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Aspects of Chloride In Freshwater: A Review

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International Journal of Current Trends in Science and Technology
Online ISSN: 0976-9730
Print ISSN: 0976- 9498

Different Aspects of Chloride In Freshwater: A Review

Supratim Pal1* and Kaushik Chakraborty2
Ph. D. Student, Department of Zoology, University of Gour Banga, Mokdumpur, Malda, West Bengal,
India, 7321031
Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Gour Banga, Mokdumpur, Malda, West Bengal,
India, 7321032
Correspondence Author *

Accepted 2017-07-31; Published 2017-08-12

Abstract:
Chloride is a natural component and is formed when the element chlorine (a halogen) gains an electron or
when a compound such as hydrogen chloride is in its dissolved form. Chloride is widely distributed in nature
as salts. Though it is most prevalent in sea water, it permits rivers, lakes, and other freshwater systems also.
Some common chloride compounds found in natural water are sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride
(KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2). For its essentiality as an electrolyte to the
animals, it is sometimes referred as the “queen of electrolytes”. But, higher concentration of chloride in
water is reported to be an indication of pollution and affects physiological processes of the organisms.
Chloride increases the electrical conductivity and corrosiveness of water. The relationship with water
temperature, bicarbonate and calcium is positive with this anion, but inverse correlations exist with pH and
total alkalinity. There are several techniques for chloride estimation, but removal processes of chloride from
water are expensive and energy-intensive.
Key words: Chloride, freshwater, pollution, anion.
Introduction: chloride are often very soluble in water (Green
and Sadru, 2001). The chloride ion is highly
Chloride is widely distributed in nature, generally
mobile and is eventually transported into closed
as the sodium (NaCl) and potassium (KCl) salts; it
basins or to the oceans (NRCC, 1977). The ion is
constitutes approximately 0.05% of the
colourless and diamagnetic. In aqueous solution, it
lithosphere (National Research Council of
is highly soluble in most cases. In aqueous
Canada, 1977). Chloride is one of the major
solution, chloride is bound by the protic end of the
inorganic anion in water. Chloride in anionic form
water molecules. It is an
when present in natural waters, generally results
essential electrolyte located in all body fluids
from the dissociation of salts, such as sodium
responsible for maintaining acid-base balance,
chloride or calcium chloride (Ito, 1997). In
transmitting nerve impulses and regulating fluid in
potable water, the salty taste is produced by the
and out of cells. Chloride is a common component
chloride concentrations. Chlorides are present in
of most waters and is useful to fish in maintaining
both fresh and salt water, and are essential
their osmotic balance.
elements of life (Hunt et al., 2012). Chloride is
Chloride is a ubiquitous aqueous anion in all
formed when the element chlorine (a halogen)
gains an electron or when a compound such as natural waters, the concentrations varying very
widely and reaching a maximum in sea water.
hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water or other
Natural levels in rivers and other fresh waters are
polar solvents. Chloride salts such as sodium
usually in the range 15 - 35 mg/L. Chlorides are
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 Supratim Pal et al. Different Aspects Of Chloride In Freshwater: A Review
also found in water as mineral solvents. Chloride most prevalent in sea water at concentration
is widely distributed in nature as salts of sodium averaging 35000 ppm, chloride permits rivers,
chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and lakes, and other freshwater systems. Chloride
calcium chloride (CaCl2). Chlorides are leached levels in unpolluted waters are often below 10
from various rocks into soil and water by mg/L (Department of National Health and
weathering. The chloride ions are highly mobile Welfare, 1978). The permissible drinking water
and are easily transported to closed basin and standard of chloride is <250 mg/L (IEPA, 2001;
oceans (Shyamala et al., 2008). Chloride in USEPA, 2002; EUDWS, 1998; WHO, 2003;
surface and ground water originates from both WHO, 1984). ICMR and BIS have also prescribed
natural and anthropogenic sources such as the use 250 mg/l as the maximum permissible value. If
of inorganic fertilizers, landfill, septic tank the chlorine value exceeds 300 mg/l and the
effluents, animal feed, industrial effluents, etc. presence of a major cation is sodium, so it is
Chloride levels in unpolluted waters are often confirmed water is salty. Natural levels in rivers
below 10 mg/L (Department of National Health and other fresh waters are usually in the range 15 -
and Welfare, 1978). The chloride concentrations 35 mg/l. In normal fresh water, chloride
in excess of about 250 mg/L can give rise to concentration is usually less than 10 ppm, but
detectable taste in water, depending on associated quite often less than 1 ppm. Sreenivasan (1665)
cations. Chlorine is known as a toxic element but documented that, chloride concentration between
when combined with a metal such as sodium, it 4 - 10 ppm indicates purity of water.
