8 1 Engineering Management Ontology

1.1.2.2 Four Characteristics of Technological Innovation

Technological innovation activities are characterized by diversity, selectivity, and

phase, that is, four characteristics.
Innovation is the core of technological activities. Innovation includes invention
and innovation. The invention refers to the research of a technology that has not
been done before. Innovation is based on the main body of the original technology,
improving several technical aspects. Both inventions and innovations are carried out
by the demand of life and production activities and therefore have obvious utilitarian
purposes. There are also a few technical inventions and innovations that are due to
personal interests, hobbies, or curiosities and have no specific utilitarian purpose.
There are many ways and means of technological innovation. Therefore, a particular
problem can be solved by many technologies, that is, the diversity of technologies. In
real life and production activities, there is often only one needed technology to solve
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a specific problem, and it must be selected from a variety of technologies. This kind
of selection is based on economics, convenience, and social acceptability, resulting
in selectivity. Any type of technology must constantly improve with the development
of the times. There is no end to technological innovation activities; that is, no best,
only better. This is the phased character of technical activity.
Simple mineral water bottles can be used as an example to demonstrate the char-
acteristics of innovation, diversity, selectivity, and phase of the technology. Besides
widely used plastic, glasses, metal, and ceramic can also be used, that is diversity.
Plastic bottles are widely used nowadays because of their light weight, low price,
convenient transportation, and convenient use. But plastic bottle also has drawbacks.
For example, once the mineral water is stored for too long or the environmental
temperature is too high, a considerable amount of plasticizer may enter the mineral
water, adversely affecting our health. Therefore, the use of plastic bottles is a compro-
mise at the current stage. With the continuous development of technology, it is highly
probable to invent a new mineral water container that is light, inexpensive, durable,
hygienic, and healthy.

1.2 Engineering

1.2.1 The Definition of Engineering

Looking at engineering from different perspectives will have different understand-

ings. Engineering in Encyclopedia Britannica means: “A specialized technique that is
applying scientific knowledge to enable natural resources to provide the best services
to humans.” The designer of engineering is called an engineer. A scientist’s duty is
how to recognize, but the duty of an engineer is how to realize [11]. Some literature
also considers engineering as the application of science.
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 1.2 Engineering 9

In fact, engineering is prior to science from the perspective of the history of human
development. Before they had corresponding scientific knowledge, humans could
build houses to shelter from the wind and rain and construct roads and bridges to
facilitate travel. Although engineering can apply the necessary scientific principle, it
cannot be simply defined as the application of science. Actually, the primary character
of engineering is integrating and applicating a variety of technologies. The former
president of the National Academy of Engineering, Bill Wulf, once said: “Science is
the knowledge about ‘What is it,’ engineering is the knowledge about ‘What to do’”
[12].
From the perspective of engineering science, this book defines engineering as
follows:
Engineering is the whole process of human beings for survival and devel-
opment, to achieve specific purposes, to effectively use resources, to systemat-
ically integrate and innovate technologies, to create new “artificial nature,” to
run this “artificial nature” until the “artificial natural” decommissioning. In
general, engineering has technical integration and industry relevance. In addi-
tion, creating new “artificial nature” and changing “natural objects” traits are
complementary.
Engineering is a practical activity for the benefit of mankind, a knowledge system
involving scientific technology; Engineer is a specific occupation of creating a new
world; Engineering culture is the oldest but most energetic “third culture” that is
different from science culture and human culture, a culture of creation and work that
is closely related to human material life.
The definition of science in Sect. 1.1.1 can be extended to engineering science:
The disciplinary knowledge system about the objective law of engineering is
engineering science
The Chinese Academy of Engineering, the United Nations Educational, Scien-
tific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the International Academy of
Engineering and Technology Sciences (CAETS) held two international confer-
ences on engineering science and technology in Shanghai and Beijing in 2000
and 2014, respectively. This shows that engineering science is widely recognized
internationally.
As an independent discipline, engineering includes engineering science,
engineering technology, and engineering management.
In order to better understand the concepts of engineering, the following demon-
stration is required.

1.2.1.1 About Artificial Nature

Engineering is a kind of activity; an activity carried out by humans to achieve a

specific goal. In the construction phase of engineering, the most important feature
of engineering activity is to create new “artificial nature,” that is, to create objects or
to change the traits of “natural objects” to achieve specific goals through activities
such as creating or changing traits of objects.

