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SocioEconomic Challenges, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2019
ISSN (print) – 2520-6621, ISSN (online) – 2520-6214
Climate Change and Agriculture in Ethiopia: A Case Study of

Mettu Woreda
https://doi.org/10.21272/sec.3(3).61-79.2019
S.N. Singh
Dr, Associate Professor of Economics and Law in the Department of Economics, Faculty of Business and
Economics, Mettu University, Ethiopia
Abstract
This paper summarizes the arguments and counterarguments within the scientific discussion on the issue of
climate change and its affect on agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. The main purpose of the research is to
analyze the impact of climate change on the productivity of agricultural crops. Systematization literary sources
and approaches for solving the problem associate were analyzed that indicates there is a significant adverse
effect of climate change on agricultural productivity as well as allied fields. The relevance of the decision of
this scientific problem is that the community participation and state interventions are required at grass-roots
level. Investigation of the topic of climate change and agriculture in Ethiopia in the paper is carried out broadly
in the following logical sequence at an appropriate empirical standard level. Methodological tools of the re-
search methods were descriptive statistics and the year of research was 2018-19. The object of research is the
chosen for Ethiopia as a whole and case study was carried out in Mettu Woreda to verify the significance. The
paper presents the results of an empirical analysis of quantitative data, which showed that there is an adverse
effect of climate change on agricultural productivity in the region. The climate change affects agricultural
productivity and production through shortening of maturity period and to decreasing crop yields, changing
livestock feed availability, affecting animal health growth and reproduction depressing the quality and quan-
tity of the crops, changing distribution rate, contracting pastoral zones, expansion of tropical dry forests and
expansion of desertification etc.The research empirically confirms and theoretically proves that highlights the
coordination between state and local communities are required to combat the adverse effect of climate change.
The results of the research can be useful for policy maker, researchers, academicians and other international
organizations like UNEP and UNDP etc.
Keywords: climate change, random sampling, descriptive statistics, crop productivity, food security and live-
stock.
JEL Classifications: Q15, Q54.
Cite as: Singh, S.N. (2019). Climate Change and Agriculture in Ethiopia: A Case Study of Mettu Woreda.
SocioEconomic Challenges, 3(3), 61-79. https://doi.org/10.21272/sec.3(3).61-79.2019.
© The Author, 2019. This article is published with open access at Sumy State University.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
Global Climate change has an adverse impact on production in particular effects on economy a leading factor
affecting, especially, rainfall crops yield. It is likely to exacerbate the demand for irrigation water (Adams
etal, 2007). CO2 increase and crop production: Carbon dioxide is a principle resource for plant growth as such
as, the ongoing increase in its conversation. According emerging as one of the most serious threats that
humanity may ever face hence it has recently become a pressing issue in various development environment
and political forums at the National, Regional and International levels. Many Regional summits worldwide
have dedicated discussion sessions on climate change based on the recognition that the global climate change
has an adverse impact on a nation’s economy in general, and agricultural production in particular Intergov-
ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2010) E.C.
Although no country is immune from the potential impedes of climate change the impacts are highly signifi-
cant in developing countries which have contributed least to greenhouse gas emissions. The adaptation refers
to activities that make people, ecosystems and infrastructure less vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
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This includes things like building defenses to protect coastal areas from rising seas, switching to drought
or flood resistant crop varieties, and improving systems to warn of heat-waves, disease outbreaks, droughts
and floods (Shanahan et al., 2013). These countries have limited adoptive capacity as compare to the devel-
oped countries because of their financial resources, skills and technologies, high level of poverty and their
excessive reliance on climate sensitive economic sector such as agriculture.
Agricultural is the dominant sector of the Ethiopian economy it is also fundamental instrument for poverty
alleviation, food security and economic growth (WFP 2009). However, this sector continues to be undermined
by land degradation, population pressure, and low agricultural productivity. Particularly in Ethiopia, the cli-
mate change brings particular risks to poor farmers who largely relied on agricultural crop production and
pastoralist. Climate change is anticipated to accelerate the land degradation in Ethiopia (Pender B, 2007). G.C
Especially to Ethiopia, the climate change affects agricultural production through shortening of maturity pe-
riod and to decreasing crop yields, changing livestock feedavailability, affecting animal health growth and
reproduction depressing the quality and quantity of the crops, changing distribution rate, contracting pastoral
zoneis, expansion of tropical dry forests and expansion of desertification national meteorology agency (NMA,
2007). The researcher case study area of Mettu woreda is one of the rainy areas in the south western Illubbabor
zone, where total population entirely depends on agriculture and livestock production. It has vast number of
animals, fertile land and different crop production. Climate-induced recurrent pressures later made it a
common experiment among Borana pastoralists primarily to avoid livestock selling required for sup-
plementary cereal purchases in the widely pressing circumstances of declining milk yields (Wassie and
Fekadu, 2014).
Climate change poses huge challenges to the global economy and to social development. Its impacts will
disproportionately affect Sub_Saharan African countries such as Ethiopia because of their economies is highly
dependent on climate sensitive activities such as rainfed agriculture. In Ethiopia, agricultures about 47% of
the country's Gross domestic product (GDP) and more than 70million that is people (85% of the Ethiopian
population) depend on agriculture directly or indirectly for their livelihoods (Index Mundi, 2014).Therefore,
any effect on agriculture will significantly affect the Ethiopian economy. It is predicted that climate change
will lead to recurrent droughts and reducing the amount of land that can be used for agriculture and con-
siquently decreasing crop productivity. Ethiopia is the home to Africa's largest livestock population, and is
the world's tenth_largest producer of livestock and livestock products (Macdonald and Simon, 2011), which
make up about 10% of the country's foreign currency earnings (Pantuliano and Wekesa, 2008).Frequent and
extensive droughts in the country have a considerable effects on Ethiopia's livestock. Decreased rainfall
shrinks the availability of water resources and reduces the productivity of grassland. The number of animals
per household declined on average'to three oxen from ten; to seven cows from 35; and to six goats, down from
33'(MacDonald. and Simon, 2011).Climate change is expected to increase the surface of temperature of the
earth and the ocean, raises the sea levels, alter the global distribution of rainfall, affect the direction of ocean
currents and major airstreams, and increase the intensity and frequency of extreme weather. It is already caus-
ing loss of life, damaging property and affecting livelihoods in all the nations. However the impact will be
higher on low_ income countries (LDCs). Mixed crop_live stock systems are prevalent in much of the devel-
oping world (Herrero e al., 2010), and climate change and changing climate variability in the future may affect
the relationship between crops and livestock in the landscape in many places. In places that will become
increasingly marginal for crop production, livestock may provide an alternative to cropping system. Such type
of transitions could be occurred up to 3% of the total area of Africa, largely as a result of increases in the
probability of season failure in the drier mixed crop_livestock systems of the continent; these are projected
to increase from the current rate of approximately one year in five to one year in four or three, depending on
the combination of emissions scenario and climate model used (Jones&Thornton, 2009).Changes in climate
variability and in the frequency of extreme events may have substantial impacts on the prevalence and distri-
bution of pests, weeds, and crop and livestock diseases. Crop production is a branch of agriculture that deals
with growth crops for use as food and fiber (WFP 2011). Degree programs in crops production are available
at undergraduate and graduate levels. Graduates are eligible for a variety of agriculture careers. Crop produc-
tion includes grains, cotton, tobacco, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and plants. Different crops grow best in different
areas of the country. Warmer climates are ideal for growing citrus crops, Northern states are best for growing
apples and blue berries and the mid West ideal for growing grains, including wheat crop producers usually
work from sunrise to sunset during planting and harvesting seasons. Crop production depends on the
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availability of arable land and is affected in particular by yields, macro economic uncertainty as well as con-
sumption patterns; it also has great accidences on agricultural commodities’
Prices. The importance of crop production is related to harvested areas, returns per hectare (yields) and quan-
tities produced. Crop yields are the harvested production per unit of harvested area for crop products. In most
of the cases yield data on area harvested. The actual yield that is captured on farm depends on several factors
such as the crop's genetic potential, the amount of sunlight, water, and nutrients absorbed by the crop, the
presence of weeds and pests. Crop production is measured in tonnes per hectare, in thousand hectares and
thousand tonnes.
1.2. Statement of the problem
The impact of climate change on agriculture in developing countries is day by day increasing. As a conse-
quence many African countries whose economies are largely based on weather sensitive agriculture are vul-
nerable to climate change. This vulnerability has been demonstrated by the devastating effects of recent flood-
ing and various prolonged drought in the 20th century. It is widely recognized that climate change and occur-
rence of extreme weather conditions among the major factors affecting the agricultural production, and higher
temperature and changing precipitation levels cause to climate change would decrease crop yield in Africa
Haile, A. (2005).E.C. Ethiopia is one of the least develop one country in the world, with a Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of US & 47.53 billion and population of 94.1 million NBE, (2006). At present the contribution
of agricultural in GDP, and for the large majority of the employment. More over the sector is dominated by
the small scale farmers who arender were employed largely on rainfed Agriculture and traditional practices a
state render Ethiopia as a highly vulnerable to climate change. According to World Bank WB (2007) Estimate
change in Ethiopia is projected to reduce yields of the wheat staple crop by 33% in the coming years. This
amount to a serious threat is food security as well as constraints to achievement of major development goals.
Rainfall variability is an important characteristic of climate change in Sub_Saharan Africa that imposes crop
production risks, especially on rainfed subsistence cultivation systems on marginal land. Water availability is
the most critical facter for sustaining crop productivity in rainfed agriculture. Even if a drought tolerant trait
is introduced, water is not available to crops; because of rainfall variability from season to season greatly
affects soil water availability to crops, and thus poses crop production risk. Ideally, crop irrigation 94.1 million
depletion of water on ground. Subsistence farming can be found in a wide range of environmental conditions
from very suitable to marginal lands.Variability in seasonal rainfall (I.e, the accumulated amount of rainfall
from the planting to the harvest of a crop) is higher in the areas with smaller amount of rainfalls. Concerning
the impacts of climate change inthe area research of study, by high altitude regions such as mountainous lands
in Ethiopia and Kenya, where temperature is the limiting facter for plan growth, arise in temperature possibly
wil increase crop yield, but in lowland areas, will increase the risk of water stress(Thornton et al.2009).Pre-
cipitation variability due to climate change results in increased irrigation water demand(Nelson et al.2009).In
addition, precipitation variability is expected to intensify the magnitude and frequency of flood and drought
events that are both detrimental to agricultural industry.(pachuari and Reisinger 2007).These events will likely
further decrease crop water availability and threaten the productivity of the rainfed agriculture system in east
Africa. The study area of Mettu woreda is one of the rainy areas a high proportion of rainfall in the country,
and the rainfall is evenly distribute, and the total population is entirely depending on agriculture and livestock
production in Ethiopia. The agricultural activities are chronically affected by climate change. Result shows
that the productivity of crop production, livestock, and degradation of resource are high temptation over the
period of time. The large number of population in the worked is engaged in the primary economic sector
activities mainly on agriculture. It is evident that due to illiteracy, and poor human skills identify the impact
of climate change on crop production in Mettu woreda. More over since there is no documented study that
were conducted specifically targeting the impact of climate change on crop production in Mettu woreda re-
luctant availability concerning the findings to the same problem and this study would have to bridge gap.
However there is not enough discussion on how to solve the problem of climate variability affecting the sen-
sitivity or biological, food system in primary sector agriculture, and food security.
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1.3. Objective of the study

