Part I – Classical

Thermodynamics

Dr Johan JACQUEMIN
Part I - Classical Thermodynamics

Contact Details:
Dr. Johan Jacquemin

Associate Professor
Material Science and Nano-engineering – UM6P

Skype: jacqueminjohan

Email: johan.jacquemin@um6p.ma

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 Part I - Classical Thermodynamics

This Part is subdivided in 6 Chapters as follows:

* Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

* The Nature of Energy
* Thermodynamic Properties and Equations of State
* The First Law of Thermodynamics
* The Second Law of Thermodynamics
* Applications to the Power and Refrigeration Cycles

http://www.learnthermo.com

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 Part I – Classical
Thermodynamics

Chapter 6: Applications to the Power

and Refrigeration Cycles

Dr Johan JACQUEMIN
 Part I - Classical Thermodynamics
Chapter 5 – The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Learning Objectives:
Upon completion of Chapter 6, you will be able to do the
following:

• Understand P-h and T-s charts

• Analyse the Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles and their
applications to practical internal combustion engine
• Analyse Brayton cycles
• Apply cycle analysis to Rankine vapor power cycle
• Analyse vapor-compression Refrigeration cycles
• To use P-h and T-s charts to solve thermodynamic
processes

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

Part A
Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
Pressure–Enthalpy Diagrams

Pressure-enthalpy (P-h) diagrams are used

extensively in the analysis of power and
refrigeration cycles.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Saturated liquid line

•
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Subsaturated
liquid region
Pressure

(Subcooled)

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Saturated vapour
line
•
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Superheated
Region
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Pressure

Two-phase
region

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
P–H Diagrams
Isotherms Critical point

•
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram
P-H Diagrams
Constant Entropy
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

P-H Diagrams
Constant Dryness
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

P-H Diagrams
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Constant Entropy Lines

Entropy is a measure of the degree of disorder

in a substance. Entropy increases as a
substance changes phase from solid to liquid
to gas. Any process which ‘disorders’ a
substance, e.g., diffusion, will tend to increase
entropy.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Dryness Fraction
The area under saturation curve represents
the two-phase region, in which liquid and
vapour co-exist. For steam, the fraction of
water present as vapour is described by the
dryness fraction (also, known as “steam
quality”).

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Dryness fraction is defined as

m vapour
Dryness Fraction x =
m vapour + m liquid

e.g. steam with a dryness fraction of 0.9

contains 90% of the water present as a vapour
and 10% present as a liquid.
Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

To find thermodynamic properties (state

functions).
To represent cyclic processes and aid in their
analyses

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

State Functions

If certain intensive variables are known, others

can be determined from the chart, but it
depends on the degrees of freedom for the
system (refer to Gibbs’ Phase Rule). Variables,
which can be evaluated, include enthalpy,
entropy, density, pressure, temperature and
latent heat

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Critical Temperature and Pressure

Critical point

•
Pressure

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?
Latent heat of vaporization (hfg) (or
evaporation)
Pressure

hfg

Enthalpy

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?
Latent heat of vaporization
Represented by the width of the saturation
envelope. hfg decreases with temperature. hfg
is defined as,

hfg = hg - hf

hg – enthalpy of the saturated vapour. Read at

the saturated vapour line.
hf – enthalpy of the saturated liquid. Read at
the saturated liquid line.
Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Boiling Point
T1 T2

Pressure

P2

P1

Enthalpy

T1/T2 P1/P2 also known as saturation

temperatures and pressures
Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Density/ Specific volume and Entropy

Can be read from the constant entropy and

specific volume lines

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

4. What would be the

power demand of the
compressor for the
previously indicated
conditions when using the
h, log p - Diagram? The
Isentropic Efficiency is
0.50. Refrigerant: Propane
R 290.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

We establish two cycles with an

isentropic efficiency of 1.0 ("is")
and 0.50 ("poly"):

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

We can now establish the table for the polytropic case:

dhpoly = dhis/ηis = 44 kJ/ (kg K) / 0.50 = 88 kJ/ (kg K)

h2, poly = h1 + dhpoly = 573 kJ/ (kg K) + 88 kJ/ (kg K) = 661 kJ/(kg K)

We put 661 kJ/kgK into the polytropic table for point 2.

