CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study
Despite technological advancements such as the use of inorganic fertilizers, modern land
preparation and planting of early-season crops, mechanization in farming, agrochemicals,
improved seed varieties, expanded irrigation systems, and genetically modified organisms,
among others, the weather continues to be a crucial factor in agricultural production.

Edo State, located in southern Nigeria, is characterized by its predominantly rural

communities and agrarian economy. The agricultural sector plays a significant role in the state's
economy, providing employment, income, and food security for a large portion of the
population. The Egor Local Government Area (LGA) is one of the prominent agricultural
regions within Edo State, known for its diverse crop cultivation and livestock rearing. However,
in recent years, Edo State, like many other regions around the world, has been experiencing the
adverse effects of climate change. Climate change refers to long-term shifts and alterations in
weather patterns, including temperature, rainfall, and extreme weather events. These changes can
significantly impact agricultural systems, affecting crop growth, livestock production, and
overall rural livelihoods.

Climate and agriculture are interdependent since both occur on a global scale, according to
Adejuwon's (2006) observations. Millions of people's welfare are being negatively impacted by
Nigeria's unfavorable climatic conditions. A nation that depends on rain-fed agriculture has lost
its growing season due to flooding, droughts, erosion, off-season showers, etc. Lakes have dried
up due to climate change, and certain regions' river flows have decreased, reducing the amount
of water available for use in agriculture (Ozor, 2009). The Nigerian economy's gross domestic
product (GDP) is partially fueled by the agriculture sector. The impact of climate change on
agricultural production lowers agriculture's share of Nigeria's GDP. Every aspect of the
agricultural industry is impacted by the danger that climate change poses to agricultural
productivity.

The impacts of climate change on agriculture in Edo State, particularly in rural communities
within the Egor LGA, have become increasingly noticeable. Rising temperatures have led to
increased evaporation rates, droughts, and heat stress on crops and livestock. Changes in rainfall
patterns have resulted in irregular precipitation, leading to prolonged dry spells or intense rainfall
events, both of which can negatively impact crop yields and soil fertility. Additionally, extreme
weather events such as floods, storms, and hurricanes have become more frequent, causing soil
erosion, crop damage, and the loss of infrastructure. These events disrupt agricultural activities,
destroy crops, and displace farming communities, exacerbating the vulnerabilities of rural
populations.

The vulnerability of rural communities in Egor LGA to the impacts of climate change is
further compounded by factors such as limited access to resources, inadequate infrastructure, low
adaptive capacity, and dependence on rainfed agriculture. These communities often lack the
financial means and technical knowledge to implement climate-resilient practices or invest in
adaptive technologies.

Given the importance of agriculture in Egor LGA and the increasing challenges posed by
climate change, there is a pressing need to understand the specific impacts of climate change on
agricultural development in this region. This case study aims to bridge this knowledge gap by
examining the effects of climate change on crop production, livestock rearing, and rural
livelihoods in Egor LGA. By identifying and analyzing these impacts, the study seeks to inform
policymakers, agricultural practitioners, and local communities about the urgent need to integrate
climate change adaptation strategies into agricultural development plans. This research will
contribute to the body of knowledge on climate change and agriculture in Edo State, facilitating
evidence-based decision-making and the formulation of effective policies and practices to
enhance agricultural resilience and sustainability in the face of a changing climate.

1.2 Statement of Research Problem

There is increasing agreement in the scientific literature that global temperatures will rise and
precipitation patterns will change over the next several decades. A result of this will be low-
quality or inferior agricultural goods. According to evidence, food yields are already being
impacted by climate change in several nations (IPCC, 2007; Deressa et al, 2008; BNRCC, 2008).
This is especially true in low-income nations, where inadequate adaptation capabilities and
climate are the main determinants of agricultural output (SPORE, 2008; Apata et al., 2009).
Many African nations, like Nigeria, whose economy rely heavily on agricultural production
systems that are weather-sensitive, are especially vulnerable to climate change (Dinar et al.,
2006). The devastation caused by recent flooding in the Niger Delta region of the nation and the
many protracted droughts that are now occurring in some areas of the Northern region serve as
examples of this susceptibility. Understanding farmers' reactions to climatic fluctuation is
therefore essential for many developing nations like Nigeria, which are especially exposed to the
consequences of climate change, since this would aid in the development of effective coping
mechanisms.

International tensions and worries about the effects of climate change on the environment
and agricultural products have recently increased. Additionally, how the shifting of temperature
and precipitation belts will put additional strain on agricultural and food delivery networks,
particularly if changes occur quickly and without prior planning (NEST, 2004). The key question
in this study is whether, given the climatic unpredictability, agricultural output supply can keep
up with population growth. This will depend on several factors, including the potential for
increasing agricultural productivity (including reducing waste during distribution), the
accessibility of inputs used in the agricultural sector (land, labor, machinery, water resources,
fertilizers, etc.), and having enough knowledge of climatic variables to develop potential
effective adaptation and mitigation strategies.

The agricultural sector in Egor Local Government Area (LGA) of Edo State, Nigeria, is
facing significant challenges due to the impacts of climate change. These challenges threaten the
livelihoods of rural communities reliant on agriculture and undermine the region's food security.
Therefore, it is crucial to understand and address the specific research problem: the impact of
climate change on agricultural development in rural communities in Egor LGA. Climate change
alters temperature and rainfall patterns, affecting crop growth and productivity. The changing
climate may lead to decreased crop yields, changes in planting and harvesting seasons, increased
prevalence of pests and diseases, and reduced soil fertility. Understanding the specific impacts
on crop production in Egor LGA is essential to develop targeted adaptation strategies.

Climate change affects livestock health, productivity, and overall management practices.
Heat stress, water scarcity, and changing disease patterns pose significant challenges to livestock
rearing in Egor LGA. The research problem involves examining how climate change impacts
livestock production and identifying adaptation measures for sustainable livestock management.
Rural communities in Egor LGA often have limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and low
adaptive capacity, making them particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. This
research problem focuses on understanding the vulnerabilities of rural communities and
identifying measures to enhance their resilience, improve livelihoods, and ensure food security.

Identifying effective adaptation strategies is crucial for mitigating the adverse effects of
climate change on agricultural development. Understanding the existing adaptation practices and
exploring the barriers that hinder their implementation in Egor LGA is essential. Additionally,
the research problem involves identifying policy gaps and recommending policy interventions to
support climate-resilient agricultural development. Addressing the research problem will provide
valuable insights into the specific challenges faced by rural communities in Egor LGA due to
climate change. It will help identify adaptation strategies, technologies, and policies to enhance
agricultural resilience, ensure food security, and improve the livelihoods of farmers in the region.
By focusing on this research problem, stakeholders can make informed decisions to mitigate the
negative impacts of climate change and promote sustainable agricultural development in Egor
LGA.

1.3 Research Questions

The following questions are being examined and potential answers are being offered using the
research project as a veritable tool of analysis.

 How has climate change affected crop production in rural communities of Egor LGA?
 What are the specific challenges faced by farmers in adapting to climate change in the
agricultural sector of Egor LGA?
 What are the existing adaptation strategies employed by farmers and rural communities in
Egor LGA to mitigate the impacts of climate change?
 How can climate-smart agricultural practices and policies be integrated to enhance
agricultural resilience and promote sustainable development in rural communities of Egor
LGA?
1.4 Research objectives

The main goal of this study activity is to evaluate the impact of climatic change on agricultural
production using Egor local government as a case of study, in response to the concerns indicated
above.

 To assess the impact of climate change on crop production in rural communities of Egor
LGA, including changes in yields, cropping patterns, and susceptibility to pests and
diseases.
 To identify and analyze the specific challenges faced by farmers in adapting to climate
change in the agricultural sector of Egor LGA, including resource limitations, knowledge
gaps, and technological barriers.
 To document and analyze the existing adaptation strategies employed by farmers and
rural communities in Egor LGA to mitigate the impacts of climate change, including the
adoption of climate-resilient crops, soil and water management techniques, and
diversification of livelihoods.
 To propose recommendations and strategies for integrating climate-smart agricultural
practices and policies in Egor LGA, aiming to enhance agricultural resilience, promote
sustainable development, and improve the livelihoods of rural communities.

1.5 Research Hypothesis

The following hypotheses seeks to answer the research question stated above.