1.3.1 General Objectives
The general objective of this study was to analyze the impact of climate change on agricultural crop production
in the Mettu Woreda.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the study are as follows:
➢ To access the impact of climate change on agricultural crops in the study area.
➢ To access the impact of climate change on livelihood in the Mettu Woreda.
➢ To intimate the policy of adaptation strategies of climate change to farmers’ for avoiding adverse
effects of climate change.
1.4. Research Questions
That study would try to excel the answer following questions:
1) What was/were the impact of the climate change on crop productivity?
2) What was the impact of climate change on livelihood in the Mettu Woreda?
3) What were the major climate change adaptation strategies were being implemented by the House-
holds?
1.5. Significance of the Study
The study would provide important information regarded by the provision of how to tackle the adverse impact
of climate change on agricultural crop productivity and livelihood in the study area. It has also to provide an
input for policy makers to modify the policy of climate change as according to the problems at grassroots
level in the country. Furthermore, the study would be helpful for researchers, academicians, farmers and stu-
dents to identify the problem of climate change and sustainable development.
1.6. Scope of the study
Scope of the study pressured on impact of climate change on crop production in Mettu woreda. That study
was limited only to Mettu woreda because of attempted to analyze the agricultural crop production farmers to
facilitated accessibility which comes beyond the researcher. So, due to these and other constraints the study
was not settled the whole or some party of the woreda.
1.7. Limitation of the study
Because of many constraints this study was also not without limitations. The main limitations to be faced by
researcher was to collected correct information/data on an impact of climate change on agricultural produc-
tivity over the period of time at local level particularly in Mettu Woreda. Moreover, the study have to be
based on only limited systematic sample of peasant in the research area and consequently the study would
have to suffer from correct information to some extent because of many hidden and unhidden problems
like illiteracy, the knowledge about climate change by the respondents, lack of time and money, lack of
literature available etc.
1.8. Organizing of the study
This study would have been organized into three chapters like chapter one emphasis the introduction of whole
study included the background, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, signifi-
cance, scope and limitations of the study. However, the second chapter deals with review of literature which
included theoretical and empirical literature review. The third chapter is related to data sources, determination
of sample size and research methodology to be used to analysis the data and interpretation.
2. Literature review
2.1. Theoretical Literature Review
2.1.1 Definitions and Concepts
Climate: climate usually defined as the average weather or more rigorously as statistical description in terms
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of the mean and the variability of relevant quantities over 30 years, as defined by World Meteorological Or-
ganization (WMO.2007).
Weather: is a short term phenomenon, describing atmosphere, daily air temperature. Pressure on humidity,
wind speed (IPAC, 2007). E.C
Vulnerability: the characteristics and circumstance of community, system or asset that make it susceptible to
damaging effects of hazard United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC 2010). G.C.
Climate variability: variation in mean state and other satisfied (Fleineal, 2007) E.C.
Climate change: A change in the state of climate that can be identified (example by using satisfied tests) by
change in the mean or variability of its properties and that exists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer.
Climate change can be due to natural internal process or external force to persistent anthropogenic changes in
the composition of the atmosphere or in land use (IPACC, 2008). E.C.
2.1.2 Theory of Climate Change
The theory of climate change that most people are familiar with is commonly called anthropogenic (man-
made) global warming or AGW for short. That theory holds that man-made greenhouse gases, primary carbon
dioxide occurred many years’ age (Joseph.B, 2010).
At least seven theories of climate change enjoy some support in scientific community. With the anthropogenic
global warming theory, this booklet identifies seven theories, anthropogenic Global warming with other five
that do not claim man made emission is the major cause of climate change. The five alternative theories are
as follows:
Bio thermostat- raising temperatures and levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere trigger biological and
physical responses that have cooling effect, like a natural thermostat.
Cloud formation and albedo: -changes in the formation of albedo of clouds create negative feedback that
cancels out all or near all of the warming effect of the higher level of the carbon dioxide.
Human forcing besides greenhouse gases: - man kind greatest influence on climate is not its greenhouse gas
emission but its transmission of earth’s sure face by clearing forests, irrigation deserts and building city.
Ocean currents: global temperature variations over the past century where due to the slowdown of ocean’s
Thermo-hyaline circulation. Planetary motion: natural gravitational oscillation of the solar system included
by planet’s movement through space drive climate change. Joseph bats (2010) E.C.
Solar variability: changes in coronal ejection’s and magnetic fields of the sun cause changes in cloud for-
mation, ocean currents and wind, (Joseph bast 2004) E.C.
2.1.3 Climate Change and Agriculture
High temperature reduces rainfall one side and increase rain fall variability consequenting reducing crop
productivity that affects food security in low income (LDC) and agriculture based economy like Ethiopia thus
the impact of climate change is determined to countries that depends on agriculture as the main live hood
(Edward Jones 2007). Climate change causes climate variability of temperature and precipitation as well as
the frequency and severity of weather events direct effect the climate change includes change in solid moisture
land and water condition, change in frequency of fire and pest infect and the distribution of disease, the po-
tential for system to sustain advert impact on agriculture is determined by its capacity to adopt the changes
(Mohan and Rob, 2006) .E.C. Vulnerability is not the same for populations living under different social,
economic, political, institutional and environmental conditions. For example, pastoralists in Yabello
Woreda tend to be more vulnerable to climate change than farmers (Oxfam international, 2010).
Climate change has the potential to undermine sustainable development, increase poverty the realization of
the millennium development goals. In June 2007 report by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) suggested that the conﬂ ict in Darfur has in part been driven by climate change and environmental
degradation. An effective way to address the impact of climate change is by integrating adaptation measures
in to just amiable development strategies,
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So as to reduce the pressure on natural resources, improve environmental risk management, and increase the
social welfare of the poor. Climate changes can influence human directly, through impacts on health and risk
of extreme property on lives, liveholds and human settlements and directly through impacts on food security
and the availability of natural resources too.The bio physical effects of climate change on agriculture includes
changes in production and price which plays an autonomously, altering crop mix input use production food
demand, food consumption and trade (Oxfaism, A .2006 E.C).
Climate variability are type of changes (temperature, rain fall, assurance of extremes) magnitude and rate of
climate change that cause the impact on the area of the public health, agriculture, food security forecast set-
tlement, energy, industry and financial service, changes physical and socio economic system have been
identified in many regions United Nations Framework Convention On Climate Change(UNFCC,2008
E.C).Variability is the degree to which stem (such as socio ecological system) is likely to be wounded or
experience herm or stress in the natural or social environment (Kinsperson et al .2003 E.C).
2.1.4 Ethiopian Agriculture
Ethiopian agriculture is predominantly agrarian society and the majority of population in the country is en-
gaged in the agriculture. For Agriculture in Ethiopia contributes 4% in GDP, and account about 80% of export
and 80% the labor force employment. Ethiopian has a great agricultural potential because of its vast areas of
fertile hand, diverse climate generally adequate rain falls and large labor force. Inspite of these potential,
however, the Ethiopian agricultural remained under developed because of Drought, which has persistently
affected the country since the early 1970‘s and poor economic base (low productivity, week infrastructure,
and low level of technology yet agriculture is the country most promising economic sector) (Demeke and
Ferede, 2005 E.C).
Ethiopian farming largely produces only enough food for the peasant holder and their finally for consumption,
having little for selling crops are the major production and source of food in the country since most of the
habitates in the country depends on agriculture. Therefore, all famines occurred in Ethiopia attributing to crop
failures.
The major problem of crop production in Ethiopia is the low productivity due to the lack of irrigation on
infectious disease and insects control, heavily dependencey on the rain fall and shortage of techniques for
proper conservation and utilization of water for full and supplemental irrigation caracal stage of crops (Degefe,
T., 2004 E.C).
2.1.5 Climate Change and Agriculture in Ethiopia
The agriculture sector in Ethiopia is dominated by small u farmers who employee largely rain fed and tradi-
tional practice stage which renders Ethiopian highly vulnerable to climate change According to the world
bank WB (2007), The Climate change is projected to reduce shield of maize staple crop by 3_19% in Ethiopia
(Jones and Thornton e tal, 2009).These amount a serious threat to food security and to achievement of the
major development goals. The rain fall and temperature are important determinates of crop harvest and unfa-
vorable realization of either the amount or of crop harvests, and unfavorable realization of either the amount
or the temporal distribution of rain fall triggers food short age and famine. Due to low rates of adoption, most
of the promoted practices have been only partially successful. In some cases, dis-adoption or reduced use of
technologies has been reported (Tadesse and Belay, 2004).
The recent mapping on vulnerability and poverty in Africa put Ethiopia as one of the council most vulnerable
to animate change with the least capacity to respond (Beau and holden, 2008). Indeed, Ethiopia has experi-
enced at least five (5) major nation’s drought since 2001 (Yusuf et al: 2008). Cycles of drought creates poverty
traps for many households, country easy tasks to build ups assets and increase income. Survey data shows that
between 2001 and 2004 more than half of all households in the country experienced at least one major drought
shocks. These shocks are major cause of translate poverty had households been able to smooth consumption
and then poverty in 2004 would have been at least 14% lower and translate in to eleven million fewer people
below the poverty line. Food shortage and famine associated with rainfall cause situation of high dependency
on international food aid. Ethiopia is one of the larger food receipt countries in Africa that accounts to 20-
30% of all food aid to sub Saharan Africa (Bezu, w .and Holden, T. 2008 E.C).
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2.1.6 Climate Variability and Observed Trends in Ethiopia

