UNIT.

1 10 hrs

Celestial Sphere and Equinoctial System of Coordinates:

Celestial sphere, celestial poles, celestial meridians and equinoctial;

vertical circles; prime vertical; Ecliptic; Obliquity of the ecliptic;
Equinoctial as a fixed reference plane; First Point of Aries as a
reference;
Equinoctial system of co-ordinates;
Calculation based on above.
 Navigation
The word ‘navigation’ comes from latin word navis meaning ship
and the word agere meaning to move or direct. There are four basic
methods of navigation at sea:
Piloting (reaching from one place to other using landmarks light
houses, buoys, beacons etc)
Dead reckoning (method of calculating position from a known
position using courses steered, distances steamed etc and sailing
accordingly)
Electronic navigation (navigation by using LORAN, eNavigation,
GPS, Glonass, radar etc)
Celestial navigation (finding ships position using the sun, the moon,
planets and stars.)
In practice, combination of all these methods is used to sail from one
port to the other. Time is integral to all the methods of navigation
either for distance steamed, or for calculating positions or for
estimating time of arrival etc.
As we know position of all heavenly bodies with respect to the
observer on the earth’s surface change with time. Position of
different heavenly bodies on the celestial sphere is tabulated with
reference to Greenwich Mean Time. Knowing the position of the
celestial body and by finding the true zenith distance of the body one
gets circles of equal altitude or position circles. The intersection of
two or more position circles is the position of the observer.
In order to use celestial bodies(the sun, planets, moons, and stars) for position
fixing it is required that we know their position in the sky. The position of a
celestial body is defined on the celestial sphere by using different coordinate
systems based on their purpose. The coordinate system is used are equinoctial
system, Horizon system and ecliptic system.
In celestial navigation, the earth is assumed to be a perfect sphere, located at
the centre of the universe. At night when we look at the sky we see all heavenly
bodies located on a hemispherical Dome called the celestial sphere. The earth is
assumed to be stationary due to which all celestial bodies appear to move on
the celestial sphere. The grid for pinpointing position of a celestial body maybe
imagined to be created by projecting the earth’s grid on the celestial sphere
with light source at the centre of the earth.
 CELESTIAL SPHERE
The vast expanse of space that surrounds the Earth is called the
celestial sphere. It appears to surround the earth like a vast
dome placed over the Earth. It is assumed to be a concentric
sphere of infinite radius with its centre as the centre of the
Earth. All astronomical bodies such as Sun, Moon, Stars and
Planets are assumed to lie on the surface of the celestial sphere.
If the Earth were to be transparent and a source of light
were to be installed at its centre the projections of various
reference points / lines on the Earth would have equivalent
points / lines on the surface of the celestial sphere.
 CELESTIAL SPHERE
Celestial Sphere: It is a sphere of immense radius whose centre
is same as centre of the earth. It is the sphere on which all
celestial bodies appear to lie. As calculations in celestial
navigation are based on angular measurements, the radius of
the earth is irrelevant. It can also be defined as sphere of
infinite radius concentric with the earth.
In order to use heavenly bodies for position fixing it is required
that we know their position in the sky. The position is defined on
the celestial sphere using different coordinate systems based on
their purpose.
The coordinate systems used are:
Equinoctial system,
Horizon system, &
Ecliptic system.
 Equinoctial System of Coordinates
The coordinates used to define the position of a celestial body on
the celestial sphere in equinoctial system are Declination &
Greenwich Hour Angle. This system of coordinates is used in
Nautical Almanac to define the position of celestial body at any
instant of the year.
 THE HORIZON SYSTEM
The system is based on the position of the observer and the
coordinates are measured with reference to his meridian and
plane. In this system reference great circles are
a) Observer’s Rational Horizon &
b) His Celestial meridian.
The coordinates are
a) Altitude or Zenith Distance &
b) Azimuth
 CO-ORDINATES
EARTH CELESTIAL SPHERE
Geographic poles Celestial poles

Equator Equinoctial

Meridians Celestial meridians

Parallels of lat Declination circles

Position of observer Zenith of observer

 DEFINITIONS
CELESTIAL POLES: Earth’s poles when projected on to the
celestial sphere is called the Celestial Pole and is 90° away from
the equinoctial

EQUINOCTIAL: It is a Great Circle on the Celestial Sphere

whose plane is same as the plane of the Earth’s equator. It is the
projection of the equator on the celestial sphere.

PARALLELS OF DECLINATION: Parallels of latitudes on the

Earth projected onto the Celestial Sphere are called Parallels of
Declination.
CELESTIAL MERIDIANS: Celestial Meridians are semi great
circle that pass through the Celestial poles. They cross the
equinoctial and all Declination Circles at right angles.

DECLINATION: Declination of the Celestial body is the arc of a

celestial meridian, or the angle at the centre of the Celestial
Sphere, measured between the equinoctial and the Declination
Circle passing through that body. It has a value between 0° and 90°
North or South.

Declination circles/Parallels of declination: these are small circles

on the celestial sphere parallel to the plane of equinoctial.
Declination circles may also be defined as projection of parallels
of latitude on the celestial sphere.
The Observer’s Zenith: It is the point on the celestial sphere
vertically above the observer i.e. the point at which a straight line
from the centre of the Earth through the observer meets celestial
sphere.

The Observer’s Nadir: It is the point on the celestial sphere

vertically opposite his Zenith.

Vertical Circles: are great circles on the celestial sphere passing

through the observer’s Zenith & Nadir.
RATIONAL HORIZON: Rational Horizon is a great circle on the
celestial sphere, the pole of which is the Observer’s Zenith or the
great circle, every point on which is 90° from the Observer’s
Zenith. The celestial horizon is always perpendicular to the
navigator.

PRIME VERTICAL CIRCLE: It is the vertical circle passing

through East West points of observer’s rational horizon. This great
circle is reference used for defining amplitude of abody.

