavourable score (say 1).
Respondents total score are then arranged according to total score for analysis
and evaluation if the response of an item from a cummulative scale, its response
category score should decress in orderly fashion as indicated in above table.
Earlier to slow the said decresse pattern means that there is overlapping which slows
that item concerned is not a good cummulative scale items. After analyzing some
items, say 5 items may be chosen.
d) The next step is again to total the scores for the various opinionnaries and to rearrange
them and prepare a final result in a scologram analysis. For example five items are
selected like (5, 12, 3, 10, and 7) and number of respondent is 25 who response in
various items have been tabulated along with number of errors.
A perfect scale types are those in which the respondent's answers fit the pattern
that be respondent by using the person's total score as a guide.

151
Scale Type Items Error per Number of Number
Error 5 12 3 10 7 Case Cases of Error
5 (Perfect) ü ü ü ü ü 0 7 0
4 (Perfect) - ü ü ü ü 0 3 0
(Non Scale) - ü - ü ü 1 1 1
(Non Scale) - ü ü - ü 1 2 2
3 (Perfect) - - ü ü ü 0 5 0
2 (Perfect) - - - ü ü 0 2 0
1 (Perfect) ü 0 1 0
(Non Scale) - - ü - - 2 1 2
- - - ü - - 2 1 2
0 (Perfect) - - - - - 0 2 0
Non scale types are those in which the category pattern differs from that
expected from the respondent's total score. Whether the series of statement selected
for final scale may be regarded a perfect cumulative, we have to examine on the basis
of efficient of reproducibility. Butman has set 9 as the level of minimum reproducity.
Coefficient of Reproducity = 1 - e / n(N)
n = Number of items
N = Number of cases
1 - 7 / 5(25) = 94
In above example its 94 it's means that the items in this order constitute the
cumulative.

152
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MBA 3rd Semester (DDE)

UNIT – IV

Q. Define Interpretation. What are the techniques and precautions of

interpretation?
Ans. Introduction : Interpretation means bring out the meaning of data or we can say that
interpretation is to convert data into information. The essence of any research is to
draw conclusion about the study. This requires high degree of skill. Successful
interpretation depends on 'How well the data is analyzed'. If data is not properly
analyzed, the interpretation may go wrong. If analysis has to be corrected, then data
collection must be proper. Similarly if data collected is proper but analyzed wrongly,
then also the interpretation or conclusion will be wrong. Sometimes even with proper
data and proper analysis, can still lead to wrong interpretation. Interpretation depends
on experience of the researcher and methods used by him for interpretation.
Precautions in Interpretation:
(1) At the outset, researcher must invariable satisfy himself that
(i) The data are appropriate and trustworthy.
(ii) The data reflect good homogeneity and that
(iii) Proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
(2) The researcher must remain cautions about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due
to wrong interpretation of statistical measures.
(3) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those
precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis
viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation
and comparison of result.
(4) The researcher must remember that "ideally in the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical

153
 orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity
lie". He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of
interpretation.
(5) Keep the main objective of the research in mind
(6) Analysis of data should start from simpler and more fundamental aspects
(7) It should not be confusing
(8) Sample size should be adequate
(9) Take care before generalization of the sample studied
(10) Give due attention to significant questions.
Techniques :– As the interpretation task is not an easy job, and requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researches. It is an art that one learns through practice and
experience and the researcher sometimes, seek guidance from experts for accomplishing
the task of interpretation.
Technique involves following steps:-
1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interrupt the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and
must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his
diversified research findings. In fact, this is the technique of how generalization
should be done and concepts be formulated.
2. Extraneous Information :– If collected during the study, must be considered while
interpretation the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in
understanding the problem under consideration.
3. It is usually advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, the consult
someone having insight into the study and who is franc and honest and will not
hesitate to point out the omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such
consultation will result in correct interpretation and hence will enhance the utility of
research results.
4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation, only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no
hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be
sight at the beginning, may not at all accenate.
Q. Define Research Report. Explain the Objectives and Types of Research Report.
Ans. Introduction : The final step in any research is to complete the findings into a
summarized format. It is often said that without a research report the research remains
valueless as it cannot be communicated accurately and effectively to the persons who
are responsible for policy decisions.