Base line climate that was developed using historical date of temperature and precipitation from 2001-2004
for selected station Showed the year. The year variation of the rain falls for the period from 2001-2005 over
the country expressed in terms of normalized rain fall average for 42 stations (NMSA, 2011). E.C
The country during this period 2001-2005 has experienced both dry and wet years over the last 54 years.
Annual rain fall is likely to decrease through most of the African regions, with exception of Africa, where
annual rain falls projected to increase.
Trend analysis of annual rain fall in Ethiopia shows that rain fall remained more or less constant when aver-
aged over whole country, while declining trend has been observed over the northern and south western Ethi-
opia Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2010). E.C
As mentioned in National Meteorological Agency (NMA, 2007) the year to year variation of annual mini-
mum temperature with in Ethiopia for period of 2001-2005 is experienced in terms of temperature difference
from the mean and average over 40 stations. The result shows that a country has experienced both warm and
cool year over last 54 years. However, the recent clearly revealed that there has been a warming trend in the
annual minimum temperature over the past 54 years. It has been increasing by about 0.37 0c every 10 year.
2.1.7 Rainfall and Temperature Variability
The rain fall is highly variable both in amount and distribution across region and season (Tesfaye.k, 2003).
The seasonal and annual rain fall variations are result of macro scale pressure system and monsoon flaws
which are related to the change of pressure system (Haile, 2005). The special variation of the changes in the
intensity, position and direction of movement of their rain producing systems over the country (Temesgen .T,
2000) More over spatial distribution of the rain fall in Ethiopia is significantly influenced by topography
which has also many unexpected right valleys. Central lift valley is one of the environmentally very vulnerable
areas in Ethiopia. Being a closed basin relatively small international inland and water resource as have far
reaching consequences for ecosystem, goods, service and potentially undermine the sustainable use of the area
water for agriculture and industry (soda ash production). The water level of the lake has retreated 5 to 6 km
thus reducing in the lake’s size is about half of its origin size (Attained .Al 1992). E.C
2.1.8 Projecte Climate Change in Ethiopia
Over the coming decades, climate change is projecte to Ethiopia lives of billions of people around the world.
Under the Productive Safety Nets Programme (PSNP) more than 7 million people have benefited from the
PSNP, enabling them to meet consumption needs, reducing the risks they faced and providing them with
alternative options to selling productive assets. While the PSNP has had significant impact, challenges remain
(Guush B, et al. 2011).No region or country is invulnerable to its impacts: however, the extent of vulnerability
differs widely. projected climate changes could not only have serious environmental, social and economic
implications but implication for peace and security and migration, how the specific impacts of climate change
will depend on the climate variance and change its experiences as well its geographical, social, cultural, eco-
nomic and political situation. Like many sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia is facing climatic changes
that are expected to have long range impacts on its food supply, United Nation Development Programme
(UNDP, 2010).
As the result, countries require a diversity of adaptation measures that reflect their unique circumstance, Na-
tional Adaptation programmed of Action (NAPA, 2007). E.C. Future climate change cannot be adequately
predicated without a sound understanding of the feature expectation of the emission and concentration of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which will depend on socio economic trend including population and
economic growth, technological changes and energy demand (Aschalew. A, 2007). E.C.
According to National Meteorological Agency (NMA, 2007) climate projection for Ethiopia have been gen-
erating using the software MAGICC (model for assessment of greenhouse gas include climate change) re-
gional and global climate scenario generator coupled model for their period centered on the year 2030-2050
and 2080.
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2.2. Empirical Review

