BETCK105J/ INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSYTEMS

Course Code BETCK105J CIE Marks 50

Teaching Hours/Week 3:0:0:0 SEE Marks 50
Total Hours of Pedagogy 40 HOURS Total Marks 100
Credits 03 Exam Hours 03 HOURS

MODULE II
CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
The non-functional aspects that need to be addressed in embedded system design are
commonly referred as quality attributes. Whenever you design an embedded system, the
design should take into consideration of both the functional and non-functional aspects.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM:
Unlike general purpose computing systems, embedded systems possess certain
specific characteristics andthese characteristics are unique to each embedded system.
Some of the important characteristics of an embedded system are:
1. Application and domain specific
2. Reactive and Real Time
3. Operates in harsh environments
4. Distributed
5. Small size and weight
6. Power concerns
Application and Domain Specific:
 If you closely observe any embedded system, you will find that each embedded system is
having certain functions to perform.
 Embedded systems are developed in such a manner to do only intended functions. They
cannot be used for any other purpose. It is the major criterion which distinguishes an
embedded systemfrom a general purpose system.
o For example, you cannot replace the embedded control unit of your microwave
oven with your air conditioners embedded control unit, because the embedded
control units of microwave oven and air conditioner are specifically designed to
perform certain specific tasks.
 Also you cannot replace an embedded control unit developed for a particular domain say
telecom with another control unit designed to serve another domain like consumer
electronics
Reactive and Real Time:
 Embedded systems are in constant interaction with the Real world through
sensors and user defined input devices which are connected to the input port of
the system.
o Any changes happening in the Real world (which is called an Event) are
captured by the sensors or input devices in Real Time and the control
algorithm running inside the unit reacts in a designed manner to bring
the controlled output variables to the desired level.
 The event may be a periodic one or an unpredicted one. If the event is an
unpredicted one, then such system should be designed in such a way that it
should be scheduled to capture the events without missing them.
 Embedded systems produce changes in output in response to the changes in the
input. So they are generally referred as Reactive Systems.
 Real Time System operation means the timing behavior of the system should be
deterministic; meaning the system should respond to requests or tasks in a
 know amount of time.
 A Real Time system should not miss any deadlines for tasks or operations.
 It is not necessary that all embedded systems should be Real Time in operations.
o Embedded applications or systems which are mission critical, like flight
control systems, Antilock Brake Systems (ABS), etc. are examples of Real
Time systems.
 The design of an embedded Real Time system should take the worst case
scenario into consideration.
Operates in Harsh Environment:
 It is not necessary that all embedded systems should be deployed in controlled
environments.
 The environment in which the embedded system deployed may be a dusty one or a high
temperature zone or an area subject to vibrations and shock. Systems placed in such
areas should be capable to withstand all these adverse operating conditions. The design
should take care of the operating conditions of the area where the system is going to
implement.
o For example, if the system needs to be deployed in a high temperature zone, then
all the components used in the system should be of high temperature grade.
 Here we cannot go for a compromise in cost. Also proper shock absorption techniques
should be provided to systems which are going to be commissioned in places subject to
high shock.
 Power supply fluctuations, corrosion and component aging, etc. are the other factors that
need to be taken into consideration for embedded systems to work in harsh environments
Distributed:
 The term distributed means that, embedded systems may be a part of larger
systems.
 Many numbers of distributed embedded systems form a single large embedded
control unit.
o An automatic vending machine is a typical example for this. The vending
machine contains a card reader (for pre-paid vending systems), a
vending unit, etc. Each of them are independent embedded units but
they work together to perform the overall vending function.
o Another example is the Automatic Teller Machine (ATM). An ATM
contains a card reader embedded unit, responsible for reading and
validating the user's AIM card, transaction unit for performing
transactions, a currency counter for dispatching/ vending currency to
the authorized person and a printer unit for printing the transaction
details. We can visualize these as independent embedded systems. But
they work together to achieve a common goal.
o Another typical example of a distributed embedded system is the
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system used in
Control & Instrumentation applications, which contains physically
distributed individual embedded control units connected to a
supervisory module.
Small Size and Weight:
 Product aesthetics is an important factor in choosing a product.
o For example, when you plan to buy a new mobile phone, you may make
a comparative study on the pros and cons of the products available in
the market. Definitely the product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style,
etc. will be one of the deciding factors to choose a product.
 People believe in the phrase "Small is beautiful". Moreover it is convenient to
handle a compact device than a bulky product.
 In embedded domain also compactness is a significant deciding factor. Most of
the application demands small size and low weight products.
Power Concerns:
 Power management is another important factor that needs to be
considered in designingembedded systems.
 Embedded systems should be designed in such a way as to minimize the heat
dissipation by thesystem.
 The production of high amount of heat demands cooling requirements like
cooling fans which in turn occupies additional space and make a system bulky.
 Nowadays ultra low power components are available in the market. Select the
design according tothe low power components like low dropout regulators, and
controllers/ processors with power saving modes.
 Also power management is a critical constraint in battery operated applications.
The more the power consumption the less is the battery life.

QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM:

Quality attribute are non-functional requirements that need to be documented
properly in any system design. If the quality attributes are more concrete and
measurable, it will give a positive impact on the system development process and the
end product.
The various quality attributes that needs to be addressed in any embedded system
development are broadly classified into two, namely 'Operational Quality Attributes'
and 'Non-Operational Quality Attributes'.
Operational Quality Attributes:
The operational quality attributes represent the relevant quality attributes related to
the embedded systemwhen it is in the operational mode or 'online' mode.
The important quality attributes coming under this category are listed below:
1. Response: is a measure of quickness of the system. It gives an idea about how
fast your system istracking the changes in input variables.
o Most of the embedded systems demand fast response which should be almost
Real Time.
o For example, an embedded system deployed in flight control
application should respond in a Real Time manner. Any response
delay in the system will create potential damages to the safety of the
flight as well as the passengers.
o It is not necessary that all embedded systems should be Real Time in response.
o For example, the response time requirement for an electronic toy is
not at all time critical. There is no specific deadline that this system
should respond wit in this particular timeline.
2. Throughput: deals with the efficiency of a system. Throughput is
defined as the rate ofproduction or operation of a defined process
over a stated period of time.
o The rates can be expressed in terms of units of products, batches
produced, or any othermeaningful measurements.
o In case of a Card Reader, throughput means how many transactions
the Reader canperform in a minute or in an hour or in a day.
o Throughput is generally measured in terms of 'Benchmark'.
o A 'Benchmark' is a reference point by which something can be measured.
o Benchmark can be a set of performance criteria that a product is
expected to meet or a standard product that can be used for comparing
other products of the same product line.
3. Reliability: is a measure of how much % you can rely upon the proper
functioning of the systemor what is the% susceptibility of the system to
failures.
o Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) are
the terms usedin defining system reliability.
o MTBF gives the frequency of failures in hours/ weeks/ months.
 o MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of order
following a failure.
o For an embedded system with critical application need, it should be of order of
minutes.
4. Maintainability: deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client
in case of technical issues and product failures or on the basis of a routine
system checkup.
o Reliability and Maintainability are considered as two complementary
disciplines.
o A more reliable system means a system with less corrective maintainability
requirements and vice versa. As the reliability of the system increases, the
chances of failure and non- functioning reduces, thereby the need for
maintainability is also reduced.
o Maintainability is closely related to the system availability. Maintainability
can be broadly classified into two categories, namely, 'Scheduled or Periodic
Maintenance (preventive maintenance)' and 'Maintenance to unexpected
failures (corrective maintenance)'.
o Some embedded products may use consumable components or may contain
components which are subject to wear and tear and they should be
replaced on a periodic basis. Theperiod may be based on the total hours of
the system usage or the total output the system delivered.
o A printer is a typical example for illustrating the two types of
maintainability. An inkjet printer uses ink cartridges, which are
consumable components and as per the printer manufacturer the end
user should replace the cartridge after each 'n' number of printouts, to
get quality prints. This is an example for 'Scheduled or Periodic
maintenance'.
o If the paper feeding part of the printer fails the printer fails to print and
it requires immediate repairs to rectify this problem. This is an example
of 'Maintenance to unexpected failure'.
o In both of the maintenances (scheduled and repair), the-printer needs to
be brought offlineand during this time it will not be available for the
user.
o In any embedded system design, the ideal value for availability is expressed as
Ai = MTBF / (MTBF + MTTR)
Where, Ai – Availability in the ideal conditions.
5. Security: aspect covers ‘Confidentiality’, 'Integrity', and 'Availability' (The term
'Availability' mentioned here is not related to the term 'Availability' mentioned
under the 'Maintainability' section).
o Confidentiality deals with the protection of data and application
from unauthorizeddisclosure.
o Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized
modifications.
o Availability deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized
users.
o A very good example of the 'Security' aspect in an embedded product
is a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). The PDA can be either a shared
resource (e.g. PDAs used inLAB setups) or an individual one.
o If it is a shared one, there should be some mechanism in the form of user
name and password to access into a particular person's profile – An example
of' Availability.
o Also all data and applications present in the PDA need not be accessible to
all users. Some of them are specifically accessible to administrators only. For
achieving this, Administrator and user level s of security should be
implemented – An example of Confidentiality.
 o Some data present in the PDA may be visible to all users but there may not
be necessary permissions to alter the data by the users. That is Read Only
access is allocated to all users – An example of Integrity.
6. Safety: 'Safety' and 'Security' are confusing terms. Sometimes you may feel
both of them as asingle attribute. But they represent two unique aspects in
quality attributes.
o Safety deals with the possible damages that can happen to
o the operators,
o public and the environment;
o due to
 the breakdown of an embedded system,
 the emission of radioactive or hazardous materials
from the embeddedproducts.
The breakdown of an embedded system may occur due to a hardware failure or a firmware
failure.
o Safety analysis is a must in product engineering to evaluate the anticipated
damages and determine the best course of action to bring down the
consequences of the damages to an acceptable level.
o Some of the safety threats are sudden (like product breakdown) and some of
them are gradual(like hazardous emissions from the product).