154
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Research Report : A research report is more or less an official document that
presents the information for an interested reader. It involves investigation and analysis and
the facts may lead to conclusions and recommendation. The facts must be accurate,
complete easy to find and usually must be interpreted. They provide valuable record for the
business. They can also be made use of in future
A research Report can be Defined as:
"The process of communicating the results of an investigation. It is a document which
reflects the research conducted and the care that has been exercised throughout the study".
Characteristics of a Good Research Report :
(1) Grammatical Accuracy : The grammatical accuracy of language is of fundamental
importance. It is one of the basic requisite of a good report as of any other piece of
composition.
(2) Accuracy of Facts : The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report.
(3) Simple and unambiguous language : A good report is written in a simple,
unambiguous language
(4) Reader Orientation : A good report is always reader oriented. While drafting a report,
it is necessary to keep in mind the persons who are going to read it.
(5) Objectivity of Recommendation : If recommendations are made at the end of a
report, they must be impartial and objective. They should come as a logical conclusion
to investigation and analysis.
(6) Clarity : The report writer must proceed systematically. He should make his purpose
clear,define his source, state his findings and finally make necessary
recommendations. He should divide his report into short paragraphs giving them
headings.
(7) Relevance : The facts presented in a report should be only accurate but relevant also.
Objectives/Purpose of a Research Report:
(1) To provide information to some one who is interested in gathering such information or
who wishes to make use of this information in one way or the other
(2) To have the full knowledge about a fact.
(3) To make use of the report either for reference or for any other purpose in future.
Types of Report :
(1) Technical Report : In the technical report the main emphasis is on
Ø The method employed
Ø Assumptions made in the course of the study
Ø The detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.

155
A technical report consists of the following aspects:

i. Major Findings and Contents : A technical report will contain the main findings just in
two or three pages.

ii. Nature of the Research Work : This describes

Ø The general objectives of the study
Ø Formulation of the problem in operational items
Ø The working hypothesis
Ø The type of analysis
Ø Data required, etc.

iii. Research Methodology : This explains the various methods used in the study and
their limitations. For instance:
Ø Sample Size
Ø Sample Selection etc.

iv. Data Analysis : The report analyses the data and their sources, characteristics and
limitation. If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand is fully
assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully
described.

v. Presentation of Findings : The researcher presents his main findings of the study
with supporting data in the form of tables and charts.

vi. Main Conclusion : Here, the main findings of the research are presented and the
main body of the report, usually extending over several chapters.

vii. Bibliography : This contains the main sources of secondary data.

viii. Technical appendices : This contain all technical matters relating to questionnaire,
mathematical derivation etc.

Conclusion : The above format provides a general idea of the nature of a technical report;
the order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all technical reports. Therefore,
the presentation may differ.

(2) Popular Report : The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through
Ø Clear writing
Ø Minimization of technical
Ø Particularly mathematical
Ø Detail and liberal use of charts and diagrams.

156
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The following is the general outline of a popular report:

(i) Major Findings and Conclusions : The report will have findings of practical interest
and their implications.
(ii) Follow-up Action : It will suggest follow-up action on the basis of the findings of the
study in this section.
(iii) Objectives of the Study: Here the problem is presented, along with the specific
objectives of the study.
(iv) Methodology : Here, a description of the methods and techniques used, including a
short review of the data on which the study is based is provided.
(v) Results : This is the main body of the report, presented in clear and non-technical
terms with the liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as
Ø Charts
Ø Diagrams and the like.
(vi) Appendices : This consists of detailed information on the methods used, forms, etc.
Appendices are generally not included if the report is meant for the general public.
(3) Oral Reports : An oral report is a piece of face to face communication about
something seen or observed. An oral report is a simple and easy to present. This type
of reporting is required, when the researchers is asked to make an oral presentation.
Making oral presentation is somewhat difficult compared to written report. This is
because; the reporter has to interact directly with the audience. Any faltering during
oral presentation can leave a negative impression on the audience. In oral
presentation, communication plays a big role. Lot of planning and thinking is required
to decide
Ø What to say
Ø How to say
Ø How much to say
(4) Written Report : A written report enjoys several advantages over the oral one:
Ø An oral report can be denied at any time. But a written report is a permanent
record. The reporter cannot deny what he has reported once.
Ø A written report can be referred to again and again
Ø A written report can change hands without any danger of distortion during
transmission.
(5) Informal Reports : An informal report is usually in the form of a person to person
communication. An informal report is usually submitted in the form of a letter, or a
memorandum.