 Ho: There is no significant impact of climate change on crop production in rural

communities of Egor LGA.
 H0: There are no significant challenges faced by farmers in adapting to climate change in
the agricultural sector of Egor LGA.
  H0: There are no significant differences in the effectiveness of existing adaptation
strategies employed by farmers and rural communities in Egor LGA to mitigate the
impacts of climate change.
 H0: The integration of climate-smart agricultural practices and policies has no significant
effect on enhancing agricultural resilience, promoting sustainable development, and
improving the livelihoods of rural communities in Egor LGA.

1.6 Significance of the study

The significance of the study lies in its potential to contribute valuable insights and
knowledge regarding the impact of climate change on agricultural development in rural
communities within Egor Local Government Area (LGA) of Edo State, Nigeria. The study's
significance can be understood in the following ways:

First, the study will provide policymakers with evidence-based information on the specific
challenges faced by rural communities in Egor LGA due to climate change. The findings can
inform the development of climate change adaptation policies, strategies, and interventions at the
local, regional, and national levels. Policymakers can make informed decisions to allocate
resources, develop targeted programs, and implement appropriate measures to enhance
agricultural resilience and ensure food security in the face of a changing climate.

Second, the research will contribute to agricultural planning and development efforts in Egor
LGA. By understanding the impacts of climate change on crop production and livestock rearing,
farmers and agricultural practitioners can better prepare for and mitigate the adverse effects. The
findings can guide the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices, such as improved water
management, crop diversification, and soil conservation techniques, to enhance agricultural
productivity, resource efficiency, and sustainability.

Third, the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the impact of climate
change on agricultural development in Edo State and specifically in Egor LGA. It will help fill
research gaps and generate empirical data that can be used by future researchers, academics, and
institutions working on climate change, agriculture, and rural development. The research can
serve as a foundation for further studies and provide valuable insights for comparative analyses
across different regions and contexts.
 Fourth, the study's findings can raise awareness among stakeholders about the urgency of
addressing climate change impacts on agriculture. It can foster knowledge dissemination,
education, and capacity-building initiatives to enhance understanding of climate change
adaptation practices, technologies, and policies. Stakeholders, including farmers, community
leaders, and agricultural extension services, can be equipped with the necessary knowledge and
tools to make informed decisions and take appropriate actions in response to climate change
challenges.

Overall, the significance of this study lies in its potential to inform policy formulation,
enhance agricultural planning, empower rural communities, contribute to scientific knowledge,
and build awareness and capacity to address the impacts of climate change on agricultural
development in Egor LGA and similar regions.

1.7 Scope of the study

The scope of the study focuses on the impact of climate change on agricultural development in
rural communities within Egor Local Government Area (LGA) of Edo State, Nigeria.
Specifically, the study will examine the effects of climate change on crop production, livestock
rearing, and the overall resilience of rural communities in Egor LGA.

The study will be conducted specifically within the boundaries of Egor LGA in Edo State.
The research findings and recommendations will be applicable to this specific region and may
not be directly generalizable to other LGAs or states in Nigeria or other countries. However, the
study's findings can provide insights and lessons that may have broader relevance for similar
agricultural contexts facing climate change challenges. The study will consider the recent past
and present state of climate change impacts on agricultural development in Egor LGA. Data and
information from the past decade will be analyzed to understand the trends and changes in
climate variables, agricultural practices, and impacts on crops and livestock. The study will
primarily focus on the period up until the present, without projecting into the future.

The study's scope does not include an in-depth analysis of climate change modeling or
climate projections for Egor LGA. Instead, it aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of
the current and observed impacts of climate change on agricultural development in the region.
The study's scope does not encompass an extensive economic analysis of the agricultural sector
or an evaluation of specific climate change adaptation projects or interventions in Egor LGA.
However, the study will highlight existing adaptation strategies employed by farmers and
explore the policy gaps that hinder effective adaptation.

Overall, the scope of the study focuses on providing a comprehensive understanding of the
impact of climate change on agricultural development in rural communities within Egor LGA,
with a specific emphasis on crop production, livestock rearing, and community resilience.

1.8 Limitations of the study

While conducting the study on the impact of climate change on agricultural development in rural
communities within Egor Local Government Area (LGA) of Edo State, Nigeria, several
limitations may be encountered. These limitations include:

The findings and conclusions of the study may have limited generalizability beyond the specific
context of Egor LGA. Other LGAs or states in Nigeria, as well as different countries, may have
unique climate conditions, agricultural practices, and socio-economic factors that could result in
different outcomes. Conducting a comprehensive study on the impact of climate change in
agriculture requires sufficient time and resources. However, time constraints may limit the depth
and breadth of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The study may not capture long-term
trends or seasonal variations adequately. The study's findings may be influenced by the sample
size and representativeness of the participants and communities included in the research. The
sample may not fully represent the diversity of rural communities in Egor LGA, and there may
be variations in climate change impacts and adaptation practices among different sub-regions or
communities. The impact of climate change on agriculture is influenced by various external
factors, such as market conditions, infrastructure, policy interventions, and socio-economic
dynamics. These factors may interact with climate change impacts, making it challenging to
isolate the specific contribution of climate change alone.

Despite these limitations, the study will strive to provide valuable insights into the impact of
climate change on agricultural development in Egor LGA. By acknowledging and addressing
these limitations, the study's findings can be interpreted within their specific context and
contribute to the broader understanding of climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector.
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The literature review section aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the existing
knowledge and research related to the impact of climate change on agricultural development in
rural communities within Egor Local Government Area (LGA) of Edo State, Nigeria. This
section will critically analyze and synthesize the relevant literature to establish the current
understanding of the topic, identify gaps in knowledge, and justify the need for the present study.

Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges of our time, with profound
implications for various sectors, including agriculture. The agricultural sector, particularly in
rural communities, is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to its reliance on
natural resources, climatic conditions, and traditional farming practices. Understanding the
specific effects of climate change on agricultural development in Egor LGA is crucial for
devising effective adaptation strategies, policies, and interventions to ensure the sustainability
and resilience of rural communities.

2.2 Conceptual Literature

The truth of climate change is becoming more pervasive. The need to address this genuine
and serious threat is made abundantly clear by the increasing frequency and intensity of
disasters, flooding, severe weather events, as well as other impacts (Fatile, 2013). The United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Optional Protocol, which together
offer the institutional basis for action on a global scale, have become the center of the worldwide
response to climate change (UN, 2007). The Climate Change United Nations Conference in
Nairobi, which is the most recent round of international negotiations, addresses crucial problems
for increasing global action to reduce the impacts of climate change and prepare for its effects.
According to Allen (2004), climate change is the result of a complex interplay between the
stratosphere and troposphere of the Earth's atmosphere and the land biosphere. It is thought that
perhaps the consequences of global warming on the ecosystem are what cause climate change.
Many people believe that the greatest significant environmental threat facing both rural and
urban areas is global warming (Gideens, 2006). Climate change is defined by the International
Panel on Climate Change (2007) as a shift in the climate's state that can be detected by changes
in the mean or variability of its attributes and that lasts for an extended period of time, usually
decades or longer. The degree of departure from the norm and its effects on the environment are
more important than the time it takes for changes to become apparent. Climate change is defined
by the United Nations (2007) as a change in the climate that can be directly or indirectly linked
to human activity that modifies the global atmosphere and that occurs in alongside the natural
climate variability seen over equivalent time periods. The primary aspects of climate change.
According to Ozor (2009), climate change is defined as a shift in the environment over time,
whether as a result of natural variability or human action. It is widely acknowledged as the most
significant environmental concern now posing a threat to our communities. This term conveys
both the gravity of the danger posed by global warming and the haste with which nations must
respond towards this urgent wakeup call to mitigate its adverse impacts. The socioeconomic and
physical environment of rural and urban areas, as well as the application of scientific knowledge
to the promotion of community development in Nigeria, have all been significantly threatened by
climate change. Long-term, it is influencing both the natural landscape and the contemporary,
planned rural and urban societal and economic environment. This has turned into a damaging
new reality. Numerous aspects of the urban, agricultural, and social environments are susceptible
to variations and changes in the climate. Ecosystems, agriculture, water requirements and
availability, food production, and other systems are some examples of climate-sensitive systems
(Okoye, 2007). The following changes may have been noticed: extreme weather, a rise in the
frequency and power of thunderstorms, floods, hurricanes, and droughts. As witnessed in the
Niger Delta region of Nigeria, these socio-economic and political issues are accompanied by
poverty, malnutrition, ill health, and civil instability brought on by a lack of agricultural and
mining opportunities for environmental resources.