Non-Operational Quality Attributes:

The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for the product 'not ' on-the basis of
operational aspectsare grouped under this category.
The important quality attributes coming under this category are listed below:
1. Testability & Debug-ability: deals with how easily one can test his/ her
design, application; andby which means he/ she can test it.
o For an embedded product, testability is applicable to both the
embedded hardware andfirmware.
o Embedded hardware testing ensures that the peripherals and the
total hardware functions in the desired manner, whereas firmware
testing ensures that the firmware is functioning in the expected way.
o Debug-ability is a means of debugging the product as such for figuring out
the probable sources that create unexpected behavior in the total system.
o Debug-ability has two aspects in the embedded system development
context, namely, hardware level debugging and firmware level debugging.
o Hardware debugging is used for figuring out the issues created by
hardware problems whereas firmware debugging is employed to
figure out the probable errors that appear as a result of flaws in the
firmware.
2. Evolvability: is a term which is closely related to Biology.
o Evolvability is referred as the non-heritable variation. For an embedded
system, the quality attribute 'Evolvability' refers to the ease with which the
embedded product (including firmware and hardware) can be modified to
take advantage of new firmware or hardware technologies.
3. Portability: is a measure of 'system independence'.
o An embedded product is said to be portable if the product is capable of
functioning 'as such'in various en environments, target processors/
controllers and embedded operating systems.
o The ease with which an embedded product can be ported on to a new
platform is a directmeasure of the rework required.
o A standard embedded product should always be flexible and portable.
o In embedded products, the term 'porting' represents the migration of the
embedded firmware written for one target processor (i.e., Intel x86) to a
different target processor (say ARM Cortex M3 processor).
 o If the firmware is written in a high level language like 'C' with little target
processor-specific functions (operating system extensions or compiler
specific utilities), it is very easy to port the firmware for the new processor
by replacing those 'target processor-specific functions' with the ones for the
new target processor and re-compiling the program for the new target
processor- specific settings. Re-compiling the program or the new target
processor generates the new target processor-specific machine codes.
o If the firmware is written in Assembly Language for a particular family of
processor (say x86 family), it will be difficult to translate the assembly
language instructions to the new target processor specific language and so
the portability is poor.
o If you look into various programming languages for application
development for desktop applications, you will see that certain
applications developed on certain languages run only on specific operating
systems and some of them run independent of the desktop operating
systems.
o For example, applications developed using Microsoft technologies
(e.g. Microsoft Visual C++ using Visual studio) is capable of running
only on Microsoft platforms and will not function on other operating
systems; whereas applications developed using 'Java' from Sun
Microsystems works on any operating system that supports Java
standards.
4. Time to prototype and market: is the time elapsed between the
conceptualization of a product and the time at which the product is ready for
selling (for commercial product) or use (for non- commercial products).
o The commercial embedded product market is highly competitive and time to
market the product is a critical factor in the success of a commercial
embedded product. There may be multiple players in the embedded
industry who develop products of the same category (like mobile phone,
portable media players, etc.). If you come up with a new design and if it
takes long time to develop and market it, the competitor product may take
advantage of it with theirproduct.
o Also, embedded technology is one where rapid technology change is
happening. If you startyour design by making use of a new technology
and if it takes long time to develop andmarket the product, by the time
you market the product, the technology might have superseded with a new
technology.
o Product prototyping helps a lot in reducing time-to-market. Whenever you
have a product idea, you may not be certain about the feasibility of the idea.
o Prototyping is an informal kind of rapid product development in which the
important featuresof the product under consideration are developed.
o The time to prototype is also another critical factor. If the prototype is
developed faster, the actual estimated development time can be brought
down significantly. In order to shorten the time to prototype, make use of all
possible options like the use of off-the-shelf components, re-usable assets,
etc
5. Per unit and total cost: is a factor which is closely monitored by both end
user (those who buy the product) and product manufacturer (those who build
the product).
o Cost is a highly sensitive factor for commercial products. Any failure to
position the cost of a commercial product at a nominal rate, may lead to the
failure of the product in the market. Proper market study and cost benefit
analysis should be carried out before taking a decision on the per-unit cost
of the embedded product.
o From a designer/ product development company perspective the ultimate
 aim of a product is to generate marginal profit. So the budget and total
system cost should be properly balancedto provide a marginal profit.
The Product Life Cycle (PLC): Every embedded product has a product life
cycle which starts with thedesign and development phase.
 The product idea generation; prototyping, Roadmap definition, actual
product design anddevelopment are the activities carried out during
this phase.
 During the design and development phase there is only investment and no returns.
 Once the product is ready to sell, it is introduced to the market. This stage is
known as the Product Introduction stage.
 During the initial period the sales' and revenue will be low. There won't be
much competition and the product sales and revenue increases with time. In the
growth phase, the product grabs high market share.
 During the maturity phase, the growth and sales will be steady and the revenue
reaches its peak.
 The Product retirement/ Decline phase starts with the drop in sales volume;
market share and revenue. The decline happens due to various reasons like
competition from similar product with enhanced features or technology
changes, etc. At some point of the decline stage, the manufacturer announces
discontinuing of the product.
 The different stages of the embedded products life cycle-revenue, unit cost
and profit in eachstage-are represented in the following Product Life-cycle
graph.