The values for points 1, 3 and 4 remain the same, only point 2 is different.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

Since we know that Qe = mR * qe = mR * dh1-2

with mR being the refrigerant mass flow (which is constant) we
can determine the refrigerant mass flow of the process as

mR = Qe / (h1 – h3,4) = 100 kW/(573 kJ/(kg K) – 291 kJ/(kg K)) = 0.355 kg/s

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 1 : WHY to use P-h Charts ?

With this mass flow we can determine the power demand of the compressor:

Power demand P = mR * (h2 – h1)

Isentropic:

Pis = mR * (h2,is – h1) = 0.355 kg/s * (617 kJ/(kg K) – 573 kJ/(kg K)) = 15.6 kW

Polytropic:

Ppoly = mR * (h2,poly – h1) = 0.355 kg/s * (661 kJ/(kg K) – 573 kJ/(kg K)) = 31.2 kW

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

1 : P-h vs. T-s diagrams

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 Part B
Cycle Machines

1st Law of Thermodynamics: Closed Systems

Cycle Machines using Pressure-Volume Diagrams
Cycle Machines using Pressure-Enthalpy and Temperature-
Entropy Diagrams
Combined Cycles (ex. Brayton Cycle)
Examples
2 : Cycle Machines

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2 : Cycle Machines

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

A Stirling engine is a heat engine operating by cyclic

compression and expansion of gas, at different temperature levels
such that there is a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical
work

Robert Stirling was the Scottish inventor of the first practical example of a
closed cycle air engine in 1816, and it was suggested by Fleeming Jenkin as
early as 1884 that all such engines should therefore generically be called
Stirling engines.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

Process 1-2 is the

compression process in which
the gas is compressed by the
piston while the displacer is at
the top of the cylinder.

Thus during this process the

gas is cooled in order to
maintain a constant
temperature TC.

Work W1-2 required to

compress the gas is shown as
the area under the P-V curve.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

Process 2-3 is an isochoric

process in which the gas is
displaced from the cold space
to the hot expansion space.

No work is done.

A significant amount of heat QR

is absorbed by the gas from the
regenerator matrix.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

Process 3-4 is an isothermal

expansion process.

Work W3-4 is done by the

system (area under the P-V
diagram)

While heat Q3-4 is added to the

system from the heat source,
maintaining the gas at a
constant temperature TH.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

Process 4-1 is a constant

volume displacement process
which completes the cycle.

Heat QR is rejected by the

working gas to the regenerator
matrix

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

The net work Wnet done over

the cycle is given by:

Wnet = (W3-4 + W1-2),

where the compression work

W1-2 is negative (work done on
the system).

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Engine

Carnot efficiency.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Cooler
Stirling Ultracold = ultra-low temperature
freezers which operate below -86°C.

http://stirlingultracold.com/who_we_are
http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.1 : Stirling Cycle Cooler
Stirling Ultracold = ultra-low temperature
freezers which operate below -86°C.

http://stirlingultracold.com/who_we_are
http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

The Air Standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for Compression-Ignition (CI)
reciprocating engines, first proposed by Rudolph Diesel over 100 years ago.

The ideal air-standard diesel engine undergoes 4 distinct processes.

Two of the four processes of the cycle are adiabatic processes (adiabatic =
no transfer of heat)

If Q = 0 :

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Process 1-2 is an adiabatic
compression process.

Temperature of the air

increases during the
compression process, and with
a large compression ratio
(usually > 16:1) it will reach the
ignition temperature of the
injected fuel.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Process 2-3 : the fuel is
injected and combusted and
this is represented by a
constant pressure expansion
process.

At state 3 ("fuel cutoff") the

expansion process continues
adiabatically with the
temperature decreasing until
the expansion is complete.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Process 3-4 is an adiabatic
compression process.