2.2.1 Climate Change and Agricultural Production in Nigeria

 Nigeria is particularly vulnerable to the consequences of climate change because it is a
developing country. Environmental issues, which are particularly sensitive to climate change, are
essential to the nation's economy. Despite the importance of the consequences of climate change,
Nigerians are unaware of what it is or its effects. Disease, loss of livelihoods, and settlements can
compel entire communities to relocate or perhaps go extinct. The largest challenge may be an
absence of knowledge and information. Nigerians, according to Adeniji (2010), require to be
enlightened and knowledgeable regarding climate change and how it may have a significant
impact on our daily life. For instance, Fashola, a former governor of Lagos State, issued a
warning in 2014 regarding Hurricane Sandy's potential effects on the State. The Nigerian
Meteorological Authority has also issued a warning about other natural calamities brought on by
unfavorable weather. Recently, experts issued a warning that being ready is essential in the event
of both man-made and natural calamities (Punch, 2015). A regional and global environmental,
social, and economic challenge is climate change (Scholze and Prentice, 2006). It can be made
worse by human-caused activities such intensive land use, widespread deforestation, significant
technological and social changes that diminish rely on organic fuel, and rapid adoption of carbon
fuels (United Nations, 2007).

It is essential to highlight that the government's afforestation programs in Nigeria are likely
to be significantly impacted by the periodic price increases and unavailability of basic home
fuels like kerosene. However according Fatile (2013), the most devastating negative
consequences of climate change in Nigeria and other tropical climate countries include the
following: regular drought, steadily increasing damage to the environment, increased crop
infestation by pests and diseases, decline of household assets, increased rural-urban migration,
steadily increasing habitat destruction, decline of animals and other global resource units,
adjustments in the natural vegetation, decrease in forest reserves, decline in so-called "soft"
resources, such as fish and other wildlife, decline in agricultural productivity, and decline in so-
called "hard" resources (Ozor, 2009). Due to its effects on the weather, natural resources,
agriculture, and other sectors of society around the world, climate change has drawn
considerable attention. The climate has changed consistently from decade to decade.
Environmental organizations in Nigeria have found that if the regular fuel price increases are not
stopped, there may be enormous destruction of the country's severely depleted forests (Raufu,
2003). This planet has been experiencing the warmest weather on record since the beginning of
the twenty-first century. Climate change is typically thought of as a component of the planet's
inherent unpredictability. It deals with how the atmosphere, ocean, and land are connected in
addition to changes in how much solar energy reaches the Earth. The challenges posed by
climate change, which vary from nation to nation and community to community, cannot be
understated (Kasali, 2011).

2.2.1.2 Causes of Climate Change

Climate change is primarily caused by human activities that release greenhouse gases (GHGs)
into the Earth's atmosphere. The main causes of climate change include:

1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: The combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, for
energy production, transportation, and industrial processes releases significant amounts of carbon
dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas that traps heat and contributes to
the warming of the planet.

2. Deforestation: The clearing of forests for agriculture, logging, and urbanization leads to the
release of stored carbon dioxide through the burning of trees and the disruption of natural carbon
sinks. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 through photosynthesis, and their removal
reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb greenhouse gases.

3. Industrial Processes: Certain industrial processes, such as cement production, chemical

manufacturing, and the production of steel and aluminum, release substantial amounts of CO2
and other greenhouse gases. These emissions result from chemical reactions, energy-intensive
processes, and the use of fossil fuels as energy sources.

4. Agricultural Activities: Agricultural practices, including livestock production, rice

cultivation, and the use of synthetic fertilizers, contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
Livestock, particularly cattle, release methane (CH4) during digestion, while flooded rice
paddies emit methane through the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter. Nitrous oxide
(N2O), another potent greenhouse gas, is released from agricultural soils due to the use of
nitrogen-based fertilizers.

5. Land Use Changes: The conversion of forests, grasslands, and other natural ecosystems into
agricultural land, urban areas, or industrial zones alters the balance of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. Deforestation, as mentioned earlier, reduces the Earth's capacity to absorb CO2,
while land degradation and desertification contribute to increased emissions and reduced carbon
sequestration.

It's important to note that while human activities are the primary drivers of recent climate
change, natural factors such as volcanic eruptions and variations in solar radiation can also
influence the Earth's climate system. However, the current rate and magnitude of climate change
are primarily attributed to human-induced factors, particularly the emission of greenhouse gases.

2.2.1.3 Climate Change and its Impacts on Agriculture

Climate change has significant implications for agriculture, posing both direct and indirect
impacts on crop production, livestock rearing, and overall food security. The changing climatic
conditions, including rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased occurrence
of extreme weather events, can disrupt agricultural systems and have far-reaching consequences.
The impacts of climate change on agriculture include:

First, climate change can lead to shifts in the timing and duration of growing seasons.
Warmer temperatures and earlier springs can trigger premature flowering and budding,
potentially exposing crops to late frosts or water stress. Conversely, longer growing seasons in
some regions may provide opportunities for multiple cropping or the introduction of new crop
varieties. Changes in precipitation patterns, such as increased frequency of droughts or heavy
rainfall events, can profoundly affect agricultural productivity. Droughts can lead to water
scarcity, reduced soil moisture, and crop failure, while excessive rainfall can result in soil
erosion, flooding, and crop damage.

Climate change impacts the availability and distribution of water resources, essential for
irrigation and livestock production. Changes in rainfall patterns and increased evaporation rates
can reduce water availability, leading to decreased agricultural productivity and challenges in
sustaining livestock operations. Climate change is associated with a higher incidence of extreme
weather events, including hurricanes, cyclones, heatwaves, and floods. These events can result in
crop destruction, soil erosion, infrastructure damage, and loss of livestock, posing significant
challenges to agricultural production and livelihoods.
 Climate change can also influence the distribution and behavior of pests, insects, and
diseases that affect agricultural crops and livestock. Warmer temperatures can extend the range
and reproductive cycles of pests, leading to increased infestations and damage. Changes in
disease patterns can also impact livestock health and productivity. Livestock rearing is
vulnerable to climate change as animals are sensitive to temperature stress and changes in forage
availability. Heat stress can reduce livestock productivity, affect breeding patterns, and increase
susceptibility to diseases. Altered rainfall patterns may also impact grazing lands and feed
availability, affecting the nutritional needs of livestock. Climate change-induced disruptions in
agricultural production can threaten food security and livelihoods in rural communities.
Decreased crop yields, livestock losses, and reduced income opportunities can lead to increased
food insecurity, poverty, and migration from rural areas.

Addressing the impacts of climate change on agriculture requires adaptive strategies, resilient
farming practices, and effective policies. It necessitates the development and implementation of
climate-smart agriculture techniques, improved water management, diversified cropping
systems, early warning systems for extreme weather events, and support for sustainable
livelihoods in rural communities.

2.2.1.4 Effects of Temperature Changes on Crop Production

Temperature changes resulting from climate change have significant effects on crop production.
The impacts vary depending on the specific crop, geographical region, and the magnitude and
duration of temperature shifts. Here are some of the key effects of temperature changes on crop
production:

1. Optimal Growth Conditions: Each crop has an optimal temperature range for growth and
development. Temperature changes can shift these optimal conditions, affecting the
physiological processes of crops. High temperatures can accelerate plant development, leading to
shorter crop cycles, premature flowering, and reduced yields. Conversely, low temperatures can
slow growth and delay maturity, extending the time to harvest.

2. Crop Phenology and Timing: Changes in temperature can alter the timing of important crop
development stages, such as germination, flowering, and fruit set. For example, warmer
temperatures may cause crops to reach these stages earlier, making them more vulnerable to late
frosts or droughts. This can result in crop losses and reduced yields.

3. Photosynthesis and Carbon Assimilation: Temperature directly affects photosynthesis, the

process by which plants convert sunlight into energy and assimilate carbon dioxide (CO2) into
organic compounds. Increased temperatures can enhance photosynthesis rates initially, but
prolonged heat stress can lead to reduced photosynthetic efficiency and carbon assimilation. This
can result in decreased crop productivity and lower yields.

4. Water Use Efficiency: Temperature changes can influence the water use efficiency of crops.
Higher temperatures can increase evapotranspiration rates, leading to greater water loss through
plant leaves. This can exacerbate water stress in crops, particularly in regions with limited water
availability. Increased water demand may require adjustments in irrigation practices and water
management strategies.

5. Pollination and Reproductive Success: Temperature plays a crucial role in pollination, as it

affects the behavior and activity of pollinators, such as bees. Warmer temperatures can disrupt
the synchronization between flowering and pollinator activity, potentially reducing pollination
rates and impacting fruit set and yield formation.