becomes essential to life forms. All natural  Forms of chloride in water: In water, chlorine
environments contain chloride in varying degrees reacts to form hypochlorous acid and
with content increasing as mineral content hypochlorites. All three species exist in
increases. There is no known evidence that equilibrium with each other, the relative amounts
chlorides constitute any human health hazard. For varying with the pH. In dilute solutions and at pH
this reason, chlorides are generally limited to 250 levels above 4.0, very little molecular chlorine
mg/l in supplies intended for public use (WHO, exists in solution. The concentrations of
2003). But, it is said that huge ingestion of hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorite ion are
chlorides may results in several health effects. So, approximately equal at pH 7.5 and 25 °C.
this crucial natural element bears a number of Chlorine can react with ammonia or amines in
qualities, range, features, roles and effects. There water to form chloramines (Dychdala, 1977;
are also a number of techniques for the estimation WHO, 1982).
and removal of chloride. Henceforth, present  Sources of Chloride for freshwater bodies:
study focuses on the various aspects of chloride. Salts such as table salt are composed of ions that
Different Aspects Of Chloride are bonded together. When table salt is mixed
 Some physicochemical properties of with water, its sodium and chloride ions separate
chloride (Sconce, 1962; NIOSH., 1976): as they dissolve. Chloride ions in the environment
can come from sodium chloride or from other
Systemic IUPAC name - Chloride chloride salts such as potassium chloride, calcium
Property Value chloride and magnesium chloride. In coastal areas,
Chemical formula cl- chloride from saltwater aquifers, sea spray, and
Molar mass 35.45g/mol coastal flooding can also find its way into
Boiling point -34.6 °C freshwater (Hunt et al., 2012). Chloride ions come
Melting point -101 °C into solution in water in underground aquifers,
Density 3.214 g/litre at 0°C geological formations that contain groundwater.
and 101.3 kPa Chlorides can also enter a watershed through
Vapour pressure 480 Pa at 0°C water softener discharge or sewage contamination.
Water solubility 14.6 g/litre at 0°C Water softeners remove magnesium and calcium
ions from hard water by performing an ionic
 Normal range of Chloride in freshwater exchange reaction with sodium chloride (Hunt et
bodies: Chlorides constitute approximately 0.05% al., 2012). However, chlorides are not removed
of the earth’s crust. Chloride, the ionized form of from waste by septic tank treatment processes and
chlorine, is one of the most abundant inorganic enter the leach field with the rest of the effluent,
ions in natural water and wastewater. Though or wastewater. From there, chlorides can enter

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 Supratim Pal et al. Different Aspects Of Chloride In Freshwater: A Review
groundwater through septic systems and find their increases the electrical conductivity of water and
way into lakes, ponds, streams, and wetlands thus increases its corrosiveness (Hunt et al.,
(Hunt et al., 2012). Industrial processes such as 2012). The major impact that chlorides impart on
battery manufacturing, pulp mills, bullion the receiving waters is the permanent hardness.
refining, electroplating, pesticide manufacturing, a They are also known to increase the rate of
large number of small scale processing units etc sedimentation and thereby decreasing the water
are the main sources of chlorides in water. column depth (Sagar et al., 2011).