The total expansion work is

Wexp = (W2-3 + W3-4)

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Process 4-1 is an constant
volume heat rejection process.

In an actual Diesel engine the

gas is simply exhausted from
the cylinder and a fresh charge
of air is introduced..

The net work Wnet is calculated

Wnet = (Wexp + W1-2), where as

before the compression work
W1-2 is negative

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

Carnot efficiency.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

An ideal air-standard Diesel cycle engine has a compression ratio of 18 and a

cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the compression process, the working fluid is
at 100 kPa, at 300 K. Determine the temperature and pressure of the air at the
end of each process, the net work output per cycle [kJ/kg], and the thermal
efficiency.

Note that the nominal specific heat capacity values used for air at 300K are
CP = 1.00 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg.K, and k = 1.4.

However they are all functions of temperature, and with the extremely high
temperature range experienced in Diesel engines one can obtain significant
errors. One approach (that we will adopt in this example) is to use a typical
average temperature throughout the cycle.

http://www.ohio.edu/mechanical/thermo/Intro/Chapt.1_6/Chapter3b.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

An ideal air-standard Diesel cycle

engine has a compression ratio of 18
and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the
beginning of the compression
process, the working fluid is at 100
kPa, at 300 K. Determine the
temperature and pressure of the air
at the end of each process, the net
work output per cycle [kJ/kg], and the
thermal efficiency.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

The next step is to define the working

fluid and decide on the basic
equations or tables to use.

In this case the working fluid is air,

and we have decided to use an
average temperature of 900K
throughout the cycle to define the
specific heat capacity values as
presented in the table of Specific
Heat Capacities of Air.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

1622

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.2 : Diesel Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
Solved Problem

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.3 : Otto Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

The Air Standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for Spark-
Ignition (SI) internal combustion engines, first proposed by
Nikolaus Otto over 130 years ago, and which is currently
used most motor vehicles.

http://www.animatedengines.com/twostroke.html

http://www.animatedengines.com/otto.html

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.3 : Otto Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine
The analysis of the Otto cycle is very
similar to that of the Diesel cycle

Differences:
• Method of igniting the fuel-air mixture
• In the Otto cycle the fuel-air mixture is
introduced during the induction stroke
and compressed to a much lower
compression ratio (around 8:1) and is
then ignited by a spark.
• The combustion results in a sudden
jump in pressure while the volume
remains essentially constant.

The continuation of the cycle including

the expansion and exhaust processes
are essentially identical to that of the
ideal Diesel cycle. http://www.kruse-ltc.com/Otto_Direct/di_otto_cycle.php#
Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
 2.3 : Otto Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

http://www.kruse-ltc.com/Otto_Direct/di_otto_cycle.php#

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2.3 : Otto Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2.3 : Otto Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2.3 : Otto Cycle (Compression-
Ignition) Engine

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

1
⌘th,Brayton = 1 ( 1)/
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rp

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

1
⌘th,Brayton = 1 ( 1)/
<latexit sha1_base64="cH4l8US12bGXarH6eOvMs2WzB3I=">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</latexit>
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sha1_base64="d1HTcnf0QucFPFFyVkTE7oe3h6o=">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</latexit>
rp

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

1
⌘th,Brayton = 1 ( 1)/
<latexit sha1_base64="cH4l8US12bGXarH6eOvMs2WzB3I=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="0jSPGmscyF2AxWlErhctjPtaTno=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="d1HTcnf0QucFPFFyVkTE7oe3h6o=">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</latexit>
rp

Answers: T2 = 543.4 K and T4 = 717.6 K

Back to work ratio = 0.42
Efficiency = 44.8 %

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 2.4 : The Brayton Cycle

1
⌘th,Brayton = 1 ( 1)/
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sha1_base64="0jSPGmscyF2AxWlErhctjPtaTno=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="d1HTcnf0QucFPFFyVkTE7oe3h6o=">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</latexit>
rp