PRINCIPAL VERTICAL CIRCLE: It is the vertical circle passing

through North South points of observer’s rational horizon. This
great circle is reference used for defining azimuth of a body.
The coordinates of the position of a celestial body, defined using
the horizon system, would vary depending on the observer’s
position on the Earth, because its altitude & azimuth at any
instant would have different values when measured from
different positions on the Earth. The nautical almanac therefore
lists the position of celestial bodies using the Equinoctial system
by tabulating the Declination & GHA or SHA of the celestial
bodies.
In celestial navigation, finding the observer’s position is prime
objective, the problem is solved by correlating coordinates of a
body in Equinoctial system, with those in Horizon system.
Motions Of Bodies Of The Solar System
Astronomers distinguish between twos principal motions of
celestial bodies. Rotation is a spinning motion about an axis within
the body, whereas revolution is the motion of a body in its orbit
around another body. The body around which a celestial object
revolves is known as that body’s primary. For the satellites, the
primary is a planet.
For the planets and other bodies of the solar system, the primary
is the sun. The entire solar system is held together by the
gravitational force of the sun. The whole system revolves around
the center of the Milky Way galaxy and the Milky Way is in
motion relative to its neighboring galaxies.
In common with other planets, the earth rotates on its axis and
revolves in its orbit around the sun.
THE SUN’S ORBIT: It is assumed that the Earth is stationary
and that all celestial bodies move along the surface of the Celestial
Sphere. The Sun’s Orbit is inclined to the equinoctial by about
23° 26.5’. Maximum Northerly Declination (about 23° 26.5’N)
occurs around June 22nd and the maximum Southerly Declination
(about 23° 26.5’S), around December 22nd .There are two specific
reference points , on the Sun’s orbit, called the First Point of Aries
γ & the First Point of Libra Ω. They are also referred to as the
equinoctial points.
ECLIPTIC: The ecliptic is the path the sun appears to take among
the stars due to the annual revolution of the earth in its orbit.
It is considered a great circle of the celestial sphere, inclined at an
angle of about 23°26' to the celestial equator, but undergoing a
continuous slight change. This angle is called the obliquity of the
ecliptic. This inclination is due to the fact that the axis of rotation of
the earth is not perpendicular to its orbit. It is this inclination
which causes the sun to appear to move north and south during the
year, giving the earth its seasons and changing lengths of periods of
daylight.
ECLIPTIC: Ecliptic is a Great Circle on the Celestial Sphere drawn
in the same plane as the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.

OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC: The angle at which the Ecliptic

crosses the Equinoctial is called the Obliquity of the Ecliptic. The
value is 23° 27' (approximately).

FIRST POINT OF ARIES: The First Point of Aries is that point on

the surface of the Celestial Sphere where the Sun’s path crosses the
Equinoctial from South to North. This occurs around 21st March and
is called Vernal Equinox. The Sun’s Declination at this point is 00°
00’. It is represented by Greek Letter γ.
FIRST POINT OF LIBRA: The First Point of Libra is that point
on the surface of the Celestial Sphere where the Sun’s path
crosses the equinoctial from North to South. This occurs around
23rd September and is called Autumnal equinox. The Sun’s
declination at this point is 00° 00’. It is represented by the
symbol Ω.

NOTE: The Celestial Meridian passing through the First Point of

Aries is used as a reference Meridian from which the East/West
co-ordinates on the Celestial Sphere are measured.
 UNIT 2.
Solar System: 10 hrs
Composition and dimensions of the Solar System; Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion; Earth’s elliptical orbit; Perihelion and aphelion
with distances and dates; Eccentricity of the earth’s orbit;
Seasons; Solstices and equinoxes; Rotation and Revolution; Day
and night; Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn; Arctic and
Antarctic; Earth and Moon system; Phases of moon; Solar and
lunar eclipses; Condition necessary for occurrence of solar or lunar
eclipse; Umbra and Penumbra; Inferior and Superior planets.
 SOLAR SYSTEM
The solar system is also called Helio - centric system.
■ The sun
■ Planets
■ Planetary Satellites
■ Asteroids
■ Comets
■ Meteors
In mass the sun is more than 700 times larger than all the other
bodies in the solar system taken together.
■ Diameter of sun - 86500 miles (approx.)
■ Only body in solar system which radiates light.
■ Completes one rotation in own axis in 25 days.
The measurement of distances in the solar system: In astronomy,
distances are measured in light years. A light year is the distance
light travelled in one year at the rate of 299,792 km/s. In the solar
system, the average distance between the sun and the earth is taken
as one astronomical unit or AU. One AU is about 150 x 106 km or
150 million km.
The difference between planets and stars: Planets do not emit light
on their own they reflect the light of the sun. Stars do not belong to
the solar system. They emit light and are equal and to the sun of
other such systems hence stars twinkle whereas planets do not.
 PLANETS
As per the order of their distance from the sun:
⁕ Mercury ⁕ Saturn
⁕ Venus ⁕ Uranus
⁕ Earth ⁕ Neptune
⁕ Mars ⁕ Pluto
⁕ Jupiter
Large number of minor planets called asteroids are present
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
➢ Distance of Earth from sun – 93 x 106 miles.
➢ Diameter of Earth – 7927 miles.
➢ Period of rotation of Earth – 23 hrs. 56 mins.
➢ Period of revolution round the sun – 365.25 days.
Inferior and superior planets: planets closer to the sun than the earth
are called inferior planets. Those planets that are further to the sun
than the earth are called superior planets. Mercury and Venus are
inferior planets whereas all the others are superior planets.
Conjunction and Opposition: when two celestial bodies are in a line on
the same side as the earth, they are said to be in conjunction. When are
in a line but on opposite sides of the earth they are said to be in
opposition. Inferior planet can never be in opposition to the sun.
Inferior planets can only be in conjunction with the sun superior
planets can be in conjunction with or in opposition to the sun.
Elongation: elongation at any given time is the angle subtended at the
earth by a planet and the sun. For superior planets, it can be any value
from 0° to 180°. For inferior planets, its maximum value is limited. For
Venus the maximum value is only 47°. The only other inferior planet
is mercury which is not visible for navigation.
Conjunction and Opposition: When two celestial bodies are in a line on the same
side as the earth, they are said to be in conjunction (when in conjunction,
elongation is 0°). When, are in a line but on opposite sides of the earth, they are
said to be in opposition (elongation is 180° in opposition).
Inferior planet can never be in opposition to the sun. Inferior planets can only be
in conjunction with the sun superior planets can be in conjunction with or in
opposition to the sun.
An inferior conjunction occurs when the planet (possible only for mercury and
Venus) lies between the earth and the sun.
A superior conjunction occurs when the planet lies on the opposite side of the sun
to the earth.
Opposition when planet & earth are in the opposite direction, it is said to be in
opposition. In other words an elongation of 180° (colinear with the earth and the
sun). At opposition, a planet lies on the observers Meridian at apparent
midnight. Inferior planets can never be at opposition.
You are on the Earth E
A: is an inferior planet in conjunction with SUN
B: is an inferior planet in conjunction with SUN
It is obvious that inferior planets can never be in Opposite to SUN
C: is a Superior planet in Conjunction with SUN
D: is a Superior planet in opposition to SUN
Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be described as follows:
The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the
center of the sun being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses) An
imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of the
planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The Law
of Equal Areas).
The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to
the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The
Law of Harmonies).
Kepler’s First Law: - sometimes referred to as the law of ellipses -
explains that planets are orbiting the sun in a path described as an
ellipse. Kepler's first law is rather simple - all planets orbit the sun in a
path that resembles an ellipse, with the sun being located at one of the
foci of that ellipse.
Kepler’s Second Law: - sometimes referred to as the law of equal areas
– describes the speed at which any given planet will move while
orbiting the sun. The speed at which any planet moves through space is
constantly changing. A planet moves fastest when it is closest to the sun
and slowest when it is furthest from the sun. Yet, if an imaginary line
were drawn from the center of the planet to the center of the sun, that
line would sweep out the same area in equal periods of time.
Kepler’s Second Law:
Area of the shaded segment ASB = the area of the shaded segment CSD,
Both covered by the planet in X days
Kepler’s Third Law: - sometimes referred to as the law of harmonies -
compares the orbital period and radius of orbit of a planet to those of
other planets. Unlike Kepler's first and second laws that describe the
motion characteristics of a single planet, the third law makes a
comparison between the motion characteristics of different planets.
The comparison being made is that the ratio of the squares of the
periods to the cubes of their average distances from the sun is the same
for every one of the planets.
T2 ÷ d3 is constant
Where T is the planet’s orbital period d is the mean distance from the sun.
The square of the orbital period of the planet in years divided by its average
distance from the Sun in AU is Constant.
Here one year is taken as 365.25 days. One day is taken as 24 hours.
PERIHELION
A planet is said to be in Aphelion, when in its orbit, it is farthest from
the sun. The closest point, known as perihelion, occurs round about
the 4th January each year, when the earth-sun distance is
approximately 91 million miles.
APHELION
A planet is said to be in Perihelion, when in its orbit, it is nearest to
the Sun. The furthest point, known as aphelion, occurs round about
the 4th July each year, when the earth-sun distance has increased to a
maximum of some 94.5 million miles.
Thumb Rule to Remember:
⁕ Perihelion is at Proxima or near ⁕ Aphelion is Away
PERIGEE
When the Sun in its apparent orbit or the moon in its orbit around the
Earth, is nearest to the Earth, they are said to be in Perigee.
APOGEE
When the Sun in its apparent orbit or the moon in its orbit around the
Earth, is farthest to the Earth, they are said to be in Apogee.