6. Pests and Diseases: Temperature changes can influence the population dynamics of pests and
diseases that affect crops. Higher temperatures can accelerate the life cycles of pests, increase
their reproductive rates, and expand their geographical range. This can lead to greater pest
pressure and the need for increased pest management measures. Additionally, temperature
changes can alter the incidence and severity of plant diseases, affecting crop health and
productivity.

7. Shifts in Crop Distribution: As temperatures change, suitable growing regions for specific
crops may shift. Crops that are sensitive to temperature changes may require adaptation
strategies, such as shifting cultivation to cooler or more suitable regions. Conversely, regions that
were once unsuitable for certain crops may become more favorable, presenting opportunities for
diversification and expansion.

Adapting to temperature changes and mitigating their negative effects on crop production
require the development and implementation of climate-smart agricultural practices. These
include the use of heat-tolerant crop varieties, improved irrigation techniques, optimized planting
dates, and agroforestry practices to provide shade and microclimate regulation. Effective
monitoring, early warning systems, and agronomic management practices are essential for
farmers to adapt to the changing temperature patterns and maintain sustainable crop production.

2.2.1.5 Effects of Changes in Precipitation Patterns on Crop Production in Nigeria

Changes in precipitation patterns resulting from climate change can have significant effects on
crop production in Nigeria. The impacts vary depending on the specific crop, regional climate,
and the timing, intensity, and duration of precipitation changes. Here are some of the key effects
of changes in precipitation patterns on crop production in Nigeria:

1. Water Availability: Changes in precipitation can directly affect the availability of water for
irrigation and crop growth. Decreased rainfall or prolonged dry spells can lead to water scarcity,
soil moisture deficits, and drought conditions, particularly in rain fed agricultural systems.
Insufficient water availability can hinder crop germination, growth, and yield formation.

2. Crop Growth and Development: Adequate and well-distributed rainfall is crucial for crop
growth and development. Insufficient rainfall or irregular precipitation patterns can result in
moisture stress, affecting root development, nutrient uptake, and photosynthesis. This can lead to
stunted growth, reduced leaf area, and lower crop yields.

3. Crop Water Requirements: Changes in precipitation patterns may necessitate adjustments in

crop water management strategies. In periods of reduced rainfall, farmers may need to rely more
on irrigation to meet crop water requirements. However, increased irrigation demands can strain
water resources and lead to increased production costs for farmers.

4. Soil Erosion and Nutrient Loss: Heavy rainfall events associated with changes in
precipitation patterns can contribute to soil erosion. Intense downpours can cause surface runoff,
leading to the loss of topsoil, nutrients, and organic matter. Soil erosion can degrade soil fertility
and reduce crop productivity over time.

5. Flooding and Waterlogging: On the other hand, changes in precipitation patterns can also
result in excessive rainfall and flooding. Flooding can lead to waterlogging, which restricts
oxygen availability to plant roots, inhibiting root function and leading to crop damage or even
complete loss. Floods can also wash away crops, seeds, and topsoil, causing severe economic
losses for farmers.

6. Disease and Pest Incidences: Changes in precipitation patterns can influence the incidence
and severity of plant diseases and pests. Excessive rainfall and humidity can create favorable
conditions for the development and spread of fungal and bacterial diseases. Prolonged wet
periods can also increase pest populations, including insects and rodents, which can cause crop
damage and reduce yields.

7. Shifts in Cropping Patterns: Changes in precipitation patterns may necessitate adjustments

in cropping patterns and agricultural practices. Farmers may need to consider planting more
drought-tolerant crop varieties or diversifying their crop selection to adapt to varying rainfall
conditions. Additionally, shifts in precipitation patterns may require changes in planting dates
and the adoption of water-conserving techniques, such as conservation agriculture and rainwater
harvesting.

Adaptation measures, such as improved water management, efficient irrigation techniques,

and the use of drought-tolerant crop varieties, can help mitigate the negative impacts of changes
in precipitation patterns. The development and dissemination of climate information and early
warning systems can also assist farmers in making informed decisions about crop management
and water resource utilization. Government support in terms of infrastructure development,
agricultural extension services, and financial assistance is crucial to enable farmers to adapt to
changing precipitation patterns and maintain sustainable crop production in Nigeria.

2.2.2 Climate Change and Livestock Rearing

Climate change poses significant challenges to livestock rearing in Egor Local Government
Area (LGA) of Edo State. The changing climatic conditions, including rising temperatures,
altered rainfall patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events, can directly and
indirectly impact livestock health, productivity, and overall livelihoods. Here are some of the key
effects of climate change on livestock rearing in Egor LGA:

1. Heat Stress: Rising temperatures can subject livestock to heat stress, particularly in hot and
humid regions like Egor LGA. Heat stress reduces feed intake, impairs digestion, and affects
nutrient absorption, leading to decreased growth rates, reduced milk production in dairy animals,
and compromised reproductive performance. Heat stress can also result in increased water
consumption and the risk of dehydration.

2. Water Scarcity: Changes in rainfall patterns and increased evaporation rates can contribute to
water scarcity, affecting livestock watering and hygiene practices. Reduced water availability
can lead to inadequate drinking water for livestock, compromising their health, well-being, and
productivity. Water scarcity can also impact forage availability and quality, further exacerbating
feed shortages and nutritional deficiencies.

3. Forage Availability and Quality: Changes in rainfall patterns can influence the availability
and quality of forage for livestock. Extended dry periods and droughts can lead to decreased
pasture growth and reduced fodder production. This can result in limited grazing resources and
inadequate feed supply, necessitating the use of alternative feeding strategies, such as
haymaking, silage production, or the sourcing of supplementary feed.

4. Disease and Parasite Dynamics: Climate change can influence the prevalence, distribution,
and behavior of diseases and parasites that affect livestock. Warmer temperatures and increased
humidity can create favorable conditions for the proliferation of certain pathogens and parasites.
This can lead to increased disease incidences, such as tick-borne diseases, gastroenteritis, and
respiratory infections, impacting livestock health and productivity. Changes in rainfall patterns
can also affect the occurrence of waterborne diseases.

5. Shifts in Livestock Management: Climate change may require adjustments in livestock

management practices. Farmers may need to consider changes in breeding programs, such as
selecting heat-tolerant breeds or crossbreeding for improved resilience. Moreover, changes in
grazing patterns and forage availability may necessitate rotational grazing, intensification of
fodder production systems, or the adoption of stall-feeding practices during periods of forage
scarcity.

6. Economic Impacts: Climate change-induced challenges in livestock rearing can have

economic implications for farmers in Egor LGA. Reduced livestock productivity, increased
mortality rates, and the need for additional investments in infrastructure and feed can lead to
financial strain for livestock farmers. This can threaten their income, livelihoods, and overall
socio-economic well-being.

2.2.3. Vulnerability and Adaptation in Agricultural Systems

Agricultural systems are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their
dependence on climatic conditions for crop growth, livestock rearing, and overall productivity.
Climate change poses various challenges to agricultural systems, including changes in
temperature, precipitation patterns, extreme weather events, and shifts in pest and disease
dynamics. However, adaptation strategies can help mitigate these vulnerabilities and build
resilience in agricultural systems.

Assessing the vulnerability of agricultural systems involves understanding their exposure to

climate change impacts, sensitivity to those impacts, and their adaptive capacity. Vulnerability
assessments consider factors such as geographic location, climate projections, socio-economic
conditions, infrastructure, and natural resources to identify the key vulnerabilities and potential
impacts on agricultural systems. Adapting agricultural systems involves selecting crop and
livestock varieties that are more resilient to changing climatic conditions. This may include
choosing drought-tolerant or heat-tolerant crop varieties that can withstand temperature stress or
water scarcity. Similarly, selecting livestock breeds that are better adapted to local climate
conditions can help improve their resilience and productivity.

Efficient water management practices are essential in adapting to changing precipitation

patterns and water availability. This includes implementing techniques such as rainwater
harvesting, drip irrigation, and improved water storage and distribution systems. Efficient water
management can help optimize water use, minimize losses, and ensure the availability of water
for both crops and livestock. Sustainable soil management practices play a crucial role in
adapting agricultural systems. This includes techniques such as conservation tillage,
agroforestry, and the use of cover crops to enhance soil health, reduce erosion, improve water
infiltration, and increase nutrient retention. These practices can help mitigate the impacts of
extreme weather events, maintain soil fertility, and support long-term agricultural productivity.