Answers: T2 = 543.4 K and T4 = 717.6 K

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 Part C
Power Plants

1st Law of Thermodynamics: Open Systems

Carnot vs. Rankine Cycles
Application to Steam Power Plants
Combined Cycles
Examples
3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.1 : Carnot Cycle as a Two-Phase
Power Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Ideal Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Ideal Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Ideal Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Real Rankine Cycle

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

X X

X X

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.2 : Steam Power Plants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

3.3 : Combined Cycles

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 Part D
Vapour-Compression Refrigeration

1st Law of Thermodynamics: Open Systems

Applications
Refrigerants
Examples
 4.1 : Basic Concepts

Refrigeration is defined as any process of heat removal,

or more specifically as the branch of science that deals with
the process of reducing and maintaining the
temperature of a space or material below that of its
surroundings.

Since heat will always flow from a region of high

temperature to one of a lower temperature there is a need to
limit this transfer by using a good insulating material

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.1 : Basic Concepts

Refrigeration is among the biggest (if not the biggest)

industries in the world.

Modern life without refrigeration is impossible.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.1 : Basic Concepts

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.1 : Basic Concepts

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.1 : Basic Concepts

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.1 : Basic Concepts

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.1 : Basic Concepts

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.1 : Basic Concepts

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.1 : Basic Concepts

Refrigeration is among the biggest (if not the biggest)

industries in the world.

Modern life without refrigeration is impossible.

Examples:

- Food preservation and processing

- Commercial Refrigeration (supermarkets, cold
stores, refrigerated transport)
- Industrial Refrigeration (chemical processing,
petrochemical, etc.)
- Cryotechnology, Air conditioning, Energy recovery

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.1 : Basic Concepts

• Domestic refrigeration
– small household refrigerators and freezers
• Commercial refrigeration
– retail stores, restaurants etc.
• Industrial refrigeration
– ice plants, large food packaging, some pharmaceutical
production
• Marine + transportation
– fishing boats, haulage trucks and vans etc.
• Comfort air-conditioning
– house, car etc.
• Industrial air-conditioning
– offices, cooling towers etc.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.2 : Refrigerants

• Refrigerants are used as working substances in a

Refrigeration systems.

• Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified

into primary and secondary refrigerants.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.2 : Refrigerants

• Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used

directly as working fluids, for example in vapour
compression and vapour absorption refrigeration
systems.

• These fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase

change process in the evaporator.

• Secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which are used

for transporting thermal energy from one location to
other. Secondary refrigerants are also known under the
name brines or antifreezes

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.2 : Refrigerants

• Refrigerants: R and some numbers

• R-NMP

• N = number of Carbon Atoms – 1 = n-1

• M = number of Hydrogen Atoms + 1 = m+1
• P = number of Fluorine Atoms = p
• O = unfilled number Chloride Atoms = o

• CnHmFpClo

• m+p+o=2n+2
Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
 4.2 : Refrigerants

• Ex. R12 = R012

• N=0àn=1
• M=1àm=0
• P=p=2
• O = o = 2 n +2 – m – p = 2

• C1H0F2Cl2 = CF2Cl2

• m+p+o=2n+2

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.2 : Refrigerants

• Ex. R22 = R022

• C1H1F2Cl1 = CHF2Cl

• Brominated agents: denoted by using the letter B and by

a number which indicates the number of chloride atoms
are replaced by bromide atoms

• R22B1 = CHF2Br

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.2 : Refrigerants

• Unsaturated agents: denoted by an additional 1 after R

• Ethylene: C2H4 is denoted R1150

• Propylene: C3H6 is denoted R1270

• Other non “C” structures such as water are denoted:

• R-7XX : with XX is the molecular weight of the

compound

• R-718 = Water, R-702 = Hydrogen etc.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.2 : Refrigerants

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration
• In the early days of the refrigeration, the most used
Refrigerants were the ammonia and CO2. Both were
problematic.

• Ammonia is toxic and CO2 : high pressure and high

compressor temperature.