Note: We use the suffix ‘Helion’ (for the sun) as the distances were
expressed from the Sun. If the distances are expressed from the Earth,
we use the suffix ‘Gee’ (for geographic).
Thumb Rule to Remember:
⁕ Perihelion is at Proxima or near ⁕ Aphelion is Away
ELLIPSE: An Ellipse can be drawn by fixing 2 pins A&B
& a piece of string looped over the pins, with a pencil point
held in the loop, & tracing a figure on the paper by keeping
the string tight. The resulting figure is an Ellipse.
ELLIPSE (Contd.):
Each of the two points A&B is called a focus of the ellipse. An
ellipse has two foci. For any point P on the circumference of an
ellipse, the sum of the distances to the foci is constant.
The ratio of OB or OA is called Eccentricity of the ellipse.
OD OC
The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit is approx. 1 = 0.01667
60
Eccentricity means deviation from the normal. For a circle
eccentricity is zero.

Eccentricity is the distance between the foci divided by the length

of the major axis.
Orbits of the Earth and Moon
 DAY & NIGHT & SEASONS

TRUE MOTION: Like all other bodies, the earth rotates on its axis in
24 h & simultaneously it also has a motion on its orbit, which it
completes once in 365 ¼ days i.e. in one year. It keeps spinning
continuously in an anticlockwise direction as viewed directly on the
North Pole from outer space. In other words, the direction of rotation
of the Earth is from West to East. This is True Motion.
Day & Night :
The rotation of the earth about its axis once a day causes day and
night.
At any instant of time, the sun’s rays light up exactly half the Earth’s
surface. That half turned towards the Sun experiences the day, & that
half turned away from the Sun experiences Night. The total of the hrs.
of light & darkness together make up 24 hrs. of the day in which time
the Earth completes one rotation on its axis. The duration of day light
& darkness are unequal in most parts of the Earth.
 SEASONS
Due to revolution of the Earth round the Sun, the Sun appears to change
in declination & trace out a path on the Earth’s surface along the plane of
the ecliptic. When Sun is shining directly over Northern lats. i.e. when it
has northerly dec. the northern hemisphere experiences “Summer” &
southern hemisphere “Winter”. Six months later position is reversed. The
transition from summer to winter is called “Autumn” & winter to
summer is called “Spring”. The path of the Earth round the Sun is thus
divided into four quarters to indicate the respective seasons.
Earth has seasons because our planet’s axis of rotation is tilted at an angle
of 23.5 degrees relative to our orbital plane, that is, the plane of Earth’s
orbit around the sun. Our seasons change because Earth tilts on its axis,
and the angle of tilt causes the Northern and Southern Hemispheres to
trade places throughout the year in receiving the sun’s light and warmth
most directly.
 SEASONS
Earth has seasons because our planet’s axis of rotation is tilted at an
angle of 23.5 degrees relative to our orbital plane, that is, the plane of
Earth’s orbit around the sun.
Obliquity of the ecliptic
This inclination is due to the fact that the axis of rotation of the earth is
not perpendicular to its orbit. It is this inclination which causes the sun
to appear to move north and south during the year, giving the earth its
seasons and changing lengths of periods of daylight.
 SUMMER SOLSTICE
On June 21st when the Sun is shining directly over 23 ½° N latitude.
This latitude is called Tropic of Cancer. If on this day an observer
were to travel from the equator to the North Pole it will be observed
that as he increases in latitude, greater & greater arcs of N lats. are
turned towards the sun, & shorter & shorter arcs of corresponding
lats. are turned away from the sun, thus indicating the length of day
light hrs. are longer than night. The length of the day keeps increasing
till lat. 66 ½° N is reached. Any lat. Above this is tilted towards the
Sun, thus, experiencing daylight throughout 24hrs. & the Sun does not
rise or set.
SUMMER SOLSTICE(Contd.)
Reverse phenomenon takes place in South lats. On this day, If the
observer travels towards South Pole from Equator, he will observe
that greater & greater arcs of lats. Are turned away from the Sun as
he increases in lat. Till he reaches 66 ½° S, & beyond that entire lats.
are turned away from the Sun. In S lats. length of night is longer than
day & beyond 66 ½° S, it is night all 24hrs. Thus on June 21st the Sun
reaches its max Dec. & all Northern lats. will experience the longest
day & shortest night whereas, Southern lats. experience longest night
& shortest day. This phenomenon is termed SUMMER SOLSTICE.
NOTE:
Since half the Equator is turned towards the Sun, there is
always Equal length of Day & Night on all days at the Equator.
 AUTUMNAL EQUIINOX
The Earth moves in the orbit day after day. After 3 months it would
reach position B. Now the Sun will be shining directly at the Equator.
To an observer on the Earth it would appear as if the Sun has
gradually changed its position along the line EC to be at O on the
equator on this day. This occurs on 22nd Sept. & all places on the
Earth’s surface will have equal length of day & night. This day
is called the Autumnal Equinox. The term “Equinox” means equal
length of day & night.
 WINTER SOLSTICE 21st DEC
The Sun would be shining directly over 23 ½° S which is the Tropic of
Capricorn. This day a person travelling from equator to South Pole, as
he increases in lat. More & more arcs of lat. Will be turned towards
the Sun & shorter arcs will be turned away from Sun. Thus all places
in S lats. Experience longer days & shorter nights. The reverse will
occur in Northern hemisphere. This position of Earth is called the
“Winter Solstice” & occurs on 21st Dec, when longest day will be
experienced in Southern hemisphere.
Beyond 66 ½° S, the Sun will not set at all. It will remain above the
horizon all day. In the Northern hemisphere, beyond 66 ½° N, the Sun
will not rise at all & hence no daylight, all 24 hrs. will be night.