Recardian model to estimate the impact of the climate change in US agriculture using cross sectional data for
about 3000 regions in US (Mendelssohn, et am, 2007). Their result shows that estimate has complicated effects
on specifically they found that increased temperature is likely to reduce average from values, but increased
perception by corresponding 8% average leads to loss in land value from warming to an annual neighborhood
damage of 4.5%. However, the same policy change scenario results in a 1% gain when the crop revenue
approaches.
A number of studies that employed the Recardian approach have supported by an advert impact of the climate
change on agriculture used from level data to examine and the agricultural impacts and adoption of climate
change in India (Meudelsolin, etal, 1994). They found that the diverse climate change would lead to huge
losses in India they found that diverse climate change would leads to huge losses in agricultural revenues even
if farmers where to adopt their farming practices to climate change (Brohan et at., 2006).
It is founds that combination with increasing carbon dioxide, temperature and rain fall is likely to have adverse
effects on agricultural production in Tunisia (Etesian, etal, 2010). This results supports findings by (Rosen
Weig and Parry, 1994) who found that increased temperature and carbon dioxide reduces production in India,
because of the lack of African studies sensitivity for us. Their result shows that the most pessimistic forecast
implies that African countries may lose 47% of their agricultural revenue because of global warming, while
across sectional forecast supports of only 6% agricultural revenue. With the expected fall in contribution of
agriculture to GDP overtime the Authors conclude that the damages from climate change to African agricul-
ture may be expected to range from 0.13% to 2% of GDP by 2100.they further ague that every region in Africa
will experience some negative climate changes impact. They conclude that climate is an important determinant
of house-holds welfare, and therefore that providing new technology and capital may be effective strategy for
increasing rural income in hostile climate region.
Used the Rechardian model to analyzes the impact of climate on south African sugarcane production, using
time series data for both irrigated and dry land farming (Deressael, 2005).The authors show that climate
change has significant nonlinear impacts on next revenue with higher sensitivity future increases in tempera-
ture than precipitation. Further they found that doubling carbon dioxide, which leads to rise in temperatures
by two degrees Celsius and precipitation by seven degrees, would have negative impact on sugarcane produc-
tion. They also found that irrigation in sugarcane production does not provide an effective option for reducing
climate change in South Africa. Also used the Rechardian approach to analyze the economic impacts of cli-
mate on major South Africa field crops they found that crop is quite sensitive to marginal
Charge in temperature compared to charge in precipitation (Hassan, etal, 2005). Country to findings by they
argued that irrigation would been effective adaption of erasure for limiting the harmful effects of climate
change is agro-ecological zones specific and therefore that location is very important in dealing with climate
change issues(Peressaetal, 2005). Climate change poses huge challenges to the global economy and to social
development. Its impacts will disproportionatly affect Sub-Saharan African countries such as Ethiopia because
their economies are highly dependent on climate- sensitive activities such as rain-fed agriculture. In Ethiopia,
agriculture contributes about 47% of the country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and more than 70million
people (85% of the Ethiopian population) depend on agriculture directly or indirectly for their livelihoods
(Index Mind, 2014). Therefore, any effect on agriculture will significantly affect the Ethiopian economy. It is
predicted that changes in climate will lead to recurrent droughts and heavy rainfall in different parts of Ethi-
opia, reducing the amount of land that can be used for agriculture and decreasing crop productivity. For ex-
ample, the 2006 flood in Gambela region damaged about 1650 hectares of maize and reduced crop productiv-
ity by 20% farm land (Gambela region Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Agency, 2007). This meant a
loss of income for the country and also exacerbeted food shortages and malnutrition problems in the region.
The impacts of climate change on the environment could also reduce the national income from the export of
agricultural products such as coffee, pulses, and flowers. Of particular concern is the possible impact on Ethi-
opia's famous Arabica coffee, which is exported all over the world. Coffee plants are very sensitive to climate
change and there are concerns that Arabica coffee production could become imposible in Ethiopia by the end
of this century if the change continues at the current rate (Mac Donald and Simon, 2011). The above proplem
is crucial and this gab will tried proved the most important element of vulnerability while using of climate
68
change Adaptation and Metegation method at various levels of decision making from the individual up to the
regional and national.
3. Methodology of the study
3.1. Description of the Study Area
Mettu woreda was one of the district had a toal area of 68723 hectare which was the 5th largest district in the
South Western part at the distance of 575 kms from Capital City of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Illubbabor zone
oromia region bordering bacho and hurumu in the east, harugure in the west, and bilonopha in the north and
Aalle in the south, Mettu was the centeral town of Mettu woreda. The district had rugged land forms domi-
nated by district mainly experience sub_tropical (W\Dega) and temperate (Dega) types of climate condition.
The altitude range of this woreda was 1625 m (meters) above sea level. And also average annual rainfall and
temperature of this Mettu woreda was 1850 mm, and 16°c-22°c respectively. The rivers in the district area
were konori, sori, duqur, and kabar. All were tributaries of the Sor River. The dominant soil types were silt,
clay and nito. There were parks, game reserves or sanctuaries for Wilde life conservation such as: buffalo,
tiger, hyne, monkey, ape, and pig. Mettu Woreda had estimated population of 91,049 from whom, 40200 were
female, and 50849 were male. As agricultural Mettu woreda office (2018) G.C there were 29 kebeles in the
Mettu woreda. The farming system of the study area was classified as mixed farming, which means both crop
production and livestock production account 78.5% and 30% respectively. Some major cultivated crops were
produced in rainy season. The crops produced in the area of food crops such as: maize, sorghum, teff, burly,
wheat, and beans. Cash crops such as coffee and root vegetable crops are also produced. The rain fall was
evenly distributed and degradation of the resource was high.
3.2. Source of Data
In order to get the data, both primary and secondary source of data were used. The primary data from house-
holds by distributing the questionnaire to the respondent’s Secondary data from published and unpublished
written materials, journals and relevant office report.
3.3. Research Design
For the study the statistical descriptive research design was utilized. For concerning it had to be used both
qualitative and quantitative data to facilitate the analysis? Both qualitative and quantitative aspects were fo-
cused on impact of climate change on crop production of the government attitude, interest, and observation
towards the effective and efficient crop production in Mettu Woreda administration.
3.4. Method of Data Collection
Collected the data from both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data was collected from the house-
holds by preparing questionnaire and distributing selected respondents from the study area. The Secondary data
was collected from different written materials, journals, magazine, and published and unpublished. On the other
hand, focus group discussion had been conducted to obtain qualitative data. The personal observation and experi-
ence of the study help also to climate change understand the effects in the study area.
3.5. Sampling Techniques and Sample Size
The systematic sampling technique was used by the research to select the sample household in the study Mettu
woreda. Since the population was very large, it was impossible to collect data from whole population. There-
fore, the research used multistage sampling technique to select sample respondents. Due to the limitation of
the and budget to conduct this study, the researcher systematic selected four kebeles (Tulube, Boto, Sardo,
and Alebuya ) from 29 kebeles of Mettu Woreda local area based on accessibility for the study and where
crop production was carried on extensively. Out of (14,117) households from whom, 100 of them were sys-
tematic selected. Finally, the study was determined by using the following formula which was developed by
Yamane (1967). Because of the households of from these kebeles were homogeneous by margin of error (10%).
n= N/1+N(e)2
where, N=Number of target population
n = sample size
69
e=margin of error, its value is 10%.