157
(6) Formal Report : A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed form and is
presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed authority. Formal
report can be statutory or non statutory.
(7) Routine Reports : These are of two types:
(i) Progress Reports: When government departments give work on contract they
insist on such reports from contractors. These enable the government to know
whether the work is progressing according to schedule.
(ii) Annual Confidential reports on employees: Most organizations make a periodic
evaluation of the performance and general conduct of their employees.
Periodical reports are prepared at regular intervals to indicate the working of a
section or a department. These reports are usually prepared by filing in a printed
form since the information required is of a routine nature and can be tabulated.
(8) Special Reports : These reports cannot be prepared by filling in forms; they require
special skills in collecting facts and presentation. The people who prepare these
reports are responsible and senior persons. Special reports may be categorized into
following categories:
(i) Inventory Report : Inventory report is customary for every organization to take
stock of equipment, furniture and stationery etc., at regular intervals. The
person, who checks the stock, fills in his findings in a prescribed form.
(ii) Survey Report : Survey report is written when a particular area or field has to be
surveyed and its condition observed and recorded.
(iii) Project Report : Project report is prepared after a proposal takes shape and
usually after the preliminary survey has been completed.
(iv) Inspection Report : Inspection report is written when an inspection is assigned
to a person; an auditor, an officer from the Head-office, or any senior officer may
be assigned the task of making an inspection of a branch or a section.
(v) Investigation Report : Investigation report is prepared after an investigation
has been made when a problem cannot be easily solved; the cause need careful
searching, analysis and consideration. When there are losses, labour problems,
poor sales, customer complaints, falling sales, a senior person or a committee of
senior persons is appointed to investigate the causes. It is difficult to make an
investigation and the task requires collection of facts which are not easy to get.
The collected data have to be analysed and interpreted; conclusions have to be
drawn from the analysis and solutions to the problem have to be recommended.
Q. Explain the Format and Contents of a Research Report
Ans. Introduction : The final step in any research is to complete the findings into a
summarized format. It is often said that without a research report the research remains
valueless as it cannot be communicated accurately and effectively to the persons who
are responsible for policy decisions.

158
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Research Report : A research report is more or less an official document that
presents the information for an interested reader. It involves investigation and analysis and
the facts may lead to conclusions and recommendation. The facts must be accurate,
complete easy to find and usually must be interpreted. They provide valuable record for the
business. They can also be made use of in future
A research Report can be Defined as:
"The process of communicating the results of an investigation. It is a document which
reflects the research conducted and the care that has been exercised throughout the study".
Format/Contents of a Research Report: Report is the crux of the research work done
by the researcher as it complies all the data and presents it in actionable form. The research
report communicates the efforts spent in the investigation and should be presented in such a
way that readers are able to understand it easily. In short, the research report should be
prepared keeping in mind the following format: -

Title Page

Letter of Transmission

Table of Contents

Acknowledgement and Forward

Introduction and explanation of Problem

Research Methodology

Field Work

159
 Analysis

Findings

Limitations of the Research

Conclusions and Recommendations

Synopsis

Appendix

Bibliography

(1) Title Page : It is the first and the most important part of the report. Title page should
indicate the topic on which report is prepared. It should include the name of the person
or agency who has prepared the report, the date of submission of the report is to be
included in the report. It is a part which automatically comes first to the sight of the
reader and creates the first impression about the work in his mind. The title should be
able to clarify the following aspects:
Ø What it is
Ø Where it was carried out
Ø What are the special features involved in it.
(2) Letter of Transmission : It indicates to whom the reported research is directed, the
reason for doing the work and the official authorization to conduct and start the
investigation.
(3) Table of Contents : The table of contents will help the reader to know 'what report
contains? Table of content should indicate the various parts or sections of the report. It
should also indicate the chapter heading along with page number.

160
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Table of Contents
Section Description Page No.
I Background, purpose of the study 1-3
II Methodology 4-8
III Analysis and Interpretations 9-10
IV Findings 11-12
V Recommendations 13
VI Conclusions 14
VII Appendix
a) Questionnaire 16-25
b) Exhibits 26-40
c) Bibliography 41

(4) Acknowledgement and Forward : It introduces the research project to the reader
giving the background of the problem, its importance, various dimensions of the
problems, whether any previous research pertinent to the specific project being
reported was done or not. It should provide enough information so that the reader may
understand why the study was undertaken.
(5) Introduction and Explanation of the Problem : The problem should be briefly
described and its salient features should be brought out. The explanation should cover
the following points:
Ø Scope of work
Ø Hypothesis on which research is based
Ø Historical Background
Ø Reasons for doing the research
Ø Objectives to be achieved.
(6) Research Methodology : The method employed in investigation depends on the
purpose and scope of the inquiry. The following lines describe the research procedure
covering the following points:
(a) Research design used
(b) Data collection method
(c) Sampling Scheme

161
(7) Field Work : This should give an indication about the accuracy with which the
investigation was done. A general summary of the degree of competence shown by
the field people must also be given.

(8) Analysis : If some special statistical techniques are used, then the same should be
mentioned.