Diversifying cropping systems by introducing a variety of crops can help spread risks and
reduce vulnerability to climate change impacts. Crop rotation, where different crops are grown in
sequence on the same land, can also help break disease and pest cycles, improve soil health, and
optimize resource utilization. Diversification and rotation strategies can enhance agricultural
resilience and contribute to improved food security. Access to timely and accurate climate
information is crucial for making informed decisions in agricultural systems. Early warning
systems for extreme weather events, such as floods or droughts, can help farmers prepare and
implement appropriate adaptation measures. Climate information services can provide farmers
with forecasts, seasonal outlooks, and agronomic advice, enabling them to adjust their farming
practices accordingly.

Strengthening the capacity of farmers, extension services, and agricultural institutions is

vital for successful adaptation. This includes providing training and knowledge-sharing
platforms on climate-smart agricultural practices, access to finance and insurance schemes, and
facilitating the adoption of innovative technologies and practices. Farmers' participation and
engagement in decision-making processes are also crucial for effective adaptation in agricultural
systems.

Adapting agricultural systems to climate change requires a multi-faceted approach that

integrates scientific knowledge, local context, and the active involvement of stakeholders. It
involves a combination of technological, institutional, and policy interventions to build
resilience, reduce vulnerability, and ensure sustainable agricultural production in the face of a
changing climate.

2.2.3.2 Vulnerability of rural communities to climate change

Rural communities are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to their
dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, forestry, and natural resource-based
livelihoods. Several factors contribute to their vulnerability:

1. Dependence on Climate-Sensitive Sectors: Rural communities often rely heavily on

agriculture, forestry, and fishing for their livelihoods. These sectors are highly influenced by
climate conditions such as temperature, rainfall, and seasonality. Changes in these climatic
factors can directly affect crop yields, livestock productivity, water availability, and the overall
productivity and income of rural communities.
2. Limited Resources and Infrastructure: Rural communities often face resource constraints
and inadequate infrastructure, which can impede their ability to adapt to climate change. Limited
access to financial resources, technology, information, and markets can hinder their capacity to
invest in climate-resilient practices and technologies. Inadequate infrastructure for water
management, irrigation, transportation, and healthcare further exacerbates their vulnerability to
climate-related risks.

3. High Dependence on Natural Resources: Many rural communities rely on natural resources
for their livelihoods, including forests, rivers, and biodiversity. Climate change can disrupt these
ecosystems, leading to shifts in species distribution, habitat loss, and reduced availability of
resources. For example, changes in rainfall patterns can affect the availability of water for
irrigation and livestock watering, while rising temperatures can impact the growth of forests and
affect wildlife populations.

4. Limited Access to Information and Technology: Rural communities often have limited
access to climate information, early warning systems, and technology that can help them
anticipate and respond to climate-related risks. Lack of awareness and information about climate
change and adaptation strategies can hinder their ability to make informed decisions and take
proactive measures to mitigate the impacts.

5. Social and Cultural Factors: Social factors, including poverty, gender inequality, and
marginalization, can compound the vulnerability of rural communities to climate change.
Poverty limits their adaptive capacity, making it challenging to invest in resilient infrastructure
and technologies. Gender inequalities can restrict women's access to resources and decision-
making processes, hindering their ability to adapt effectively. Marginalized groups, such as
indigenous communities, may face unique vulnerabilities due to their close connection to and
dependence on specific ecosystems.

6. Exposure to Climate-Related Hazards: Rural communities are often located in areas that are
more exposed to climate-related hazards such as floods, droughts, storms, and heatwaves. Their
physical proximity to these hazards increases their vulnerability to property damage, crop loss,
livestock mortality, and displacement. Limited access to insurance and social safety nets further
amplifies their vulnerability to climate-related disasters.
 Addressing the vulnerability of rural communities to climate change requires a
comprehensive approach that includes enhancing their adaptive capacity, improving access to
resources and information, strengthening local institutions, and promoting inclusive and
participatory decision-making processes. Supporting sustainable livelihood diversification,
promoting climate-resilient agriculture and land management practices, and investing in
infrastructure and services can help build the resilience of rural communities and enable them to
adapt to the challenges posed by climate change.

2.2.3.3 Role of technology and innovation in climate change adaptation

Technology and innovation play a crucial role in climate change adaptation by providing
solutions and tools to address the challenges posed by a changing climate. They offer
opportunities to enhance resilience, improve adaptive capacity, and promote sustainable
practices. Here are some key roles of technology and innovation in climate change adaptation:

1. Climate Information and Early Warning Systems: Advanced climate monitoring

technologies, satellite imagery, and weather forecasting systems enable the collection and
analysis of climate data. This information helps in understanding climate patterns, predicting
extreme weather events, and providing early warnings to communities and decision-makers.
Accurate and timely climate information supports preparedness and adaptation planning,
allowing communities to take proactive measures to reduce risks.

2. Agricultural Technologies: Innovative agricultural technologies and practices can help

farmers adapt to changing climate conditions. These include drought-tolerant crop varieties,
precision agriculture techniques, improved irrigation systems, and climate-smart farming
practices. For example, drip irrigation systems can optimize water use and reduce water stress on
crops, while conservation agriculture methods can enhance soil health and water retention.

3. Renewable Energy Technologies: Transitioning to clean and renewable energy sources is

essential for mitigating climate change. Renewable energy technologies, such as solar, wind, and
hydropower, offer sustainable alternatives to fossil fuel-based energy generation. Access to
affordable and reliable renewable energy enables communities to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, enhance energy efficiency, and build resilience to energy supply disruptions.
4. Water Management Technologies: Effective water management is critical for climate
change adaptation, particularly in areas prone to droughts or water scarcity. Technologies such as
rainwater harvesting systems, water storage and distribution systems, and water-efficient
irrigation techniques can help optimize water resources and improve water availability for
various purposes, including agriculture, livestock rearing, and domestic use.

5. Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Innovative engineering and construction techniques can

help develop climate-resilient infrastructure that can withstand extreme weather events and
changing climate conditions. This includes designing buildings with better insulation, utilizing
green infrastructure for stormwater management, and constructing resilient transportation and
communication networks. Climate-resilient infrastructure reduces vulnerability to climate-related
hazards and ensures continuity of essential services.

6. Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Technology and innovation can support ecosystem-based

approaches to climate change adaptation. This involves restoring and conserving ecosystems,
such as forests, wetlands, and coastal areas, which provide natural protection against climate
impacts. Innovative tools, such as remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and
modeling, aid in ecosystem mapping, monitoring, and restoration planning.

7. Climate Finance and Market Mechanisms: Technological innovation plays a role in climate
finance and market mechanisms that facilitate adaptation actions. For example, blockchain
technology can enhance transparency and accountability in climate finance transactions.
Innovative financial instruments, such as climate insurance, microfinance, and green bonds, help
mobilize resources for climate change adaptation projects and support the implementation of
innovative solutions at scale.

The widespread adoption and effective implementation of technology and innovation in

climate change adaptation require supportive policies, research and development efforts, capacity
building, and knowledge sharing. Collaboration between governments, research institutions,
private sector actors, and local communities is essential to harness the potential of technology
and innovation for climate resilience and sustainable development.

2.2.4 Policy and Institutional Frameworks for Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture
 Effective policy and institutional frameworks are essential for promoting climate change
adaptation in the agricultural sector in Nigeria. Climate change poses significant challenges to
agricultural systems, including changes in rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and extreme
weather events, which directly impact crop yields, livestock productivity, and overall food
security. This section of the literature review examines the existing policy and institutional
frameworks in Nigeria that aim to facilitate climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector.

2.2.4.1 National and Regional Climate Change Policies and Initiatives

National and regional climate change policies and initiatives are crucial in addressing the
challenges posed by climate change and transitioning towards a more sustainable and resilient
future. These policies and initiatives are implemented by governments at the national and
regional levels to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, adapt to changing climatic conditions, and
promote sustainable development practices. Nigeria, as a country highly vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change, has recognized the need for national and regional climate change
policies and initiatives to mitigate and adapt to the challenges posed by a changing climate. Here
are some key policies and initiatives in Nigeria:

In 2012, Nigeria developed its National Climate Change Policy and Response Strategy. The
policy aims to guide the country's efforts in addressing climate change and promoting sustainable
development. It focuses on sectors such as agriculture, water resources, energy, transportation,
and forestry, and emphasizes the need for adaptation, mitigation, capacity building, and public
awareness.