e = (10/100)2
= 0.1 × 0.1
= 0.01
So by solving the above formula, sample size was obtained as follows:
N= n1 +n2 +n3 +n4:
Tulube =1125
Alebuya =774
Sardo= 522
Boto =370
N = 1125 + 774 + 522 + 370
N = 2791
n=2791/1+2791×0.01
n= 2791/27.92
n= 99.96 ~100.
And also the number of sample each four kebeles was calculated as followed by using stratified sampling
formula.
n1=n1×n/ n1+n2+n3+n4
n1= 1125×100/2791
n1= 40.31
n2 =n2×n/n1+n2+n3+n4
n2= 774×100/2791
n2=27.7
n3 =n3×n/n1+n2+n3+n4
n3 =522×100/2791
n3=18.7
n4 =n4×n/n1+n2+n3+n4
n4=370×100/2791
n4=13.26
Total n =n1+n2+n3+n4
Total n=40.31+27.7+18.7+13.26
Total n=99.97~100
3.6. Method of Data Analysis
The collected data was analyzed by descriptive analysis such as percentages, tables and figurative explanation.
Those were chosen to analyze data due to it was easily to understand and interpret data. Also it needs less time
and was simple to analyze data. Tabulation was mostly used since it facilitates easy interpretation of data
collected.
70
4. Data analysis and interpretation