VERNAL EQUINOX
After a further lapse of 3 months on 21st Mar. when the Sun will again
shine directly on the Equator, thus producing equal length of day &
night in all latitudes. This day is called “Vernal Equinox”.
 EARTH – MOON SYSTEM
The moon is the natural satellite of earth. It has a diameter of about
2160miles i.e. slightly more than a quarter of the earth’s diameter.
The moon revolves about the Earth. The motion is direct i.e. in the
same direction as the earth revolves about the sun. Strictly, the earth &
moon revolve about each other around the common center of gravity of
the earth moon system. This point is known as “Barycenter” & lies about
a 1000 miles within earth. The orbit of the moon around earth is elliptical
with the earth at one of the foci of the ellipse. At apogee moon is about
253000 miles & at perigee 221000 miles. average 240000 miles. because
the moon rotates on its axis with the same period with which it revolves
around the earth, the same side of the moon is always turned toward the
earth. It revolves around the earth once in about 27.3 days, as measured
with respect to the stars. This is called the sidereal month.
 DIFFERENT PHASES OF MOON & HOW IT IS CAUSED
During the time of orbiting the earth, the Moon goes through different
phases because of the angle it makes with the Sun when as viewed from
Earth. Side of the Moon which is lit by the Sun is always the side that is
pointed towards the Sun.
On a New Moon day the Sun, Earth & Moon is in a line conjunction and
the Moon conies between the Earth & Sun. Hence on that day, an
observer on Earth can see only that side of the Moon which is not being lit
by the Sun and so no Moon is visible. At new moon, the Sun & Moon rise
& set at approx. the same time & they culminate at 1200 hrs. LAT. Its
elongation is 0°. After this day as the Moon starts moving eastward away
from the Sun in the sky, we will start seeing a bit more of the sunlit side of
the Moon during each night. This phase is called ‘Waxing’ of Moon.
During the waxing period, the western portion of the Moon’s disc will be
seen by an observer on Earth. This will continue this way till about 14.75
days after new moon we are able to see the complete sunlit face of the
Moon during the next ‘Full Moon day’ when again the Sun, Earth &
Moon comes in a line & Earth comes between the Sun & Moon. As the
Sun & Moon are in opposition at Full Moon, the Moon would rise at
about Sunset, culminate at 0000 hours LAT & set at about sunrise. At full
moon the Moon’s elongation is 180°.The waxing phase of Moon is sub
divided into ‘crescent’ phase when we can see a crescent shaped Moon in
the evening sky (less than half of Moon’s disc is illuminated), ‘First
Quarter Moon’, about 7 ½ days from new moon (elongation is 90°) when
half of the Moon’s disc is seen illuminated during its Quadrature position
& ‘Gibbous’ phase when more than half of its disc is illuminated.
During the second half of the lunar month, the illuminated portion of
Moon grows progressively thinner by each night. We call this as
‘Waning’ of moon. During the ‘Waning of Moon’, the eastern portion
of the Moon’s disc will be seen by an observer on Earth. During this
period, the reverse order of Waxing of Moon takes place, i.e. ‘Gibbous’
phase when more than half of the disc of Moon is illuminated followed
by ‘Third Quarter Moon’ when half of the Moon’s disc is illuminated
in its ‘Quadrature’ position & ‘Crescent’ phase when we see a crescent
shaped moon in the morning sky.
From New Moon to Full Moon, since the visible area of the Moon is
illuminated surface is increasing, the moon is said to be waxing. It is
the western portion of the Moon’s disc that is visible then.
From Full Moon to New Moon, the visible area of the illuminated
surface of the moon decreases, the Moon is then said to be waning.
During this period, it is the eastern portion of the Moon’s disc that is
visible.
The average duration of this cycle from new moon to full moon and
back to new moon is 29 ½ days. (Also called Synodic period of the
Moon, orL unation or Synodic Month about 29 days 12 hrs. 44 min).
Age of the Moon: is the period of time elapsed, since last New Moon.
Sidereal period of the Moon: is the period of time taken by the moon
to complete one revolution of 360° around the earth. The sidereal
period is of constant duration, equals to 27 days seven hours 43
minutes and 12 seconds.
Nodes: The point at which moon’s orbit intersects the ecliptic are
called the moons nodes. That node at which the moon crosses the
ecliptic from south to north is called ascending node and the node at
which it crosses the ecliptic from north to south is called the
descending node.
Liberation of the Moon: Since the Moon’s rotational period is equal to
its sidereal period, the same area of the moon’s surface is always turned
towards the earth. Therefore, it would appear that same 50% of the
moon’s surface would be always visible from the earth. The Moon’s
orbit is elliptical rather than circular, so it speeds up near perigee
(closest to Earth) and slows down near apogee (farthest from Earth) in
accordance with Kepler’s laws. The Moon’s speed of rotation about its
axis remains essentially constant from month to month because of the
conservation of angular momentum. Because of these & other factors,
the Moon appears to ‘nod’ from side to side and up and down during a
lunar month, and it is possible to observe about 59% of the Moon’s
surface over a period of time, although we can only see 50% at any one
instant. The term given to this ‘nodding’ is “Liberation”.
 DAILY RETARDATION OF THE MOON
At new moon, when the Sun & Moon are in conjunction, they would
culminate at the same time during the course of one day, the moon
would have moved eastwards by 360°/29½ i.e. about 12.2° in its orbit
around Earth, w.r.t. Sun. Exactly one day after New Moon, when
earth has completed one rotation of 360° w.r.t. Sun, the Sun once
culminates. But for the moon to culminate again, the earth would have
to rotate further 12.2°.
Thus moon culminates about 50 min later each day If dec of moon
remained unchanged, it would also rise & set approx. 50 min later
each day. The average length of ‘lunar day’ is 24 hours and 50 min of
Mean Solar Time.
SOLAR ECLIPSE
ANNULAR ECLIPSE OF THE SUN
 SOLAR ECLIPSE
When the moon is in conjunction with the Sun and the Centre of the
three bodies are nearly in a line, the moon appears directly over the
Sun as viewed from the Earth, blocking off the Sun’s disc, wholly or
partly. Such an Occurrence is called a ‘Solar Eclipse’.
For a total Solar Eclipse to occur, the moon must be in conjunction
with the Sun. For the shadow of the moon to fall on the Earth, the
SHAs or GHAs of the Sun and Moon shall be equal and the
declination should also be equal and of the same name.Moon should
be on or near the ecliptic.
 SOLAR ECLIPSE(Contd.)
A Solar Eclipse can therefore take place only on a New Moon Day.
However it is not necessary that it must take place on each New Moon
Day. This is so because, though the condition regarding their SHA or
GHA is fulfilled on each New Moon Day, the condition regarding their
Declination may not be satisfied simultaneously, because the orbit of
Moon is inclined at 5 ¼° to that of the Earth. A solar Eclipse will take
place, only if the Moon is on or near the Ecliptic, i.e. at or near its
nodes on the Day of New Moon.
 SOLAR ECLIPSE (Contd.)
Conditions necessary for a solar eclipse to occur.
1. New Moon – It must be at new moon. The moon comes between
the sun and the earth only at new moon.
2. Conjunction – This means that the declination of the sun and
moon must have same name and value. Their GHAs must be
equal which also means elongation of the moon must be 0°.
3. Day Time – It must be daytime. The sun can get eclipsed only
when it is visible.
 SOLAR ECLIPSE (Contd.)
There are three types of solar eclipse:
Total,
Partial,
Annular
Total eclipse occurs when the Umbra covers the entire face of the
Sun. When the moon covers some part of the Sun, it is called a partial
eclipse and when a narrow ring of the Sun is seen it is termed as
annular eclipse
Umbra: is the part of the Moon’s shadow in total darkness.
Observers in the umbra of the shadow will see a total eclipse. The
umbra is about 100 - 160 km wide.
Penumbra: is the part of the Moon’s shadow in partial darkness.
Observers in the penumbra of the shadow will see a partial eclipse.
The penumbral diameter is about 6400 km.
Annular Eclipse: occurs when the Moon is at apogee when the Sun
& Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the apparent size of
the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a
very bright ring(Annulus).
Partial Eclipse: occurs when the Sun & the Moon are not exactly in
line with the Earth & the Moon only partially obscures the Sun.
Total Eclipse: occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon
completely obscures the Sun.
An annular eclipse occurs when the apparent size of the Moon is
smaller than that of the Sun, and the Moon does not fully block the
Sun from our view. This occurs because the Moon’s orbit is elliptical,
and so the Moon's distance from the Earth varies.
When the Moon is farther away from the Earth, it appears to be
smaller. Therefore, there are times when the Moon appears to be
smaller than the Sun. If an eclipse occurs at this time, an annular
eclipse results. Annular eclipses look like a "bull's eye".
 LUNAR ECLIPSE
The Earth casts a shadow behind itself. The shadow consists of a
central cone shaped, tapering umbra, where no light from the Sun
reaches, surrounded by a widening penumbra region where some
sunlight does reach. The Moon is not self luminous & we see it only
because it reflects sunlight. A lunar eclipse therefore takes place when
the Moon passes through the Earth’s shadow. This can happen only
when the Moon is in opposition with the Sun.
 LUNAR ECLIPSE (Contd.)
Since the Moon must be in opposition with the Sun, for a lunar
eclipse to occur, it can take place only on a Full Moon day. As the
shadow of the Earth must fall on the moon for a lunar eclipse to
occur, the SHA or GHA of the sun & moon should differ by nearly
180°, & their declinations should be nearly equal but of opposite
names.
A lunar eclipse need not take place on all full moon days, because,
though the condition regarding their SHA or GHA is satisfied on
each full moon day, the condition regarding their decs, may not be
simultaneously satisfied, as the moon’s orbit is inclined to plane of
ecliptic.
 LUNAR ECLIPSE (Contd.)
Conditions necessary for a lunar eclipse to occur.
1. New Moon – It must be at full moon. Earth comes between the sun
and the moon only at full moon.
2. Opposition – This means that the declinations of the sun and
moon must have same value but opposite names. Their GHAs
must be 180° apart which also means that elongation of the moon
must be 180°.
3. Night Time – Since the moon must be in opposition to the sun, it
must happen at night time.
 LUNAR ECLIPSE (Contd.)
A Lunar eclipse will take place only if the moon is on or near the
ecliptic i.e. at or near its nodes on full moon day.