The second on the list is the National Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action on Climate
Change for Nigeria (NASPA-CCN): NASPA-CCN was developed in 2013 to address the
impacts of climate change and enhance resilience at the national level. The strategy identifies
priority areas for adaptation, including agriculture, water resources, health, and infrastructure. It
outlines measures to strengthen adaptive capacity and promote sustainable development in the
face of climate change.

The National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy (NREEEP) established in
2015 to promote renewable energy and energy efficiency as key strategies for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing energy security in Nigeria. The policy aims to diversify
the country's energy mix, increase access to clean energy, and create opportunities for job
creation and economic growth.

Nigeria has developed a National REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation) Strategy to address deforestation and forest degradation, which are
significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. The strategy focuses on sustainable forest
management, conservation, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks, and the promotion of co-
benefits such as biodiversity conservation and livelihood improvement.

Nigeria is also part of various regional initiatives aimed at addressing climate change. For
example, the Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC) works to promote sustainable development
and address climate change impacts in the Lake Chad Basin region. Additionally, Nigeria is
involved in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) regional initiatives on
climate change, such as the ECOWAS Renewable Energy Policy and the ECOWAS Regional
Electricity Access Project.

These policies and initiatives highlight Nigeria's commitment to addressing climate change
at both national and regional levels. However, effective implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation of these policies and initiatives are crucial to achieve their desired outcomes and build
climate resilience across the country. Collaboration between government agencies, civil society
organizations, and the private sector is essential to drive progress and overcome the challenges
posed by climate change in Nigeria.

2.2.4.2 Institutional Support for Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture

In Nigeria, several institutions provide support for climate change adaptation in the agricultural
sector. These institutions play a crucial role in developing policies, providing technical
assistance, and implementing programs to enhance the resilience of farmers and promote
sustainable agricultural practices. Here are some key institutional supports for climate change
adaptation in agriculture in Nigeria:

1. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD): The FMARD is the
primary government agency responsible for agricultural development in Nigeria. It plays a vital
role in formulating and implementing policies, programs, and projects aimed at supporting
climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector. The ministry focuses on promoting climate-
smart agriculture practices, providing training and capacity building for farmers, and facilitating
access to climate finance and insurance for agricultural enterprises.

2. Nigerian Meteorological Agency (NiMet): NiMet is responsible for weather forecasting,

climate monitoring, and providing climate information services in Nigeria. It plays a crucial role
in supporting climate change adaptation in agriculture by providing timely and accurate weather
forecasts, early warning systems, and climate-related information to farmers and policymakers.
NiMet's services help farmers make informed decisions regarding planting, irrigation, and crop
management practices, thereby enhancing their resilience to climate variability.

3. National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services (NAERLS): NAERLS is a

department under Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and serves as the national coordinating body
for agricultural extension services in Nigeria. NAERLS plays a significant role in disseminating
climate-smart agricultural technologies, promoting best practices, and building the capacity of
extension workers. It provides training, advisory services, and knowledge exchange platforms to
support farmers in adopting climate-resilient farming techniques and adapting to changing
climatic conditions.

4. Agricultural Development Programs (ADPs): ADPs are state-level institutions responsible

for implementing agricultural development programs and projects. They work closely with
farmers and rural communities to provide technical support, training, and extension services.
ADPs are increasingly integrating climate change adaptation into their activities by promoting
climate-smart agricultural practices, facilitating access to improved seeds and drought-resistant
crops, and supporting the adoption of water management techniques and agroforestry systems.

5. Research Institutions and Universities: Several research institutions and universities in

Nigeria conduct studies and provide research-based knowledge to support climate change
adaptation in agriculture. These institutions focus on developing climate-resilient crop varieties,
improving water management practices, studying climate-smart farming systems, and assessing
the impacts of climate change on agricultural productivity. They collaborate with farmers,
extension agencies, and policymakers to translate research findings into practical solutions for
climate change adaptation.
6. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Numerous NGOs in Nigeria work on climate
change adaptation in agriculture, providing on-ground support and implementing projects at the
community level. These organizations engage in capacity building, awareness campaigns, and
pilot initiatives to promote sustainable farming practices, facilitate access to climate finance, and
strengthen the resilience of smallholder farmers. They often collaborate with government
agencies, research institutions, and international partners to achieve their objectives.

The institutional support for climate change adaptation in agriculture in Nigeria involves a
multi-stakeholder approach, combining efforts from government agencies, research institutions,
universities, and NGOs. This collaborative approach is essential for developing comprehensive
strategies, implementing effective programs, and building the resilience of farmers to climate
change impacts in the agricultural sector.

2.2.4.2 Challenges and Barriers in Implementing Climate Change Policies

Implementing climate change policies in Nigeria faces several challenges and barriers.
These include:

1. Limited Financial Resources: Insufficient funding is a major constraint in implementing

climate change policies. Nigeria, like many developing countries, faces competing demands for
limited financial resources. Adequate funding is required to support research and development,
capacity building, technology transfer, and the implementation of climate change mitigation and
adaptation measures. The lack of financial resources hampers the scale and effectiveness of
policy implementation.

2. Weak Institutional Capacity: Weak institutional capacity at various levels, including

government agencies and local authorities, poses a challenge to policy implementation. Limited
human resources, technical expertise, and coordination mechanisms hinder the effective design,
implementation, and monitoring of climate change policies. Strengthening institutional capacity
through training, knowledge sharing, and institutional reforms is crucial to overcome this
challenge.

3. Inadequate Data and Information: Limited availability and accessibility of reliable data and
information on climate change and its impacts pose a significant barrier to policy
implementation. Climate data, including historical records and future projections, are essential
for evidence-based decision-making. Inadequate monitoring systems and limited research and
data collection capacities hinder the formulation and evaluation of effective policies.

4. Limited Awareness and Public Engagement: A lack of awareness and understanding of

climate change among the general public, policymakers, and stakeholders can impede policy
implementation. Insufficient public engagement and low levels of awareness hinder the adoption
of climate-friendly practices and may lead to resistance or indifference towards policy measures.
Enhancing public awareness and engagement through education, campaigns, and community-
based initiatives are essential for successful policy implementation.

5. Institutional Fragmentation and Coordination: Climate change policies often involve

multiple government agencies and stakeholders, leading to challenges in coordination and
collaboration. Institutional fragmentation and overlapping responsibilities can result in
inefficiencies, delays, and conflicting priorities. Strengthening inter-agency coordination
mechanisms, promoting multi-stakeholder dialogues, and establishing clear roles and
responsibilities are necessary to overcome this challenge.

6. Socioeconomic and Political Factors: Socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, inequality,

and lack of alternative livelihood options, can hinder the adoption of climate-friendly practices
and technologies. Political factors, including competing priorities, governance challenges, and
policy inconsistency, can also impede effective policy implementation. Addressing these factors
requires addressing broader development challenges and ensuring political will and commitment
to climate action.

7. Technology and Infrastructure Constraints: Limited access to appropriate and affordable

climate-friendly technologies and infrastructure can hinder policy implementation. Farmers may
lack access to climate-resilient crop varieties, efficient irrigation systems, renewable energy
technologies, and climate-smart agricultural practices. Overcoming these constraints requires
promoting technology transfer, providing financial incentives, and improving infrastructure,
particularly in rural areas.

Addressing these challenges and barriers requires a multi-faceted approach that involves
strengthening institutional capacity, mobilizing adequate financial resources, improving data
collection and monitoring systems, enhancing public awareness and engagement, promoting
coordination and collaboration among stakeholders, and addressing socioeconomic and political
factors. By addressing these challenges, Nigeria can effectively implement climate change
policies and enhance resilience to the impacts of climate change.

2.3 Theoretical Literature.

The study of climate change and its impact on agriculture can be approached from various
theoretical perspectives. Here are three prominent theoretical perspectives that are commonly
applied to understand the relationship between climate change and agriculture:

1. Systems theory
2. Political economy theory
3. Resilience Theory

Systems Theory

Systems theory provides a valuable theoretical perspective for understanding the complex
interactions between climate change and agriculture. This perspective views the agricultural
system as a dynamic and interconnected entity within the broader environmental system.
Systems theory emphasizes the interconnectedness and interdependence of various components
within a system. In the context of climate change and agriculture, it recognizes that changes in
climate variables, such as temperature, precipitation, and extreme weather events, can have
cascading effects on agricultural production, ecosystems, and socio-economic systems. These
interactions can be both direct, such as the impact of temperature on crop growth, and indirect,
such as changes in pest dynamics due to altered climatic conditions. Systems theory considers
feedback loops that operate within a system. In the context of climate change and agriculture,
feedback mechanisms can be both reinforcing and balancing. For example, positive feedback
loops may occur when climate change leads to increased water scarcity, which, in turn, reduces
agricultural productivity. On the other hand, negative feedback loops may arise when farmers
adopt adaptive practices, such as crop diversification or water management techniques, which
mitigate the impacts of climate change on agriculture.