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 10 1 Engineering Management Ontology

“Natural nature” refers to the part of nature that has not yet been influenced by
human practice. “Artificial Nature” refers to the objects and environment created
by human beings in the process of utilizing nature in order to maintain their own
survival and development requirements.
“Artificial Nature” can be divided into two categories: (1) artificial natural objects,
the artificial existences that are made by people using natural objects, such as houses,
roads, bridge tunnels, and other examples such as various metal and non-metal mate-
rials, various finished products, including items for the basic necessities of life, and
various kinds of machines and tools, etc. (2) artificial natural world, that is, arti-
ficial ecosystem, such as large area of artificially planted forests, pastures, urban
ecosystems, etc. There is no strict boundary between artificial natural objects and
the artificial natural world. Especially the scale of modern engineering is getting
bigger and bigger, and the original artificial natural objects will also play the role
of the artificial natural world. For example, the hydraulic engineering built in the
Three Gorges is an artificial natural object, but it has a significant influence on the
environment in the Three Gorges Dam area and the reservoir area, and it plays the
role of the artificial natural world.
Artificial nature is produced from natural nature and exists in natural nature. It is
restricted by the laws of natural nature evolution and accepts the test of natural laws
of nature.
During the process of research, different names have been used for the products of
engineering, such as “artificial existence,” “existence,” “artifacts,” “artificial nature,”
etc. These terms can express the meaning of engineering products. The “artificial
nature” is used uniformly in this book because “artificial nature” is mainly used to
express this meaning in natural philosophy. Natural philosophy is the predecessor
of modern natural science. Natural philosophy mainly considers the philosophical
problems of nature that human beings face, including the relationship between nature
and human beings, the relationship between artificial nature and natural nature, the
most fundamental laws of nature, etc.

1.2.1.2 The Life Cycle of Engineering

All Engineering can be divided into three periods: the construction period, the
operation period, and decommissioning period (Fig. 1.1).
Although engineering can be divided into the above three periods in general,
engineering varies significantly due to the variety of engineering types. For example,
the Three Gorges Project’s construction phase mainly includes the construction of
dams, power generation systems, and shipping systems. When these were completed,
the construction phase of the Three Gorges Project was completed. The next phase,
the operation phase, is crucial because the goal of construction is operation. The
quality of operation is the evaluation of each work in the construction phase. The main
tasks of the Three Gorges Project are flood control, power generation, and shipping,
so in the operation phase, it is necessary to ensure the smooth process of the three main
tasks. Of course, there are maintenance, repair, or technical transformation works

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 1.2 Engineering 11

The three phases of life cycle of engineering

Construction Operation Decommissioning

The three phases of the engineering life cycle as three different types of engineering

Construction Operation Decommissioning

engineering engineering engineering

Fig. 1.1 The life cycle of engineering

during the operation phase to protect and enhance its functions. Things always have
a lifetime. After a few years, perhaps a hundred years later, the Three Gorges Project
will inevitably enter the final phase, that is, the decommissioning phase. Although it
will be a long time before the Three Gorges Project decommission, it will happen.
As the engineering product ages, degenerates, and can no longer continue to perform
its original function, it must face its decommissioning phase.
Some scholars advocate that the engineering phase is mainly identified as the
construction phase. That is because, after the completion of the construction phase,
it is the operation phase. At this phase, the staff, the content of the work, and the
management methods are very different, and the decommissioning phase is even
more different. Therefore, some scholars believe that construction, operation, and
decommissioning phases should be a kind of engineering. This view also has its
reasons. For example, building an aircraft carrier is a large project. The aircraft carrier
is delivered to use after it is built. It becomes the airport and combat system at sea.
The operation phase and construction phase of the aircraft carrier is totally different.
When the aircraft carrier must be retired, it can drive back to a certain place for
decommissioning. Decommissioning engineering can also be carried out in different
ways, either by disassembling them and recovering valuable substances; that is to
say, after the decommissioning phase, the aircraft carrier disappears. It can also be
parked in a certain place and reused as a sightseeing spot. It has no military combat
mission, but it plays its value and role as a tourist attraction for civilian use. Another
example is mining engineering. After the ore is exhausted, the reclamation process is
a kind of decommissioning engineering. However, many mines are located in scenic
spots, and people have transformed them into tourist attractions. This is also a way of
decommissioning. Another example is China’s two bombs and one satellite project.
The two bombs include the atomic bomb and the hydrogen bomb. Making atomic
bombs and hydrogen bombs is huge engineering. After being manufactured, the
operation is mainly reflected in the aspects of storage, maintenance, and detonation.
Once detonated, it is not like other engineering bodies that must be dismantled or
destroyed because the detonation process is destroyed. Like the manned spaceflight
project, from the construction of the manned spacecraft-spacecraft to its successful
launch, this is its construction period. After launching, the operation from the air
to the recovery is the operation period. The spacecraft, after recycling, can be used
as a research sample for further improvement or for the public to visit; this is its