The maximum number of eclipses that can take place in a year is 7, of

which 4 or 5 must be solar. The minimum number of eclipses that
must occur each year is 2, both of which must be solar.
Lunar eclipse occurs whenever the Moon passes through some
portion of the Earth's shadow. This can occur only when the Sun,
Earth, and Moon are aligned exactly, or very closely so, with the
Earth in the middle. Hence, there is always a full moon the night of a
lunar eclipse. The type and length of an eclipse depend upon the
Moon's location relative to its orbital nodes. The shadow of the Earth
can be divided into two distinctive parts: the umbra and penumbra.
Within the umbra, there is no direct solar radiation. However, as a
result of the Sun's large angular size, solar illumination is only
partially blocked in the outer portion of the Earth's shadow, which is
given the name penumbra.
A penumbral eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the
Earth's penumbra. The penumbra does not cause any noticeable
darkening of the Moon's surface, though it turns a little yellow.
During total penumbral eclipse, the Moon lies exclusively within the
Earth's penumbra (M1). Total penumbral eclipses are rare, and
when these occur, that portion of the Moon which is closest to the
umbra appears darker than the rest of the Moon.
A partial lunar eclipse (M3) occurs when only a portion of the Moon
enters the umbra. The part of the moon within the umbra becomes
invisible while the part within the penumbra will be visible with very
diminished brilliance. When the Moon travels completely into the
Earth’s umbra, one observes a total lunar eclipse (M2). The Moon
does not completely disappear as it passes through the umbra because
of the refraction of sunlight by the Earth's atmosphere into the
shadow cone; if the Earth had no atmosphere, the Moon would be
completely dark during an eclipse.
INFERIOR PLANETS
The two planets Mercury and Venus which are closer to
the sun than the Earth are called Inferior planets.