Another anthropogenic source of chlorides in  Correlations of Chloride with other water
groundwater is fertilizer made with potash, or quality parameters: Shyamala et al. (2008)
mined salts. Potassium chloride is the salt most reported from their observations that, negative
commonly used in potash fertilizer, and potassium (inverse) correlations exists between pH and
is one of three essential nutrients (along with chloride (r = -0.743), chloride and total alkalinity
nitrogen and phosphorous) that are added to (r = -0.079), but some of the highly significant
increase soil fertility on farms and home gardens correlations were discernible between chloride
and lawns. However, like nitrogen and and calcium (r = 0.976) and chloride and TDS (r =
phosphorous, chloride can leach from fertilized 0.975). Chloride showed high significant positive
soils into rivers and streams (Hunt et al., 2012). relationship with water temperature, bicarbonate
 Roles of Chloride in animal body: Chloride has and calcium (Hunt et al., 2012). Increase in
a molecular weight of 35.5 and it is the body's chloride content during summer may be due to
principle anion and it also represents 70 percent of increased temperature and evaporation of water,
the total negative ion content (Yunos, 2010; Koch, low water level (Lashari et al., 2009 and Sahni
1992). In animals, chloride is an and Yadav, 2012), inflow of waste (Savita, 2013),
essential electrolyte, trafficking in and out of cells increased decomposition rate and high organic
through chloride channels and playing a key role matter (Sharma et al., 2013).
in maintaining cell homeostasis and  Chloride as an indicator: Chloride plays a very
transmitting action potentials in neurons (Jentsch important role to determine the water quality in a
et al., 2002). On average, an adult human body water body. Natural spikes in chloride
contains approximately 115 grams of chloride, concentration can occur during summer “low
making up about 0.15 percent of total body flow” periods when evaporation exceeds
weight. Chloride is one of the most important precipitation. Chloride is reported to be an
electrolytes in blood. After sodium, chloride is the indication of pollution when present in higher
most abundant electrolyte in serum, with a key concentration. The suggestions of Royal
role in the regulation of body fluids, electrolyte Commission that water having 30 mg/L of
balance, the preservation of electrical neutrality, chloride is reported to be fairly clean. The
acid–base status and it is an essential component chlorides concentration serves as an indicator of
for the assessment of many pathological pollution by sewage (Thresh et al., 1949).
conditions. When assessing serum electrolytes, Chloride is an important indicator of organic
abnormal chloride levels alone usually signify a pollution. Chlorides are important in detecting the
more serious underlying metabolic disorder, such contamination of ground water by waste water.
as metabolic acidosis or alkalosis. This prominent High concentration of chloride is considered to be
role, without any doubt, justifies its classification the indicator of pollution due to organic wastes of
as “the queen of electrolytes.” The adverse effects animal origin, regarded harmful to aquatic life and
of chloride on human stomach are discomfort, eye troublesome in irrigation water (Rajkumar et al.,
and nose irritation. High chloride content cause 2004). Many results are also reported in different
high blood pressure in human beings (Subin et al. studies by Swarnalatha and Narsingrao (1998) and
2011). Umavathi et al. (2007), showed that higher
 Roles of Chloride in freshwater body: The concentration of chloride indicates the increased
ecological significance of chloride lies in its levels pollution in water bodies.
