Ancient China

It is known to be one of the oldest and longest lasting civilizations in the world. “China”
is derived from the Sanskrit Cina from the name of Qin Dynasty, pronounced as “Chin”. The
Greeks and Romans called China Seres meaning “the land where silk comes from”.
China made important advancements in science, technology, mathematics, and
astronomy, the first to record astronomical phenomena such as solar eclipse and a few to
witness the guest star supernova that created the Crab Nebula.
The Chinese also developed the counting device called the abacus – used for counting,
basic and complex mathematical operations. They are also responsible for introducing and
developing acupuncture and herbal medicine. Acupuncture – the practice of relieving pain,
healing illnesses, and improving the general well-being of a person by inserting several metal
needles at precise points into the skin and tissue.
Many inventions emerged under the Han Dynasty. The paper invention greatly affected
the way China recorded its history and produced literature. Together with the first movable
printing press (960 AD), the production of printed works flourished around the world.
Porcelain, a type of ceramic clay pottery used to craft vases, plates, and decorative
furniture, another famous invention of China. It has a hard surface made from special clay
that turns crystalline when heated.

Silk originated in China as early as Chinese Neolithic period. It is produced by

silkworms that feed on mulberry leaves and create the cocoon where they will later develop.
It was during the Han Dynasty that sericulture – the cultivation and production of silk – was
refined and mastered. The high demand for silk eventually paved way for its trade to other
parts of the world and the creation of the Silk Road - a network of trade routes that connected
different countries.

Gunpowder, initially used for fireworks, was also one of the popular creations of the
Chinese Taoist alchemists who mixed sulphur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate in hopes of
creating a potion for immortality (142 AD). Later on used in Mongol wars , and ironically the
European domination of China in 1800s.

Aegean Civilization
Ancient Greece refers to a time between 800 BC and 500 BC after the so-called Greek
Dark Ages. Greece is a country in South-eastern Europe, also known as Hellas or Ellada,
which is “Greece” in Greek. It is made of a mainland and groups of smaller islands.

Ancient Greece is characterized by the expansion of villages and the development of

marketplaces and meeting places. The early inhabitants of Greece relied on trade.
Commercial sea trading was the primary source of income. Commodities like fruits,
vegetables, wines, and herbs. Also known for its achievements in politics, art, philosophy,
and science. It vastly democratized education, thus nurturing great philosophers and
scientists.

Greek Philosophy is undeniably the most renowned contribution of the Greeks to

Western Civilization. Philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates questioned human
existence and how the word came to be.

Pythagoras, who was also a philosopher, was best known for the Pythagorean Theorem,
which was used to measure the distance and space.

Thales of Miletus, regarded as the first Western Philosopher and mathematician,

became popular for his precise prediction of the solar eclipse on May 28, 585 BC. Among his
other contributions were the calculation of the height of pyramids, description of the position
of Ursa Minor, and the finding of the Milesian School.

Hippocrates, considered as the “Father of Western Medicine”, made big leaps in the
field of medicine by observing wounded soldiers, the veins and arteries of the body and by
determining the correlation of diet and lifestyle to diseases. The Hippocratic Oath formulated
after his death is an oath of ethics taken by physicians and medical practitioners to promise to
uphold values and ethics in the field of medicine.

Engineering and mechanics:

 Water mills – used to grind mills

 Philo’s Perachora – (the oldest pumping device in Europe) pioneering invention
that contributed to the creation of water mills
 Aqueducts – were also constructed at this time for water management in Samos
and Athens
 Ctesibius – developed water alarm clock worked by using water droppings and
clay vessels to track time
 Odometer – attributed to Archimedes of Syracuse during the First Punic War

Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was originally a small town near the Tiber when Augustus Caesar
became its first emperor. It became greater and stronger because of trade. Rome borrowed
and enriched the culture of Greece.

Romans took pride in their technological advancements that were lost in the Middle
Ages.

Legacy:

 Construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and

 architectural feats such as arenas, monuments, pantheons (a temple dedicated to all
the gods) and more

In Pergamum (present-day Turkey), the physician Galen was the first to describe and
diagnose symptoms of different diseases and their corresponding treatments. His medical
books were considered the standards for many years.
 Surgical instruments – rectal speculum, bone levers, and cupping vessels were used
by Roman physicians in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. These were typically made
of lead, steel or bronze.

Appius Claudius Caecus, built the first Roman aqueduct called Aqua Appia. It
transported water to Rome from different bodies of water, and precursor of Rome’s
developed sewage system, sanitation management and public baths.

Colosseum – the largest amphitheatre ever built

Pantheon – a former Roman temple

Ballista – (an ancient military siege engine in the form of a crossbow) used to penetrate
enemy frontiers.

Greek Fire – adopted from the Greeks, was a combustible weapon capable of
propelling bombs at the opponent.

Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in North America that spans
territories from Mexico to Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador. The earliest known
Mesoamerica Civilization is the Omlec Civilization that was established in the northeastern
part of Mexico at around 1,200 BC. Other Mesoamerica Civilization, the Maya, Aztec, and
Inca, existed from about 900 to 1,500 AD and thrived until the arrival of the Spanish
conquistadors in Mexico.

Maya Civilization

The Maya people were considered by many scholars as one of the most scientifically
advanced individuals in Mesoamerica.

 Maya hieroglyphics, system of writing, with 1,000 characters.

o Writing tools created from animal hair and feathers
o Most Maya texts written on tree bark called codices contained the Maya
culture, rituals, and scientific observations. Most of these were burned by
the Spaniards because it was considered pagan literature.
 Pictorial scripts (glyphs) inscribed on stone monuments.
o One of the three texts that were salvaged was the Dresden Codex which
contains accurate predictions of solar eclipses, celestial writings, and
astronomical tables of the Maya.
 Astronomy:
o Enabled the Maya civilization to refer to the 365-day solar year and 260-
day sacred year annual cycles  calendar round
o Another calendar called long count that measured days by cycles or sets
o Technologically advanced in architecture, art and warfare
 Large pyramids and temples made from limestone
 Used mica, plants, and other minerals to decorate their temples
 Built complex waterways using hydraulic technology that aided
their agricultural practices
  Produced textiles using looms to weave colourful patterns
 Women made tunics called huipiles with unique designs and colors
 Used rubber from rubber trees and morning glory plants which they
used for binding books, gluing materials, and manufacturing cloth

Aztec and Inca Civilization

The Aztec and Inca Civilizations persisted for two hundred years before the Spaniards
conquered their lands.

Aztecs:

 Thrived in the capital city of Tenochtitlan, present-day Mexico City, where they built
chinampas or artificial islands
 Also able to predict astronomical events and performed celestial observations
 Used Maya calendar in agricultural and religious activities
 Able to preserve their literature through their codices that describe their culture and
valuable scientific observations.
 Sun stone, notable artefact, with the image of the Aztec sun god at the center
 Used pictographs as their system of writing, and their language was called Nahuatl
 Massive stone temples where religious rituals and offerings were made before the
statues of their gods

Inca Civilization:

 also known as Incan Empire – largest Mesoamerican civilization

 known as great and innovative engineers
 elaborate systems of roads from mountains to valleys
 build bridges over bodies of water and canals for irrigation
 architectural buildings were designed to be robust and pleasing to the eye
 in medicine, Inca performed cranial surgeries and amputation of injured warriors
 also produced textiles: tunics, long shirts, and delicate clothing
 musical instruments: flutes, drums, panpipes and horns
 Quechua, their language, is still spoken by natives today
 Quipu, a set of strings used for recording information which as tax records, census
records, and calendar information