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS – APPLICATION- AND DOMAIN- SPECIFIC

Embedded systems are application and domain specific, meaning; they are specifically built
for certain applications in certain domains like consumer electronics, telecom, automotive,
industrial control, etc.
It is possible to replace a general purpose computing system with another system which is
closely matching with the existing system, whereas it is not the case with embedded systems.
Embedded systems are highly specialized in functioning and are dedicated for a specific
application. Hence it is not possible to replace an embedded system developed for a specific
application in a specific domain with another embedded system designed for some other
application in some other domain.
 WASHING MACHINE – APPLICATION-SPECIFIC EMBEDDED STSREM:
Washing machine is a typical example of an embedded system providing extensive support in
home automation applications.
 An embedded system contains sensors, actuators, control unit and application-
specific user interfaces like keyboards, display units, etc. One can see all these
components in a washing machine. Some of them are visible and some of them may
be invisible.
 The actuator part of the washing machine consists of a motorized agitator, tumble
tub, water drawing pump and inlet valve to control the flow of water into the unit.
 The sensor part consists of the water temperature sensor, level sensor, etc.
 The control part contains a micro- processor/ controller based board with interfaces to
the sensors and actuators
 The sensor data is fed back to the control unit and the control unit generates
the necessary actuator outputs. The control unit also provides connectivity to user
interfaces like keypad for setting the washing time, selecting the type of material to
be washed like light, medium, heavy duty, etc. User feedback is reflected through
the display unit and LEDs connected to the control board.