potential to regulate salinity of water and exert  Various ways of chloride contamination as a
consequent osmotic stress on biotic communities water pollutant: The presence of chloride in
(Shinde et al., 2011). Chloride showed high water sources can be attributed to the dissolution
significant positive relationship with water of salt deposits, effluents from chemical industries
temperature, bicarbonate and calcium. Chloride (Little, 1971), oil well operations (Pettyjohn,

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Page | 20297
 Supratim Pal et al. Different Aspects Of Chloride In Freshwater: A Review
1971), sewage (Pettyjohn, 1972), irrigation chloride in pond may be due to animal origin like
drainage (Bond and Straub, 1973), refused human faeces and sewage inflow. In
leachates (Schneider, 1970), sea spray and uncontaminated water which is not flowing from
seawater intrusion in coastal areas (NRCC, 1977). sediments, the quality of chloride present is
Each of these sources may result in local ordinary quantity (Hutchinson, 1957). In another
contamination of surface water and groundwater. research paper, Juned and Arjun (2011) reported
According to Berner and Berner (1987) the main that the high concentration of chloride may be due
sources of chloride in rivers are sea salt (in to the uses of inorganic fertilizer, land fill
precipitation), weathering of halite and leachates, septic tank effluent and industrial and
anthropogenic inputs. Sinha (1988) opined that irrigation drainage. The increase in chloride
chloride content indicates domestic as well as concentration in Lakes, Rivers and dams is due to
industrial pollution. As, chloride is also present in the discharge of municipal and industrial wastes,
significant concentrations in domestic sewage also reported by Kant and Raina (1990).
(Fair et al. 1971; Runge et al. 1989) and in sewage  Effect of chloride on aquatic organisms:
effluent plumes in groundwater (LeBlanc 1985; Generally, chloride has little effect on fish health
DeSimone and Howes 1998), high chloride values or behaviour and is not considered a problem in
also indicates the sewage contamination. Other inland waters, but an excess chloride in water
sources of chloride pollution in water include cause cardio-vascular diseases and imparts
fertilizers, effluents from drainage, salts and permanent hardness to water (SAWQG, 1996).
human as well as animal wastes. Hunt et al. Some research suggests that, with certain
(2012) opined that increases in chloride exceptions, fish are less sensitive to chloride
concentrations are to be due to anthropogenic or exposure than small, free-floating planktonic
human-caused factors such as road salt and water crustaceans (Evans and Frick, 2001). These
softeners. Chloride is also a tracer of sewage and planktonic animals are a food source for fish and
manure contamination (Lockwood et al. 1995). In amphibians and help control the algae that
another study, Rodvang et al. (2004) inferred that contribute to eutrophication, nutrient
elevated chloride concentrations occur in manure- accumulation that depletes lakes of oxygen.
impacted groundwater. Recent published research suggests that high
 Reasons behind high chloride values in chloride concentrations are harmful to many
freshwater bodies: The presence of chloride in aquatic animals. Meador and Carlisle (2007)
slightly higher amounts in water body may be due found chloride tolerance levels for some brook
to natural processes such as the passage of water trout species to be as low as 3.1 ppm. Rhode
through natural salt formations in the earth or it Island’s native spotted salamander has a 40%
may be an indication of pollution from industrial reduction in survival when spawned in a vernal
or domestic use (Renn, 1970). Napacho and pool with a chloride concentration higher than 162
Manyele (2010) reported that high chloride ppm (Karraker, 2008). Vernal pools, temporary
concentration values in their study areas can be bodies of water, tend to have high chloride
attributed to natural mineral deposits and sea concentrations in early spring, when eggs are laid,
water, either by intrusion or by air borne spray and in summer, when larvae and tadpoles undergo
from agriculture or irrigation discharges or from metamorphosis and become adults, two especially
sewage and industrial effluents. Increasing trend delicate times in their lifecycle (Karraker, 2008).
of chloride in river water may be due to increasing High chloride concentrations in freshwater can
loadings from point and nonpoint source of also harm aquatic organisms by interfering with
discharges, degrading animal dead bodies and osmoregulation, the biological process by which
industrial operations. Chloride concentration in they maintain the proper concentration of salt and
water indicates the presence of organic waste in other solutes in their bodily fluids. Difficulty with
water, primarily of animal origin (Thresh et al., osmoregulation can hinder survival, growth, and
1949). Agreeing with that, Verma (2012) also reproduction of the aquatic organisms (Hunt et al.,
reported that high chloride concentration of water 2012).