• When Freon 12 was discovered : Freon 12 (dichloro-

diflouro-methane)

• Freon 12 has since been banned from usage on a global

scale, and has been essentially replaced by chlorine free
R134a (tetraflouro-ethane) - not as stable as Freon 12,
however it does not have ozone depletion characteristics.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

• The new hot topic is a return to carbon dioxide (R744) as

a refrigerant.

• The previous two major problems of high pressure and

high compressor temperature are found in fact to be
advantageous.

For example:
Norwegian IEA Heatpump Program Annex28, and for
automobile air conditioning systems: Visteon Corp.
Research and development of carbon dioxide heat pump
systems is occuring in Europe - see for example:
SHERHPA (Sustainable Heat and Energy Research for
Heat Pump Applications), as well as R744.com
Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022
 4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

• Unlike the situation with steam power plants it is

common practice to begin the design and analysis of
refrigeration and heat pump systems by first plotting the
cycle on the: P-h diagram

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

In this example we wish to evaluate the following:

* Heat absorbed by the evaporator (qevap) [kJ/kg]

* Heat rejected by the condenser (qcond) [kJ/kg]
* Work done to drive the compressor (wcomp) [kJ/kg]

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

The First Law of Thermodynamics for Control Volumes

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

• Notice that the same system can be used either for a

refrigerator or air conditioner, in which the heat absorbed
in the evaporator (qevap) is the desired output, or for a
heat pump, in which the heat rejected in the condenser
(qcond) is the desired output.

• As with the Steam Power Plant, we find that we can

solve each component of this system separately and
independently of all the other components, always using
the same approach and the same basic equations.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

• We first use the information given in the above

schematic to plot the four processes (1)-(2)-(3)-(4)-(1) on
the P-h diagram.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

COP of the system is obtained by comparing the enthalpy difference

of the compressor (1)-(2) to that of the evaporator (4)-(1) in the case
of a refrigerator, or to that of the condenser (2)-(3) in the case of a
heat pump.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.3 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.4 : Exercises

1. A refrigerating system has to cool water from 12 to 6 °C.

The mass flow is 4 kg/s.

What is the cooling capacity of the refrigeration plant?

cp water = 4.87 kJ/(kg-K)

Solution:

Cooling Capacity Q = m * cp water * dT water

Q = 4 kg/s * 4.187 kJ/ (kg K) * 6 K = 100 kW

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.4 : Exercises

2. A refrigerating system has to cool water from 35 to 0 °C.

Determine the Carnot COP and the COP for a Carnot

Efficiency of 0.45 for the indicated conditions.

Solution:

Carnot COP: COPC = Te/(Tc-Te)

- For a Carnot Efficiency of 1.0: COPC = (273)/35 = 7.80

- For a Carnot Efficiency of 0.45 :
COP = COPC * ηC
COP = 7,80 * 0.45 = 3.51

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.4 : Exercises

3. What would be the power demand of the compressor

for the previously indicated conditions (ex. 1 & 2) when using
the Carnot Efficiency?

Solution:

Definition of COP: COP = Qe / P

therefore Power Demand P: P = Qe / COP

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.4 : Exercises

For evaporation 0 °C and condensation 35 °C:

- For a Carnot Efficiency of 1,0:

P = 100 kW/7.80 = 12.82 kW

- If the Carnot Efficiency is 0.45, we obtain:

P = 100 kW/3.51 = 28.50 kW

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.4 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration
Example:

We wish to do a preliminary
thermodynamic evaluation
of a refrigeration system
designed for home usage
which will use the linear
compressor with refrigerant
R134a. Consider the
following system flow
diagram

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

 4.4 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration
¢ The required values of enthalpy for the inlet and outlet
ports are determined from the R134a refrigerant tables.

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.4 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration
Determine the work done on the compressor [-54 kJ/kg].

Determine the heat absorbed by the evaporator [137 kJ/kg],

and that rejected by the condenser [-191 kJ/kg].

Coefficient of Performance of the refrigerator = 2.53

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022

4.5 : Vapour-Compression
Refrigeration: Conclusions

Johan Jacquemin Thursday, 3 March 2022