SUPERIOR PLANETS
The six planets which are further away from the Sun
than the Earth are called Superior planets viz. Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune & Pluto.
 UNIT 3.
Hour Angle and Time 12 hrs
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA); Local Hour Angle (LHA);
Sidereal hour angle (SHA); Declination of bodies; ‘d’ correction
and ‘v’ correction ; polar distance and Right Ascension (RA);
Position of a heavenly body on celestial sphere by its declination
and GHA, or by its altitude and azimuth,

Time and hour angle; Greenwich time, Local time, Zone time
and Standard time; GMT, LMT and relationship between
longitude and time; Calculation based on above.
CELESTIAL MERIDIANS: Celestial Meridians
are Great Circles that pass through the Celestial
poles. They cross the equinoctial and all Declination
Circles at right angles.
DECLINATION: Declination of the Celestial body is
the arc of a celestial meridian, or the angle at the centre
of the Celestial Sphere, measured between the
equinoctial and the Declination Circle passing through
that body. It has a value between 0° and 90° North or
South.
GHA: Greenwich Hour Angle or GHA of a Celestial body is the
arc of the equinoctial, or the angle at the Celestial Pole, measured
Westerly from the Celestial Meridian of Greenwich to the Celestial
Meridian passing through that body. GHA is expressed in degrees
and minutes from 0° to 360°. GHA would be 0° when the body is
on the Greenwich Meridian, increase steadily until it is 360° (i.e.
0°) when it would again be on the Greenwich Meridian.
POSITION OF A CELESTIAL BODY: At any instant, the
Position of a Celestial Body is indicated by its Declination and
GHA at that instant.
LHA: Local Hour Angle or LHA of a Celestial Body is the arc of the
Equinoctial or the angle at the celestial pole measured westerly from
the observer’s celestial meridian to the Celestial Meridian passing
through that body. LHA would be 0° when the body is on the
observers Meridian and steadily increase until it is 360° (i.e. 0°)
when it would again be on the Observer’s Meridian. At any instant
for any Celestial Body:
LIJA = GHA ± Longitude of Observer
LHA = GHA + Longitude of Observer in East Longitude
LHA = GHA - Longitude of Observer in West Longitude
When the GHA of a body is greater than the LHA, the longitude is
West.
GHA best longitude West GHA Least longitude East
LHA: Local Hour Angle or LHA of a Celestial Body is the arc of
the Equinoctial or the angle at the celestial pole measured
westerly from the observer’s celestial meridian to the Celestial
Meridian passing through that body. LHA would be 0° when the
body is on the observers Meridian and steadily increase until it is
360° (i.e. 0°) when it would again be on the Observer’s Meridian.
At any instant for any Celestial Body:
LHA =* GHA ± Longitude of Observer
SHA(Sidereal Hour Angle): Stars are so far away
from the Earth that they are for all practical
purposes, fixed objects in space.
SHA is the arc of the equinoctial, or the
angle at the celestial pole, measured Westerly from
the First Point of Aries to the Celestial Meridian
passing through the star.
SHA and Declination are tabulated in the
Almanac, once every three days, for each star. The
GHA of Aries is tabulated, for each day, for every
day, for every hour of GMT.
GHA* = GHAγ + SHA*
True Altitude: of a body is the arc of the vertical
circle through that body contained between the
Rational Horizon & the center of the body.
Zenith Distance: of a body is the arc of the vertical
circle through the body contained between the
observer’s zenith & the center of the body.
Since every point on the Rational Horizon is
90° from the observer’s zenith.
Zenith Distance = 90° - True Altitude
The coordinates of the position of a celestial body,
defined using the horizon system, would vary
depending on the observer’s position on the Earth,
because its altitude & azimuth at any instant would
have different values when measured from
different positions on the Earth. The nautical
almanac therefore lists the position of celestial
bodies using the Equinoctial system by tabulating
the Declination & GHA or SHA of the celestial
bodies.
In celestial navigation, finding the observer’s posn
is prime objective, the problem is solved by
correlating coordinates of a body in Equinoctial
system, with those in Horizon system.
Right Ascension RA: It is the angle at the Celestial
pole or arc of equinoctial contained between
celestial meridian passing through the body & the
celestial meridian passing through the First point
of Aries measured Eastward from Aries. RA of all
bodies is expressed as an hour angle in hours,
minutes & seconds.
EHA*: Easterly Hour Angle or EHA is the angle at
the celestial pole or arc of equinoctial contained
between celestial meridian passing through the
observer and the celestial meridian passing through
the star measured Eastwards.
SHA* + RA* = 360°
LHA* + EHA* = 360°
 Geographical Position of Celestial Bodies
The line joining a celestial body & the centre of the Earth would cut the
Earth’s surface at a point called the Geographical Position or GP of that body
at that instant. The GP being on the Earth’s surface, is always expressed in
terms of latitude & longitude. The value of declination is the latitude of the GP
& the value of GHA, converted to longitude would be the longitude of the GP.
Latitude of GP = Declination of the body

If GHA* < 180° Long of GP = GHA* & is named W°

If GHA* > 180° Long of GP = 360 - GHA* & is named E °
 Geographical Position of Celestial Bodies
The geographical position of a celestial body can be expressed in three
different ways:
1.By its Declination, corresponding to lat. on the earth and its Green Hour
Angle(GHA) at that instant of time.
2.By its bearing (azimuth) and zenith distance with reference to the
observer.
3.By its bearing (azimuth) with reference to observer and altitude of the body
above the horizon.
“V” Correction: A number given in the Nautical Almanac that is used to
correct the Greenwich hour angles (GHAs) of the moon and planets. This
correction is not needed for the sun and stars because they circle the earth at
precisely constant rates according to GMT. The stars do this because they are
stationary and the earth rotates at a constant rate (15° 02.5' of longitude per hour).
The sun also does so (at a slightly different constant rate, 15° of longitude per hour,
exactly) despite its annual motion through the stars as we circle it, because GMT is
defined in such a way as to make this happen. But because of the orbital motions of
the moon and planets, their GHAs do not circle the earth at constant rates, but
rather vary slightly throughout the month for the moon and throughout the year for
the planets. The Nautical Almanac accounts for this variation by assigning each a
constant average value (15° 00.0’ per hour for the planets and 14° 19.0’ per hour for
the moon), and then lists the excess of this rate at a particular time as the v-value.
The v-corrections are positive in all cases except occasionally for Venus, in which
case it is clearly marked in the Nautical Almanac.
 “d” Correction
”d” is an extra correction for additional declination movement of
the body. The "d" correction can be either positive or negative
depending on the trend of the declination. Look at the declination
column of the body in question at the time in question and see if it
is increasing or decreasing. This will establish the sign, increasing
being positive, decreasing being negative.
You are given GHA = 258° 27.2’ and longitude = 124° 18’ East, calculate the
LHA.

GHA 258° 27.2’

Long 124° 18.0’ E
⸫ LHA = 382° 45.2’
If the total LHA is more than 360° then subtract 360° to obtain the correct
LHA.
LHA = 22°45.2’
You are given LHA = 054° 52.1’ and longitude = 136° 51’E. Calculate the
GHA.
LHA 054° 52.1’ + 360° = 414° 52.1’
Long 136° 51’ E
GHA = 414°52.1’ - 136° 51’ = 278° 01.1’
⸫ GHA = 278° 01.1’

Apply thumb rule long East GHA least and calculate the GHA. Since as per
thumb rule we have to subtract long from LHA to get GHA. If this is not
possible then add 360° to LHA and then subtract.
You are given GHA = 049° 43.9’ and LHA = 312° 12.3’. Calculate the
longitude.
GHA = 049° 43.9’
LHA = 312° 12.3’
Long = 262° 28.4’E Longitude cannot be more than 180°
Longitude = 097° 31.6’W (360° - 262° 28.4’)
Apply the thumb rule, longitude East GHA least, long West GHA best and
name the longitude. In this case GHA is least. Hence long is East. If the long so
obtained exceeds 180°, subtract it from 360° and change its name.
As GHA is less than LHA Long will be East & we know that
GHA + Long E = LHA A Long = GHA - LHA
Calculate the LHA of a CB whose GHA is 70°, for an observer in longitude
147° East.