may be due to high rate of evaporation or due to  Estimation of chloride: Several analytical
organic waste of animal origin. Adoni (1975) techniques may be used for chloride in water,
added one more observation on the same area of including titration (e.g., potentiometric titration
study and reported that the higher content of with silver nitrate), colorimetry (e.g., thiocyanate

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Page | 20298
 Supratim Pal et al. Different Aspects Of Chloride In Freshwater: A Review
colorimetry), chloride ion selective electrode and Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh reported
ion chromatography. Limits of detection range that the chloride concentration ranged from 36.39
ranges from 50μg/L for colorimetry. The mg/l to 40.44 mg/l in different seasons.
potentiometric method of chloride analysis by Mohammad et al. (2015) by the analysis of water
silver nitrate titration is an effective technique of of Paler reservoir at Khammam district of
chloride level determination (APHA, 1998). Telangana reported that the chloride concentration
Mercuric nitrate method was used due to the fact was ranged between 100 mg/l to 180 mg/l.
that the end point in this method is easier to Khinchi et al. (2015) studied the biochemical
detect, as the color change from yellow to light characteristics of Siliserh Lake, found that the
pink (AWWA, 1971). chloride concentration was ranged from 10 mg/l to
 Treatment for chloride: Because chloride is very 39 mg/l. So, all the studies reflect that the water
soluble in water, it is not easily removed, and bodies have the permissible range of chloride
conventional water treatment processes are concentration.
generally ineffective (WHO, 1984). Once Conclusion:
chlorides are in a water body, there are no
biological processes that remove them. They are Chloride is one of the most abundant inorganic
not typically removed at water treatment plants ions in natural water and wastewater. Their
due to restrictively high cost (Hunt et al., 2012). concentrations vary considerably according to the
Chloride can be removed from water by using mineral content of the earth in any given area. In
reverse osmosis, electro dialysis, distillation or small amounts they are not significant. In large
resin-ion exchange demineralisation, all of which concentrations they present problems. Usually
are expensive and energy-intensive. A removal of chloride concentrations are low. Natural levels in
87% has been reported using a point-of-use rivers and other fresh waters are usually in the
treatment device employing granular activated range 04 - 35 mg/l. Water having 30 mg/L of
carbon adsorption and reverse osmosis chloride is considered to be fairly clean. An
(Regumathan et al., 1983). Reversibly, Chloride aesthetic objective of 250 mg/L has been
concentrations in water may increase during the established for chloride in drinking water. At
treatment process if chlorine is used for concentrations above the aesthetic objective,
disinfection purposes or if aluminum or iron chloride imparts undesirable tastes to water and to
chloride is used for flocculation purposes (WHO, beverages prepared from water and may cause
1979). corrosion in the distribution system. The
ecological significance of chloride lies in its
Some Observations on Chloride Concentration potential to regulate salinity of water and exert
in India: consequent osmotic stress on biotic communities.
Pawaiya et al. (2014) studied on the physico- Chloride is the body's principle anion for all living
chemical parameters of Harsi reservoir located in organisms. But, high chloride concentrations in
Dabra, Gwalior district, Madhya Pradesh and the freshwater can harm aquatic organisms by
chloride concentration ranged from 21.43 mg/l to interfering with osmoregulation. High chloride
30.86 mg/l. Upadhyay (2014) studied the seasonal concentration values in freshwater may be due to
water quality assessment of surface water in Durg sewage contamination, fertilizers, effluents from
region of Chhattisgarh and reported that chloride drainage, salts and human as well as animal
concentration value ranged from 53.25 mg/l to wastes. Several analytical techniques may be used
172.7 mg/l. Goudar (2014) assessed the tank water for the estimation of chloride concentration in
quality in relation to some physico-chemical water, but conventional water treatment processes
parameters of Choradi tank of Shivamogga at are generally ineffective for chloride removal.
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