Systems theory recognizes the concept of system resilience, which refers to the capacity of
a system to absorb disturbances and maintain its structure and function. In the context of climate
change and agriculture, resilience is crucial for adapting to changing climatic conditions and
minimizing disruptions to food production systems. Resilient agricultural systems can bounce
back from shocks, such as extreme weather events, and adapt to long-term changes, such as
shifts in temperature and rainfall patterns. Systems theory acknowledges that systems have
boundaries and operate at different scales. In the context of climate change and agriculture, it is
important to consider the interactions between local agricultural systems and larger-scale
systems, such as regional climate patterns, global markets, and policy frameworks.
Understanding these interactions is essential for effective decision-making and policy
formulation that considers the broader context and implications of climate change on agriculture.

Systems theory promotes a holistic and integrative approach to understanding and addressing
complex problems. Applying systems thinking to climate change and agriculture involves
considering the multiple dimensions of the agricultural system, including ecological, social,
economic, and institutional factors.

Political economy theory

Political economy theory provides a valuable perspective for analyzing the relationship
between climate change and agriculture. This theory focuses on the interplay between political,
economic, and social factors and their influence on decision-making processes, resource
allocation, and power dynamics. Political economy theory recognizes that power dynamics and
competing interests shape decision-making processes related to climate change and agriculture.
Different stakeholders, such as governments, corporations, farmers, and civil society groups,
have varying levels of influence and interests in climate change policies and agricultural
practices. Power imbalances can lead to the prioritization of certain interests over others,
influencing the design and implementation of policies. For example, powerful agricultural
lobbies may shape policies that prioritize agribusiness interests over sustainable and climate-
resilient farming practices. Political economy theory emphasizes the distributional effects of
climate change and agricultural policies. Climate change impacts and adaptation measures often
have differential effects on different social groups, including smallholder farmers, marginalized
communities, and indigenous populations. Political economy analysis examines how climate
change policies either reinforce or challenge existing inequalities and social disparities in access
to resources, such as land, water, and technology. It highlights the need for policies that address
equity and social justice in agricultural development and climate change adaptation.

Political economy theory recognizes the importance of policy formation and

implementation processes. It examines how interests, power dynamics, and political institutions
shape policy choices and outcomes. Political economy analysis highlights the role of government
agencies, bureaucracies, and policy networks in developing and implementing climate change
and agricultural policies. It considers factors such as policy capture, corruption, and institutional
capacities that can influence the effectiveness and equity of policy implementation.

Overall, political economy theory offers a critical lens to understand the complexities of
climate change and agriculture, focusing on power relations, interests, distributional effects,
policy processes, and the broader socio-political context. By analyzing these dimensions,
policymakers and researchers can identify and address the underlying political and economic
factors that shape agricultural practices and policy responses to climate change. This
understanding is essential for developing inclusive, equitable, and sustainable approaches to
climate change adaptation and agricultural development.

Resilience Theory

Resilience refers to the capacity of a system to absorb disturbances, adapt to changing

conditions, and maintain its essential functions, structures, and feedbacks. Resilience theory
emphasizes the dynamics and interactions within social-ecological systems, recognizing that they
are complex and interconnected. It recognizes that disturbances and changes are inherent in
natural and social systems, and that adaptation and transformation are essential for long-term
sustainability. Resilience theory is a valuable theoretical perspective for understanding the
relationship between climate change and agriculture. Resilience theory, rooted in ecology and
systems thinking, provides insights into how agricultural systems can adapt and thrive in the face
of climate change-induced disruptions and uncertainties.
 Resilience theory introduces the concept of panarchy, which recognizes the multi-scale
dynamics of social-ecological systems. Panarchy refers to the nested levels of interconnected
systems, ranging from local to regional to global scales. It emphasizes the importance of cross-
scale interactions, feedback loops, and the influence of larger socio-political and economic
contexts on local agricultural systems. Resilience theory recognizes that systems can undergo
regime shifts, which represent fundamental and often irreversible changes in the structure and
function of the system. In the context of agriculture and climate change, regime shifts can occur
when agricultural practices, cropping patterns, or livelihood strategies are no longer viable or
sustainable due to changing climatic conditions. Resilience theory highlights the need to manage
social-ecological interactions and feedbacks. This involves understanding the interdependencies
and trade-offs between agricultural production, ecosystem services, and social well-being. It
emphasizes the importance of maintaining biodiversity, soil fertility, water resources, and other
ecosystem functions that contribute to the resilience of agricultural systems.

Resilience theory emphasizes the importance of learning and adaptive management. It

encourages experimentation, innovation, and the sharing of knowledge and experiences among
farmers, researchers, and policymakers. This approach allows for the identification and
implementation of appropriate and context-specific adaptation strategies. By applying resilience
theory, policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders can develop strategies and interventions that
enable agricultural systems to adapt, transform, and thrive in the face of climate change. This
perspective promotes a holistic and integrated approach to climate change adaptation in
agriculture, considering both ecological and social dimensions of resilience.

2.4 Empirical literature

The influence of climate change on agricultural output makes it one of the biggest environmental
threats to the battle against hunger, malnutrition, illness, and poverty in Africa. Ziervogel et al.
(2006) claim that climate change, which is caused by both the natural cycle of the climate and
human activity, has had a negative impact on agricultural output in Africa.Similar to this,
Nwafor (2007) and Jagtap (2007) noted that while climate change has a worldwide influence, the
majority of its negative consequences would mostly be felt by poor nations, notably those in
Africa, due to their limited ability to adapt to it.
 Dube and Phiri (2013) focused on Zimbabwe's Matobo District as they studied how climate
change has affected rural populations' ability to survive. The study's main goal is to comprehend
how communities have been impacted by climate change, how they are coping with it, and how
serious they perceive the problem to be. The results show that the study area's way of life has
been negatively impacted by climate change. The loss of vegetation, animals, and other natural
habitats that supported the local population's way of life was brought on by the severe
consequences of climate change on physical geography. The study also demonstrates how
farming is becoming more and more challenging as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing
precipitation brought on by climate change.

Huq et al. (2015) examined the effects of climate change on coastal Bangladesh's
smallholder farming communities' means of subsistence. The study's primary focus was on six
villages in south-western coastal regions that were both physically and socioeconomically
susceptible. Focus group talks were used to extract primary data, which was then analyzed using
the historical transect method. Three tiers of climate change impacts on smallholder farmers
were noticed and documented during the investigation. The first order effects were primarily
concerned with the deterioration of local populations' abilities to lessen their susceptibility to the
effects of climate change. The second order repercussions that resulted from this circumstance
profoundly altered the agricultural landscape and production patterns.

Nhemachen et al. (2010) used a cross-sectional survey of more than 8000 farming families
from 11 nations in the sub-regions of East, West, North, and Southern Africa to quantify the
economic implications of climate change on crop and livestock farming in Africa. The study
primarily examined how changes in climatic conditions affected net revenue from crop and
livestock farming on various farm types and systems in Africa while controlling for the impact of
significant socioeconomic, technological, soil, and hydrological factors on agricultural
production. According to the findings, warmer and drier weather generally has a negative impact
on agricultural earnings.

In Ofoegbu's 2017 study, the effects of climate change on rural communities in Africa were
examined, along with the livelihoods of the population, their potential for adaptation, their
coping mechanisms, and their capability to engage in sustainable forest management and climate
change adaptation. Using the rural South African communities that are centered around forests as
a case study, a desktop review technique was used. The results show that climatic
unpredictability has a negative impact on rural residents' livelihoods. Particularly, it was shown
that livelihoods based in forests are the most susceptible to the effects of climate change.
However, it was shown that the population has evolved coping strategies to lessen the
consequences of climatic unpredictability and change. The study also demonstrates that a
number of variables significantly restrict the efficacy and efficiency of climate change mitigation
efforts.

The consequences of climate change on agriculture have been studied in the past using a
range of methods (Parry et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2009; Deressa and Hassan, 2010). These
methods range from the straightforward application of expected future consequences to yield
losses seen in previous droughts to more quantitative crop simulation modeling, statistical time
series, and cross-sectional analysis. Due to the dearth of accurate data on soil characteristics and
management practices, simulation studies have only been able to produce "best-guess" estimates
with little to no knowledge of the uncertainties resulting from model structure, parameter values,
and scaling techniques (Frost and Thompson, 2000; Fischer et al., 2002).