Washing machine comes in two models, namely, top loading and front loading machines.
 In top loading models the agitator of the machine twists back and forth and pulls the
cloth down to the bottom of the tub. On reaching the bottom of the tub the clothes work
their way back up to the top of the tub where the agitator grabs them again and repeats
 the mechanism.
 In the front loading machines, the clothes are tumbled and plunged into the water over
and over again. This is the first phase of washing.
In the second phase of washing, water is pumped out from the tub and the
inner tub uses centrifugal force to wring out more water from the clothes by
spinning at several hundred Rotations Per Minute (RPM). This is called a 'Spin
Phase'.
 If you look into the keyboard panel of your washing machine you can see three
buttons: Wash, Spin and Rinse. You can use these buttons to configure the washing
stages.
 As you can see from the picture, the inner tub of the machine contains a number of
holes and during the spin cycle the inner tub spins, and forces the water out through
these holes to the stationary outer tub from which it is drained off through the outlet
pipe.
 It is to be noted that the design of washing machines may vary from manufacturer
to manufacturer, but the general principle underlying in the working of the washing
machine remains the same.
 The basic controls consist of a timer, cycle selector mechanism, water temperature
selector, load size selector and start button.
 The mechanism includes the motor, transmission, clutch, pump, agitator, inner tub,
outer tub and water inlet valve. Water inlet valve connects to the water supply line
using at home and regulates the flow of water into the tub.
 The integrated control panel consists of a microprocessor/ controller based board
with I/O interfaces and a control algorithm running in it. Input interface includes the
keyboard which consists of wash type selector: Wash, Spin and Rinse; clothe
selector: Light, Medium, Heavyduty and washing time setting, etc.
 The output interface consists of LED/ LCD displays, status indication LEDs, etc.
connected to theI/O bus of the controller.
 The other types of l/O interfaces which are invisible to the end user are different
kinds of sensor interfaces: water temperature sensor, water level sensor, etc., and
actuator interface including motor control for agitator and tub movement control,
inlet water flow control, etc.
AUTOMATIVE – DOMAIN-SPECIFIC EXAMPLES EMBEDDED STSREM:
The major application domains of embedded systems are consumer, industrial,
automotive, telecom, etc., of which telecom and automotive industry holds a big market
share. The following Figure gives an overview of the various types of electronic control units
employed in automotive applications.

Inner Working of Automotive Embedded Systems:

 Automotive embedded systems are the one where electronics take control over the
mechanical systems. The presence of automotive embedded system in a vehicle
varies from simple mirror and wiper controls to complex air bag controller and
antilock brake systems (ABS).
 Automotive embedded systems are normally built around microcontrollers or DSPs
or a hybrid of the two and are generally known as Electronic Control Units (ECUs).
The number of embedded controllers in an ordinary vehicle varies from 20 to 40
whereas a luxury veh1cle like Mercedes S and BMW 7 may contain over 100
embedded controllers.
 The first embedded system used in automotive application was the microprocessor
based fuel injection system introduced by Volkswagen 1600 in 1968.
The various types of electronic control units (ECUs) used in the automotive
embedded industry can be broadly classified into two-High-speed embedded control
units and Low-speed embedded control units.
High-speed Electronic Control Units (HECUs): are deployed in critical control units
requiring fast response. They include fuel injection systems, antilock brake systems, engine
control, electronic throttle, steering controls, transmission control unit and central control
unit.
Low-speed Electronic Control Units (LECUs): are deployed in applications where response
time is not so critical. They generally are built around low cost microprocessors/
microcontrollers and digital signal processors. Audio controllers, passenger and driver door
locks, door glass controls (power windows), wiper control, mirror control, seat control
systems, head lamp and tail lamp controls, sun roof control unit etc., are examples of LECUs.
Automotive Communication Buses:
Automotive applications make use of serial buses for communication, which greatly
reduces the amount of wiring required inside a vehicle. The different types of serial interface
buses deployed in automotive embedded applications are –
1. Controller Area Network (CAN): The CAN bus was originally proposed by Robert
Bosch, pioneer in the Automotive embedded solution providers.
o CAN supports medium speed (ISO 11519-class B with data rates up to 125
 Kbps) and highspeed (ISO 11898 class C with data rates up to 1Mbps) data
transfer.
o CAN is an event-driven protocol interface with support for error
handling in datatransmission.
o It is generally employed in-safety system like airbag control; power train
systems like enginecontrol and Antilock Brake System (ABS); and navigation
systems like GPS.

2. Local Interconnect Network (LIN): LIN bus is a single master multiple slave (up to
16 independent slave nodes) communication interface.
o LIN is a low speed, single wire communication interface with support for data
rates up to 20 Kbps and is used or sensor/ actuator interfacing.
o LIN bus follows the master communication triggering technique to eliminate the
possible bus arbitration problem that can occur by the simultaneous talking of
different slave nodesconnected to a single interface bus.
o LIN bus is employed in applications like mirror controls, fan controls, seat
positioning controls, window controls, and position controls where response time
is not a critical issue.

3. Media Oriented System Transport (MOST) Bus: MOST is targeted for automotive
audio/ video equipment interfacing, used primarily in European cars.
o A MOST bus is a multimedia fibre-optic point-to-point network implemented
in a star, ringor daisy- chained topology over optical fibre cables.
o The MOST bus specifications define the physical (electrical and optical
parameters) layer as well as the application layer, network layer, and media
access control.
o MOST bus is an optical fibre cable connected between the Electrical Optical
Converter (EOC) and Optical Electrical Converter (OEC), which would translate
into the optical cable MOST bus.