Longitude East GHA least

LHA* = GHA* + Long E
= 70° +147°
= 217°
LHA* = 217°
Calculate the GHA of Sun which is on the meridian for an observer in
longitude 97° W.

When meridian of the observer is also the celestial meridian of the body then
LHA = 000°
Longitude is West GHA is Best
LHA* = GHA* - Long W
000° = GHA* - 97°
GHA* = 000° + 97°
⸫ GHA* = 97°
HOME WORK - Exercise 24
Calculate the LHA of a star whose RA is 70°, for an observer in longitude 47°E,
when GHAγ is 210°.

RA* = 70° SHA* = 360 – RA

SHA* = 360 – 70 = 290°
GHA* = GHAγ + SHA*
= 210° + 290° = 500°- 360° = 140°
LHA* = GHA* + Long E
LHA* = 140° + 47° = 187° (Ans)
To an observer the Sun’s LHA was 290°, when its GHA was 40°. Find the
observer’s longitude.

LHA Sun = 290°

GHA Sun = 40°
LHA - GHA = 250°
Longitude = 360° - 250° = 110° W
Calculate the LHA of a star whose SHA is 258° 44.1’, for an observer in
longitude 127° E, when GHAγ is 129°.

GHAγ = 129°
SHA* =258° 44.1’
Long = 127° E
LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* + Long E
= 129° + 258° 44.1’ + 127° E ’(If more than 360° subtract 360°)
LHA* = 154° 44.1’
On a certain day in longitude 35° W, when the Moon’s LHA was 335° when
GHAγ was 263°. Find the SHA of the Moon.
LHA Moon = 335°
Long = 35° W
GHA = LHA + Long W
GHA Moon = 370° (10°)
GHAγ = 263°
GHA = GHAγ + SHA
SHA Moon = 10° - 263° = 107°
On a certain day in longitude 165° 23’ W, star Capella (RA 79° 6.4’) was on
observer’s meridian. Find GHAγ.
When star is on the observer’s meridian LHA* = 0°
RA* = 79° 6.4’ SHA* = 360° - RA* = 280° 53.6’
Long = 165° 23’W
GHAγ = ????
We know, LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* - Long W
0° = GHAγ + 280° 53.6’ + 165° 23’
GHAγ = 0° - 280° 53.6’ + 165° 23’
= -115° 30.6’ (if -ve add 360°)
GHAγ = 244°29.4’
To an observer the Sun’s LHA was 342°, when its GHA was 35°. Find the Long
of the observer.

LHA = GHA + Long East

342° = 35° + Long E
Long E = 342° - 35° = 307° E (subtract it from 360°)
⸫ Long E = 53° W
For an observer in DR 20° 12’ S 164° 44’ E, the EHA of moon was 71°. Find
GHA of the Moon.

LHA + EHA = 360°

LHA = 360° - 71°
LHA = 289°
LHA = GHA + Long E
GHA = LHA – Long E = 289° 00’ - 164° 44’
GHA = 124°16’
On 03 March 2008 GMT 08h 38m 19s ship in DR 15°42’S 162° 23’W, Find
LHAγ and LHA of the star Gacrux.

GHAγ 0800 GMT = 297° 01’ 281° 28.2’

Increment 38m 19s = 9° 36’ 9° 36.3’
Correct GHAγ = 306° 37.7’ 291° 04.5’
Given Long W = 162° 236’ 162° 23.0’
LHAγ = 144° 14.7’ 128° 41.5’
SHA* = 172° 05.2’ (From Almanac)
LHA* = GHAγ + SHA* – Long W
= 306° 37.7’ + 172° 05.2’ – 162° 23’
= 316° 19.9’
= 281° 28.2’ + 172° 05.2’ – 162° 23.0’
= 300° 46.7’
State the GP of the Moon, when its GHA = 242° and dec = 22°S

GHA = 242°
Dec = 22° S
Latitude of CB (Moon) = Dec = 22°S
Longitude of CB (Moon) = GHA = 242°
But GHA >180°
1. Longitude is East and
2. Long = 360° - GHA
= 360° - 242°
Long = 118° E
GP of Moon is Lat 22°S Long 118° E
The planet Venus was on the meridian of an observer in longitude 62°E. If
the RA of Venus at that instant was 87°, find the GHA of a star, the SHA of
which then was 162°.

RA Venus = 87°, Observer’s Long = 62° E, SHA★ = 162°

Venus and star both on observer’s meridian same time.
To find GHA*
RA + SHA = 360°
SHA = 360° - 87° = 273°
LHA = GHAγ + SHA + Long E
0° = GHAγ + 273° + 62°
GHAγ = 0° - 335° = 25°
Now, GHA★ = GHAγ + SHA*
GHA* = 25° + 162° = 187°
What is the GP of the first point of Aries, when LHAγ was 112° for an observer
in longitude 20°E ?

GP of a CB is expressed in Lat & Long as it is on the Earth

So Lat = Declination & Long = GHA
Declination of First point of Aries = 0° (as it is always on the
equinoctial as per definition, also ecliptic points)
⸫ Lat of γ = 0°
For finding GHA we know, LHA = GHA + Long E
⸫ GHA = 112° – 20° = 92° W
GP of γ = Lat 0° Long 92°
 Hour Angles & Time
Time is determined by the hour angle of the Sun. The angle is
measured in hours, minutes and seconds just in same way as
right ascension. Hour angle is defined as the angle at the
celestial pole or or the arc of the equinoctial contained
between meridian passing through the Sun/Any celestial
body and the observer’s meridian measured in the westerly
direction. As the Earth rotates this angle increases by 15
degrees every hour. The Hour Angle ranges from 0 to 24
hours. EXAMPLE: 10 am local time has the sun 2 hours east
of your local meridian. This is 22 hours west of that
meridian hence the Hour Angle is 22 hours.
 Change of hour angle due to change of time
In the Geo - centric system, the earth does not rotate on its axis and or move
along its orbit. Hence all celestial bodies appear to move on the celestial sphere
and the celestial meridian of Greenwich is fixed in space.

Between consecutive meridian passages:

√ the sun and planets take 24 hours.
√ Stars take about four minutes of time less than 24 hours.
√ The moon takes about 40 to 50 minutes of time more than 24 hours.