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 12 1 Engineering Management Ontology

decommissioning period. Another example is the artificial rain project, which emits
the corresponding ice material so that the water in the air condenses into the rain.
The condensed rainfall is a very short operation phase.
Since the founding of New China, especially in the 30 years since the reform and
opening up, China has completed a large number of engineering projects. Society and
builders are mainly focused on how to complete these projects. The theory and prac-
tices of engineering management are also concentrated primarily on the construction
phase of engineering. The projects finished construction are all in operation, so there
are so many practices in terms of operation. Some buildings have reached the end
of their service time, or there is no way to repair them, or repair is not worthwhile,
then they will be destroyed by directional blasting. It is the final decommissioning
phase of the project, but the number of decommissioning and destruction is not
much. In fact, many large-scale engineering projects in China have not been built
for a long time and are currently in their youth of operation phase. There is still less
experience in how to decommission after many years in the future. Especially for
artificial nature like nuclear power plants, its decommissioning is very complicated.
At present, China has little experience.
Considering the whole life cycle of engineering (construction, operation, and
decommissioning) as one project, or dividing construction, operation, and decom-
missioning into three projects, both of these two ways are available, as long as the
concept is clear. Some literature advocates treating engineering from the whole life
cycle perspective but only defines engineering from the construction perspective,
which requires coordination.
The definition of engineering in this book is a whole process activity that is to
create new “artificial nature,” operate this “artificial nature,” until decommissioning
this “artificial nature,” which is based on the perspective of the entire life cycle.
Currently, engineering projects in China are mainly in the construction stage and
operation stages. Some building demolitions are decommissioning projects which
are generally done manually or by bulldozers, forklifts, etc. For larger buildings,
directional blasting is often used for demolition. Due to the author’s information, the
book basically does not list the cases for decommissioning period, which needs to
be supplemented when reprinting.

1.2.1.3 Life Cycle Assessment

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic method for quantitative evaluation of

a product or a service system according to the input and output of substances and
energy in its whole life cycle and environmental impact. It has been widely used.
The cycle of LCA means cycle and repeats, which is true for many products,
but the engineering project is generally not repeated. Therefore, in the book, when
applying the whole life cycle theory to engineering, it is not necessary to use the
“whole life cycle” but the “whole life period”, which means the whole life of the
construction, operation, and decommissioning of the project. That is the whole life
assessment.

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 1.2 Engineering 13

1.2.1.4 Create Artificial Nature and Change the Characteristics

of Natural Objects

Creating artificial nature and changing the characteristics of natural objects, the two
often complement and accompany each other.
The Three Gorges Project and Qinghai-Tibet Railway Project are great works of
artificial nature created by mankind, while the artificial rainfall project is mainly
to change the characteristics of objects. However, the Three Gorges Project can
also change the characteristics of objects, such as cement becoming concrete. The
artificial rainfall project also creates artificial nature, that is, the new artificial nature—
rain. Metallurgical engineering created new artificial nature–metals, and changed the
properties of ores as natural objects, making them metal and slag.

1.2.1.5 Technology Integration and Industry Relevance

Technology integration refers to the integration of engineering performance in terms

of related or series of technologies to form a specific form of technology integration.
Engineering is not a simple addition of various technologies but an orderly integration
of various technologies for specific goals based on specific laws or rules.
Industrial relevance is derived from the inseparability between engineering, prod-
ucts, as well as enterprises, and the connotation of engineering is often associated
with specific products, specific enterprises, or specific industries. Engineering activ-
ities and industrial activities often have inseparable internal relations. It also shows
that all professional fields related to industrial activities can become a particular
engineering field.

1.2.1.6 Engineering Activities and Engineering Products

Engineering plays a very active role in human society’s development. The term
engineering is widely used in various language activities, and it is often borrowed
or extended in literary arts and media language. For example, the appearance and
application of “five-one projects,” “ideological construction projects,” etc. However,
according to the above-mentioned definition of engineering, these concepts in daily
languages are not the engineering of engineering science or engineering management
science.
The construction process and its products are often referred to as engineering in
daily languages. For example, someone stood on the Three Gorges Dam and admired
the grand project. The project they referred to here is the magnificent Three Gorges
Dam. Engineering refers to a specific process, not the product of a particular project
or its consequences. In other words, the outcomes of the engineering, such as the
Three Gorges Project, are different from the project itself (the process of building
the Three Gorges Project).

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