Furthermore, previous research has found that statistical analyses have been constrained by
the inferior amount and quality of historical agricultural data in comparison to other areas,
leading to model predictions with broad confidence ranges (Naylor et al., 2007; Wang et al.,
2009). A logical connection between climatic fluctuation and change may also be established,
according to research (Tebaldi and Knutti, 2007; Niggol and Mendelsohn, 2008).

In North-Central and South-Eastern Nigeria, Agwu and Okhimamhe (2009) did multiple research
on the gender aspects of climate change. The North-Central study evaluated how the Zumba and
Augie Settlements in the states of Niger and Kebbi, respectively, were affected by climate
change. It emphasized the difficulties and coping mechanisms of the chosen communities. The
study found that while communities were aware of climate change, they were unable to pinpoint
its causes. However these resilience communities have used a variety of adaptation strategies,
their main goal was not to lessen the effects of climate change. The study discovers that the
Augie village is already using a variety of coping mechanisms and wants help to make them
stronger. The community's stakeholders specifically requested money, awareness raising efforts,
and capacity building. To address traditional attitudes, Zumba needs awareness efforts. The
second part of the study concentrated on two South Eastern communities: in Enugu State and
Anambra State. According to the study, landslides and tornadoes in South-Eastern Nigeria have
destroyed homes for people and animals alike, arable farmlands, access routes, and valuable
trees. In addition, severe heat, increased insect activity, and stream dryness are all effects of
climate change. The study came to the conclusion that while clever adaptation and mitigation
measures created by women were identified inside the sampling areas, better policy making is
urgently required to address climate change. The long-term possible impact of global warming
on agricultural commerce and output in the People's Republic of China was investigated by Zhai
et al. in 2009. The study found that due to a decreasing contribution from agriculture in GDP, the
effects of global warming on the total macroeconomic environment may be moderate. This was
supported by simulations as to how global agriculture sector may be impacted by global warming
up to 2080 and an economy-wide, global CGE model.

While Ubachukwu (2005) looked at the effects of global warming on agricultural yields in
the Niger delta, Efe (2009) investigated the threat posed by global warming to agricultural
production and livelihoods in a few Nigerian states. They discover that crop yields in all respects
are greatly impacted by climate change. They reported that grain yields in the selected
communities had decreased as a result of cooling, and that most farmers were only dimly aware
of the risks posed by climate change. In order to improve food sustainability in northern Nigeria,
Efe (2008) emphasized the consequences of anthropogenic global warming variability on food
and nutrition security and wellbeing and suggested that management concerns revealed by the
study be taken into account by stakeholders when making decisions and policies.

2.5 Literature Gap

While the literature review provides valuable insights into the impact of climate change on
agricultural development in rural communities, there are still several gaps and contradictions that
need to be addressed. These gaps and contradictions highlight areas where further research and
investigation are needed to enhance our understanding of the topic. The literature review
indicates a lack of localized studies specifically focusing on Egor LGA in Edo State. Most of the
existing research tends to provide a broader perspective on climate change and agriculture in
Nigeria or other regions, rather than focusing on the specific challenges and opportunities faced
by rural communities in Egor LGA. Conducting more localized studies can provide valuable
insights into the specific impacts, adaptation strategies, and policy implications for the area.

Another gap in the existing literature is the lack of longitudinal studies that assess the long-term
effectiveness and outcomes of adaptation strategies implemented in agricultural systems. Climate
change is a complex and dynamic phenomenon, and understanding the long-term impacts and
effectiveness of adaptation measures is crucial. Longitudinal studies can provide insights into the
success, challenges, and adaptive capacity of rural communities over time

Addressing these gaps and contradictions in future research will contribute to a more nuanced
understanding of the impact of climate change on agricultural development in rural communities
and provide insights for effective adaptation strategies and policy formulation.

References

Allen, J. (2004). Ozone and global warming. Earth Observatory of NASA.

Agwu, J., Okhimamhe, A. (2009) Global Warming, Its Effects and Ability to adapt: Gender
Perspectives from the Northern and Eastern Gender Climate Change in Nigeria.Vol.3,
(20)

Agwu, J., Okhimamhe, A. (2009), Climate Change, Its Impacts and Adaptation: Gender
Perspective from the Northern and Eastern Nigerian. Available from:
http://www.ng.boell.org/downloads/Gender_Climate_Change_in_Nigeria.pdf. [accessed
on 2022 October 28]

Ozor ,N. (2009), Implications of Climate Change for National Development-The Way Forward,
African Institute for Applied Economics (AIAE), Enugu Forum Policy Paper 10

Kasali, M.A. (2013). Temperature and Intercultural Crisis: Kano, Nigeria's Inter-Religious
Violence as a Result of Climate Change. Institute of Sustainable Development for Africa,
Vol13,(4), P-111-231

Okoye. U.A (2007). Including a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy in the Building Nigeria's
Reaction to Global Warming Project. On October 9–10, 2007, a paper was presented at
the Program Development Workshop in Abuja.

Hassan, R and Nhemachena, C 2008: Determinants of African farmers’ strategies for adapting to
climate change: Multinomial choice analysis. African Journal of Resource Economics;
Vol 2 No 1 March 2008, Pp 83-104
 CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The procedures, techniques, or precautions utilized to gather and manage the information for this
study are covered in this research section.

3.2 Research Design

The system used to gather and analyze the data required to address certain research questions is
referred to as the research design. According to Kothari (2004), the objective of a study design is
to allow for the collection of pertinent data with the least amount of time, money, and effort. The
current study makes use of a descriptive survey study, a type of quantitative research that entails
gathering data from a sizable sample of the population by asking thoughtful questions to which
respondents must reply. According to Burns and Bush (2014), a research project will be
quantitative in character if data will be gathered using pre-designed survey questionnaires. A
descriptive survey research design was appropriate because it helped to describe current practices
regarding the subject matter

3.3 Population of the Study

The population of the study refers to the entire group of individuals or entities that the researcher
intends to target for data collection and analysis. In the case of studying the impact of climate
change on agricultural development in rural communities in Edo State, specifically focusing on
Egor LGA. The primary population of interest would be farmers engaged in agricultural
activities in the rural communities of Egor LGA. This would include small-scale farmers,
subsistence farmers, and commercial farmers involved in crop production, livestock rearing, or a
combination of both.

3.4 Sample Size Determination and Sampling Technique

The sample is a small fraction of the identified population (Ordho, 2009). This study employed a
random sampling techniques in which a researcher randomly selects a sample from a population
and each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The study chose to use
convenience sampling because it gives room for the researcher to choose the sample size
especially when the research is constrained by time and resources. Based on the sampling
technique, 100 respondents were determined as the sample size but 150 questionnaires will be
distributed in case of invalid or inappropriate responses

3.5 Source of Data

As the study needed recent and first-hand information from the study's target audience, the
residents of Egor local government, it made use of primary data. The replies of the respondents
to the questionnaire given to the citizens of the Egor Local Government served as the main
source of data for this study.

3.6 Method of Analysis

Based on the developed hypotheses and the research's goals, data collected were statistically
analyzed. Data collected were categorized to enable for tables and percentages using the chi
square graph, further methodizing the process. Chi-square (X2) is the statistical instrument
utilized. The researcher can determine whether there is a link between two variables by using the
chi-square. likewise calculates the discrepancy between anticipated and actual frequencies. The
formula is used to calculate chi square.

X2 = E (O-E)2

Where:
X2 = Chi-square

E = summation

O = observed frequency

E = expected frequency

Decision Rule: if the theoretical value of chi-square (X 2) is greater than the computed value of
the chi-square (X2) we accept the null hypothesis (Ho). But if otherwise, we reject the null
hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.

3.7 The Research Instrument

. The research instrument refers to the tool or set of tools that will be used to collect data from
the participants in the study. In the case of studying the impact of climate change on agricultural
development in rural communities in Edo State, specifically focusing on Egor LGA, the research
instrument may consist of multiple components depending on the research objectives and the
data required. Structured questionnaire will be used as research instrument, which enhanced the
identification of statistically significant results from the data analysis. The questionnaire will be
divided into two sections. Section A comprised respondents’ demographic profile; Section B
featured questions on the independent variable and the dependent variable. Five Likert scale
questions ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree was adopted (5 points ordinal scale
measurement).