As already studied in the methodology part of this study, primary data has been collected from sample house-
holds through questionnaire. The respondents are households from the four kebele of the Mettu woreda area.
Thus this chapter covers the analysis data collected.
4.1. Demographic Characteristics
4.1.1. Age Distribution of Sample Respondents
Table 1. Age distribution of sample respondents
Number of respondents
Age of respondents
Frequency Percentage
15-17 19 19%
18-39 27 27%
40-55 30 30%
>56 24 24%
Total 100 100%
Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.
As of the above table, out of total sample households selected in the study area, 30% and 27% are found
between the age group of 40-55 and 18-39 respectively. This implies that according to labor classification the
majority of households that reside in the study area of economically active households. While the remaining
15-17 and >56 of the sample households are considered to be economically inactive households. This implies
that age of a farm household head plays an important role on decision to produce available crop production and
farmer’s age also influence the availability of labor that is one of the most determinant factors of production.
4.1.2. Gender Composition of the Respondents
Table 2. Gender composition of the respondents
No of respondents
Sex of respondents
Male 77 77%
Female 23 23%
Total 100 100%
Table 2 shows that from the total sample of households 77% of them are male and 23% of them are
female. This shows that like other parts of Ethiopia households of Mettu woreda area are predominantly
male-headed. Female’s participation in agricultural crop production and leading family is less compared
to that of males. This is due to cultural barriers which might lead to gender discrimination and this situ-
ation discriminate female headed household from participating in agricultural production.
4.1.3. Marital status of the respondents
Table 3. Marital status of the respondents
Marital status Frequency Percentage
Single 2 20%
Married 6 60%
Divorced 1 15%
Widowed 5 5%
Total 10 100%
Table 3, shows that out of sample households 60% of them were married, while the other 20%, 15%, and 5%
were single, divorced, and widowed respectively. Thus, the most the sample households marital status of
respondents was married.
71
4.1.4. Family size of the respondents

Table 4. Family size of the respondents
Family size Frequency Percentage
<4 25 25%
4-7 42 42%
>7 33 33%
Total 100 100%
Family size is the demographic variable that affects the social and economic wellbeing of the household’s
member. In view of this fact, average household size can sometimes use to reflect its implication to health and
housing problems. As of table 3 the total average family size of the households in the study area is between
the intervals of 4-7 which accounts for 42% out of the total sample households. This implies that households
of the study area have averagely 4-7 household members. This implication is that the large family size is a
typical feature of rapidly growing population.
4.1.5. Educational status of the respondents
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Illiterate Read and writing Elementary High School
Figure 1. Educational status of the respondents

Figure 1, which represents educational background of the respondents, 84,84% of the sampled households are
illiterate while 9,9% are able write and read only. The remaining 5,5% and 2,2% of the respondents attends
elementary and high school respectively. This implies that literacy level is very low in the study area. The
reason of low literacy is that in the previous time there was no such expanded educational service. Moreover,
in the area person is considered to be literate if he or she can read with understanding and write a short state-
ment at least in one language. Otherwise a person is considered to be illiterate.
4.1.6. Occupational of the respondents
Table 5. Occupational of the respondents
Occupation Frequency Percentage
Self-employed - -
Agriculture 75 75%
Landless labor 10 10%
Service 15 15%
Total 100 100%
Table 5, which shows that occupational of the respondents, 75% of the sample households were more engaged
in agriculture, while remaining 10% and 15% of them were, landless labour and service respectively. Those
were also, have no self employed out of sampled households. Thus inorder to live they participate occupational
of the most in agriculture and also absence of the self employed is the problem of affected adversely the life
72
of some households in study Mettu woreda.