(9) Findings : The findings should be presented keeping in view the objectives of the
study. A list of the information needed for the objectives should limit the scope of the
findings presented. The supporting arguments for the recommendations should be
included and alternatives be analysed and evaluated.

(10) Limitations of the Research : A good report tells the results of the study but every
project has its own limitations. Every research project has shortcomings which need to
be communicated in a clear manner.

(11) Conclusions and Recommendations : Conclusions from the research investigation

should be drawn with direct reference to the objectives of the study. Specific
conclusions relating to each objective should be found out. As far as the
recommendations of the findings are concerned, it is not always possible for the
researcher to draft these properly. Making recommendations requires thorough
knowledge about the policies and resources of the organization as well as the merits
and demerits of various alternative actions possible for the problem situation. For
effective and useful formulation of the recommendations, a close interaction and
understanding between the decision maker and the researcher is necessary.

(12) Executive Summary/Synopsis : It enables an executive to quickly grasp the

importance of the research. The synopsis precedes detailed reasoning. The
executive summary is written specially for decision makers and should enable them to
take action

The Executive Summary should Include:

(i) Objectives of the research project
(ii) Nature of the decision problem
(iii) Key results
(iv) Conclusions
(v) Recommendations for action.

(13) Appendices : The purpose of the appendix is to provide a place for material which is
not absolutely essential to the body of the report. This material is typically more
specialized and complex than the material presented in the main report and it is
designed to serve the needs of the technically oriented reader.

162
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(14) Bibliography : It contains detailed information about the references or source of

material from where the help is being taken to conduct the research and in preparation
of the research report.
Q. What are the different steps in report writing?
Ans. Introduction : The final step in any research is to complete the findings into a
summarized format. It is often said that without a research report the research remains
valueless as it cannot be communicated accurately and effectively to the persons who
are responsible for policy decisions.
Meaning of Research Report : A research report is more or less an official document that
presents the information for an interested reader. It involves investigation and analysis and
the facts may lead to conclusions and recommendation. The facts must be accurate,
complete easy to find and usually must be interpreted. They provide valuable record for the
business. They can also be made use of in future
A research report can be defined as:
"The process of communicating the results of an investigation. It is a document which
reflects the research conducted and the care that has been exercised throughout the study".
Different Steps in Writing Report:
(1) Logical Analysis of the Subject Matter : It is the first step which is primarily
concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop
a subject
(i) Logically : The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis
Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple
possible to the most complex structures.
(ii) Chronologically : Chronological development is based on a connection or
sequence in time or occurrence.
(2) Preparation of the Final Outline : It is the next step in writing the research report
"outlines are the framework upon which long written works are constructed.
(3) Preparation of the Rough Draft : This follows the logical analysis of the subject and
the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the
researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research
study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his
study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by
him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to
offer regarding the problem concerned.

163
(4) Rewriting and Polishing of the Rough Draft : This step happens to be most difficult
part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the
rough draft. The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good
piece of writing.
(5) Preparation of the Final Bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the
preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography which is generally appended to
the research report is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has
been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted.
Q. What is the layout of Report?
Ans. Introduction : Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be
conveyed enough about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific
context, judge the adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously
the findings one to be taken. And for this, there is need of proper layout of Report.
Layout means as to what the research report should contain.
Layout of Research Report
(1) Preliminary Pages :– It includes a title and date, followed by acknowledgement in the
form of 'Preface'. Then there should be table of contents followed by the list of tables
and illustrations so that decision-maker interested in reading the report can easily
locate the required information in the report.
(2) Main Text :– The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along
with all details. Title of research study is repeated at the top of first page of main text
and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with
the second page. The main text of report should have following sections :-
(i) Introduction :– In this introduction of the research project is there. It contains a
clear statement of the objectives of research i.e. background should be given to
make clear to the read that why the problem was considered worth investigation.
A priet summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the
present study can be seen in that context.
(ii) Statement of Findings and Recommendations :– After introduction, the
research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in
non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If
the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in
standardized form.
(iii) Results :– A detailed presentation of findings of the study, with supporting data
in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next
step in writing the main text of the report. This generally comprises the main
body of report.

164
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(iv) Implications of the Results :– The end of main text, the researcher should
again put down the research clearly and precisely. He should, state the
implication for understanding the human behaviour. Such implications are -
a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be
expected to apply in similar circumstances.
b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.
c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new question
raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that
would provide answers to then.
(v) It has become customary to conclude the research report with a brief summary,
resting in the brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings
and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
(3) End Matter :– At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations
and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical
listing of names, places and topical along with the numbers of the pages in a book or
report on which they or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report.
The value of INDEX lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents
is the report.

165