4.2.0. Land holding of respondents
4.2.1. Percentage Land holding of the respondents
Figure 2. Percentage Land holding of the respondents

The figure above shows out of total sampled households, 56% of them have land size 1.5-2.0 hectare while
24% of them have land size of 0.5-1.5 hectare. The remaining 16% and 4% of them have land size of greater
than 2.5 hectare and no land respectively. This implies that the majority of land holding size of the sampled
household is averagely found between the interval of 1.5-2.0. The study also signifies that the average total
land holding is lower specially due to rapid growing population. There are also farmers who have no land
which accounts for 4% out of sampled house-holds. Thus in order to live they participate in daily labor work
and trading activities. The unbalanced land distribution is also another problem affecting adversely the life of
some households in study area.
4.2.2. Amount of Land Used for Crop Production
0
21% 3/4 of total land,21%

11% 1/4 of total land,11%
68%
1/2of total land 68%
Figure 3. Land used for crop production by respondents

The figure 3 shows that most households use ½ of their land for crop production which accounts for 68% out
of sampled households. While remaining 21% and 11% of them use ¾ and ¼ of their land for crop production
respectively. The study shows that household in the study area use a half of their land for crop production
such as sorghum and maize are predominantly produced. The remaining portion of land is kept for livestock
grassing product and saved from repetitive crop production on the same plot of land in order to keep land’s
fertility and quality.
4.2.3. The Income Source of Households
Table 6. The income source of households
No of respondents
No Farm activities
1 Crop production 33 33%
2 Cattle 26 26%
3 Both 19 19%
4 Nonfarm activities - -
5 Daily labor 16 16%
6 Trade 6 6%
Total 100 100%
73
Table 6 shows that out of sampled households 33% of them engaged in crop production while 19% of them are
engaged in crop production and cattle. The remaining 26% of them are cattle production. There are farmers who
are participate in nonfarm activities i.e. trade and daily laborer which accounts for 6% and 16% of the sampled
households, respectively. The study implies that the majority of households of study area participation in the pro-
duction of crop. Thus farmers are excessively relied on crop production, which is climate sensitive production.
Thus, the most crop production, and cattle respectively was impacted by impact of climate change.
4.2.4. Crops grown in one year of the respondents
Table 7. Crops grown in one year of the respondents
Crops grown No of respondent frequency No of respondent percentage
Three-months 55 55%
Five-months 20 20%
Six-months 15 15%
Seven-months 10 10%
Total 100 100%
Table 7 shows that out of the sample household 55% of the sample households engaged to the grown crops
three-months. While, the other 20%, 15%, and 10% were five-months, six-months and seven-months respec-
tively crops grown in one year area of mettu woreda.
4.2.5. Bases of cropping production pattern of the study area
Figure 4. The bases of cropping production pattern of the study area

From the above figure, 87% of the total households relied on rainfed agriculture agricultural production while
the remaining 13% of them on both rainfed and irrigation system. This implies that irrigation system is not
well practiced in the study area. This especially due to the lack of the irrigation system on available revers
unavailability of revers suitable for irrigation activity. For this reason most of the households of study area
engaged in rained agricultural production and thus they could able to harvest only once a year. Thus heavily
depend on rain fed and traditional practice is state which renders households of the study area highly vulner-
able to climate change then affected by its adverse impact.
4.2.6. Terminology of climate change in study area
Table 8. Terminology of climate change in study area
No of respondents
No Question Option
Yes 76 76%
Do you familiar with the terminology of cli-
1 No 24 24%
mate change?
Total 100 100%
Increasing 25 25%
If your answer for question no 1 yes, how do Decreasing 42 42%
2 the pattern of rainfed variability in your area
reveals compared to the last year? No change 21 21%
Indeterminate 12 12%
74
Total 100 100%
Table 8 (cont.). Terminology of climate change in study area

No of respondents
No Question Option
Increasing 49 49%
Decreasing 19 19%
Is there any change noticed by you in temper-
3 No change 21 21%
ature change if no 1 yes?
Indeterminate 11 11%
Total 100 100%
From the table above, question number one; which asks weather the household have heard about climate
change and its impact or not. Out of the total sampled house holds 76% of them replied that they have heard
about climate change and its impacts. While 24% of them have not heard. Farmers differ in their level of
access to climate change information its impact from extension service and other source such as media so that
they could not hear about climate change and its impacts. Regarding the second question about the pattern of
climate variability 42% of total sampled households replied that annual rain fall decreased from year to year;
this implies that rain fall variability is one of the challenges of crop as well as livestock production. Farmers
maintained that late rain, early cessations insufficient rains are rain fall related problems affecting their crop
production. Regarding the third question about the pattern of temperature can cause impact on health of human
beings and livestock as well as crop production. In view of this fact; households of the study area are exposed
to the risk of several climates related hazards.
4.2.7. Observe of respondents due to change in pattern of local climate
Table 9. Observation of respondents due to change in pattern of local climate
No Option No of respondent frequency No of respondent percentage
Decrease in agricultural
1 50 50%
productivity
Shortage of food and making
2 25 25%
environment more vulnerable
3 Loss of plant species 20 20%
4 Shortage of drinking water 5 5%
Total 100 100%
Table 9 shows that out of sample households 50% of their agricultural productivity were decreased by the
impact of climate change, while the other, 25%, 20%, and 5% were shortage of food and making environment
more vulnerable, loss of plant species, and shortage of drinking water respectively impacted by impact of
climate change.
4.2.8. Impact of climate change on crop productivities
Table 10. The impact of climate change on crop productivities
Degree of climate change No of respondent frequency No of respondent percentage
High 50 50%
Low 4 4%
Medium 46 46%
Total 100 100%
Table 10 shows that about the impact level of climate change 50% of the sample household replied that the
degree of climate change on crop production is high while nearly half 4% and 46% of them replied that is the
impact of the climate change on crop production is low and medium level impact, respectively. In this study
there is an ultimate change in temperature and rainfall variability according to the farmer’s response to the
75
previous questions from table 5 and thus it could cause higher degree of climate change on crop production.
However, in this case only half 50% of total sampled household replied that climate change has high impact
on crop production. This is due to the reason that majority of the households have carelessly replied or they
unwillingness to reply appropriate response to the question provided. More over farmers in the study area are
characterized by high illiteracy rate which might be one reason for replying in appropriate response.
4.2.9. Impact of climate change on crop production
Table 11. The impact of climate change on crop production
No of respondents
No Question Option
Yes 57 57%
Do you observe any impact of climate
1 No 43 43%
change on your crop production?
Total 100 100%
Crops are sometimes failing 13 13%
Crops are totally failing 27 27%
If your answer for question 1 is yes, Increasing the problem of drought and
2 7 7%
what impacts did you observe? flooding
Production per hectare is decreasing 53 53%
Total 100 100%
Based on the table above 57% of the sampled households replied that climate change have indeed affected
their crop production while 43% of them have not observed any impact of climate change. Regarding the
second question about climate change impacts 53% of the sampled households observed that climate
change causes crop production per hectares to decrease while 27% of them replied that it causes crop
production totally to decrease. The remaining 7% and 13% of them replied that climate change causes to
increasing the problems of flooding and drought and crop production sometimes to fall respec tively.
Farmers in the study are also mentioned that floods caused by climate change destroyed several villages,
infrastructures, human life and agricultural fields during the last years. This indicates that climate change
had serious impacts on crop and livestock production and cause agricultural productivity to decrease
significantly.
4.2.10. Adaptation Strategies Taken to Climate Change
Table 12. Adaptation strategies taken to climate change
No of respondents
No Question Option
1 Adaptation 81 81%
Is possible to adopt strategies to cope up
Mitigation 19 19%
with climate change?
Total 100 100%
2 Crop diversification 49 49%
If your answer for question no 1 adapta- Temporary Migration 18 18%
tion, what type of adaptation strategies Use of fertilizers and manure application 32 32%
have you been practiced? If Other specify 1 1%
Totally 100 100%
Table above shows about climate change adaptation under taking in the study area. It’s known that adaptation
to climate change is the process through which people could reduce the negative effects of climate on their
health and wellbeing and adjust their life styles to the new situations around them. From the table above 81%
of total sampled of households replied that it is possible to adopt strategies while 19% of them replied miti-
gation. Regarding the second question about types of adaptation strategies, it shows that 49%of the sampled
household has practiced crop diversification as the strategy while 18% and 32% of them have practiced tem-
porarily migration and use of fertilizer and manure application respectively.The remaining 1% of them has
76
practiced other strategies to climate change adaptation. This includes changing the timing of planting based
on the rainfall situation.
4.2.11. Change cultivated area of crops due to climate change
Table 13. The change cultivated area of crops due to climate change
No of respondents
No Question Option
Is there any change in cultivated area of crops due to cli- Yes 55 55%
1
mate change? No 45 45%
Increasing 35 35%
If your answer no 1 yes, what are the crops and its mag- Decreasing 65 65%
2
nitude of change? Intermediate 0 0%
Totally 100 100%
Table 13 shows that the first question 55% of the sample households of cultivated area of crops was impacted
by the impact of climate change . regarding the second question, out of sample households 65% cultivated
area of crops decreased by impact of climate change. Thus, the most cultivated area of crops households of
respondents was impacted by impact of climate change.
5. Conclusion and recommendation
5.1. Conclusion
This study aimed at analyzing the impact of climate change on crop production the case of area Mettu Woreda
and thus the following result have been concluded.As a result of demographic analyzes of the house-hold
shows most of house-holds who engaged in crop production are males and their age group is between 40 and
53. The majority of house-holds who engaged in this activity found to be illiterate and have an average family
size between 4 and 7. Thus this large house-hold size caused them health, housing and other problem. The
analyses of study on climate change revealed that socio economic related to possible solution in controlling
climate impacts plays a vital role for betterment of agricultural practice of house-holds. The size of larger land
area enables them to spread their risk from adverse climate change and thereby to reduce impacts. Larger crop
land area may provide better opportunities to have sufficient crop production and the possibility of growing
different types of crop. Since most of the house-holds engaged in rainfed agricultural production, they would
they could harvest only once a year and this can be the major reason for their crop failure. Thus the dependency
of their agricultural production heavily on rainfall exposed them to induced climate change. The survey of
household revealed that here has been increased rainfall variability’s and temperature raise over the years.
Late rain, early cessation and house-holds in study area. Due to change flooding has destroyed several villages
infrastructure and agricultural fields. The majority of the house-holds have replied that the degree of climate
change in crop production is quit medium. Climate change causes crop production per hectare to decrease
significantly. Furthermore, it causes the problem of drought and flood to increase.The main strategies of farm-
ers to climate change identified in study area were crop diversification, temporarily migration. Manures, fer-
tilizers and other applications. Analyzing the different adaptation together made by all respondents that mixed
farming system is considered to be one of the most important adaptation responses to climate change.
5.2 Recommendations
On the bases this study, the following recommendations have been drawn to reduce the impact of climate
change on crop production of study area.
1. There is a need to support farmer’s adaptation capacity and improving their crop production efficiently to
overcome climate change impacts. So, the agricultural and rural development needs to support them.
2. Focus on raising awareness, knowledge management and information dissemination. The study reveals
that climate change is already occurring and affecting significantly the crop and livestock production, thus
their strong need to raise awareness and disseminate relevant information in order to have the understand-
ing of multi faced impacts of climate change. This also include promote activities to enhance farmers
participation on awareness creation activities as it is highly needed in the field of climate change. So the
77
government or private responsible institutions should be able to work on the promotional through media
and others.
3. Irrigation activities are implemented in study area to overcome hazard created on agricultural sector. Thus
the government or concerned body should give awareness and support them to enable to use irrigation
system.
4. There were strengthened intensive natural resource conservation and rehabilitation activities. Particularly
measures that conserve the environment and at the same time can generate income to support farmers
were essential.
5. The majority of sampled house-holds have large family size found between 4 and 7 this shows rapidly
growing population. Therefore, measures against the prevailing high population growth should be targeted
strongly.
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79

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SocioEconomic Challenges, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2019

ISSN (print) – 2520-6621, ISSN (online) – 2520-6214

Climate Change and Agriculture in Ethiopia: A Case Study of

1.3. Objective of the study

2.1.6 Climate Variability and Observed Trends in Ethiopia

2.2. Empirical Review

e=margin of error, its value is 10%.

4. Data analysis and interpretation

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

4.1.4. Family size of the respondents

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Figure 1. Educational status of the respondents

of some households in study Mettu woreda.

Figure 2. Percentage Land holding of the respondents

21% 3/4 of total land,21%

Figure 3. Land used for crop production by respondents

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Figure 4. The bases of cropping production pattern of the study area

Total 100 100%

Table 8 (cont.). Terminology of climate change in study area

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

Source: Household survey, 2018 G.C.

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