The earth rotates on its axis from west to east that is counter clockwise as
viewed from above the north pole, at the rate of 15° 2.46’ per hour that is
completing one rotation in 23 h 56 m 4.1 seconds, that is east to west
completing an apparent rotation of 360° in 24 hours. Due to rotation of the
earth. The GHAs of all celestial bodies increases by 15° 2.46’ per hour due to
rotation of the earth.
 Earth rotates on its imaginary axis, which is inclined at an angle of
23½° to the equinoctial plane (or 66½°) with the orbital/ecliptic
plane, from West to East. It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete
on rotation. Days and nights occur due to rotation of the Earth. The
movement of the earth around the Sun is an elliptical orbit called
revolution. Revolution produces seasons on the Earth. The Earth
revolves from West to East (anti clockwise) direction. The Earth
completes one revolution around the Sun in one tropical year, or in
365.242 days. For the sake of convenience, only 365 days are
counted in a year. After every four years, the remaining ¼ day adds
up to about one full day. This additional day is added to the month
of February. So every four years, February will have 29 days
instead of 28 days and such a year is called a leap year.
TIME: There are several types of time to be discussed.

Standard Time = Hour Angle of the Sun at the STANDARD

MERIDIAN for the local TIME ZONE. Each Time Zone is about 1
hour wide (15 degrees of longitude) and near the center of the zone
is the meridian of the zone. The longitude of this meridian is always
a multiple 15 degrees of longitude.

Local Time = Hour angle of the Sun as seen from your location

Universal Time (UT) = Hour angle of the Sun at zero of longitude

(Greenwich, UK)
UTC (Universal Time Coordinated): It is based on atomic time standards.
For example caesium atoms have a radioactive property by which they made
certain energy at fixed intervals of time and this property is used in atomic
clocks. UTC is the average of all atomic clocks operated all around the world.
International earth rotation services IERS Paris, coordinate these activities
and publishes corrections to the time systems operated in each country.
UT1: UT1 is the time defined by rotation of earth solar day. The difference
between UT1 and UTC is being monitored and measured and corrections are
published. There is a slowing down of rate of rotation of earth by about one
second in every 18 months. There are forces like TRS/cyclonic winds, tectonic
movements/tsunami etc which affect the rotation of earth. Sidereal time is
derived from UT1.
GMT: Greenwich Mean Time is the time maintained by the sun over prime
meridian it is made to coincide with UTC by suitable corrections. Universal
time is based on the rotation of the earth and so is the same everywhere on
earth.
 TIME
The Earth rotates from West to East due to which the Sun rises in
the East, transits(passes) observer’s meridian, sets in the West &
transits observer’s inferior meridian.
APPARENT SOLAR DAY: Apparent Solar Day is the interval in
time between two successive transits of the True Sun (the sun which
we observe), over the same meridian. True Sun cannot be used to
measure time as its apparent movement is non uniform, therefore
duration of such a day will vary.
MEAN SUN: Mean Sun is an imaginary body assumed to move
alone the plane of the equinoctial at the average velocity of the True
Sun taken over a year.
MEAN SOLAR DAY; Mean Solar Day is the interval in time
between two successive transits of the Mean Sun over the same
meridian. A civil day commences when the Mean Sun transits
observer’s inferior meridian and it ends when the Mean Sun is
again on the observer’s inferior meridian and is of constant
duration of 24 hours.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARC & TIME
When the Earth rotates on its axis once, one day has elapsed.
This means that:
ARC TIME
360° 24 hours
15° 1 hour
1° 4 min
1’ 4 sec
A table for converting arc to time & vice versa is given in the
Nautical Almanac.
GREENWICH MEAN TIME (GMT): It is the angle between the
inferior Greenwich Meridian and the Meridian passing through the
Mean Sun measured clockwise from the inferior Greenwich
Meridian.
LOCAL MEAN TIME (LMT): It is the angle between the inferior
observer’s meridian and the meridian passing through the Mean Sun
measured clockwise from the inferior observer’s meridian. LMT is the
time maintained by means Sun based on local/observers meridian. The
day starts from lower MP of mean
Sun. It is the westerly hour angle of mean Sun from observer’s inferior
meridian.
LONGITUDE IN TIME (LIT): It is the longitude of the observer
converted in time by dividing the longitude by 15° or found from arc to
time conversion table of the Nautical Almanac.
LMT = ∠L’PS = ∠G’PS + ∠L’PG’
LMT = GMT + LIT (E) ….. Longitude East GMT Least
LMT = ∠L’PS = ∠G’PS – ∠L’PG’
LMT = GMT – LIT (W) ….. Longitude West GMT Best
 Local time: is the time corresponding to the longitude of the observer.
As he changes longitude, his local time will change. This necessitates
adjusting the clocks each day at sea. Advancing the clocks as he
proceeds eastwards and retarding the clocks as he changes the
longitude westwards. It is customary at sea on merchant ships to set
the clocks to show correct LMT at noon of each day. This time we
called the ship’s time.
Standard Time is a time which is kept throughout a specified country,
based on the LMT of a specified standard Meridian suitable to that
country. This becomes necessary in order to have a uniform time
throughout that country or in certain areas of the country. Countries
which have a large East West stretch such as Russia, USA, Canada etc
have different such standard Time for different areas. The time
difference between the standard Time and GMT are tabulated in the
nautical almanac for all countries.
STANDARD TIME: A system of Standard Time has
been adopted by all countries of the world. The
continents of the Earth are divided into several
areas and each area keeps time, based on a meridian
which is somewhat central in that area. Each of
these areas is referred to as a ‘Time Zone’.
The meridians on which the Standard Times of
the various Time Zones are based are chosen so that
the times based on them would differ from GMT by
a convenient number of hours. For instance, Indian
Standard Time used throughout India is based on
82.5° East Meridian, which differs from Greenwich
Time by 5 ½ hours of time.
Generally an entire country has one standard time.
Certain countries with a large east-west extent, like
Russia, USA and Australia use different standard
times over different areas. The Standard Time kept
by the various countries are listed in the Nautical
Almanac and in the Admiralty List of Radio
Signals Vol. II.
ZONE TIME: Under the Zone Time system,
sometimes used by ships when at Sea, the Earth is
divided into 24 zones, each zone being 15° of
longitude in width. Ships in each of these zones,
keep time based on the central meridian through
that zone. Zone zero extends from 7 ½° E to 7 ½° W
longitude.
The central meridian of this zone being the
Greenwich Meridian, ships within this zone keep
GMT.
It should be noted that the zone time at
any position will always differ from GMT by a
full number of hours, because the central
meridians used for measurement of zone time in
the different zones always differs from Greenwich
Meridian by multiples of 15°. A ship crossing the
limiting longitude of a zone, would therefore
advance or retard her clocks by one hour, at that
instant.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LONGITUDE AND TIME

Greenwich Time (Best) Longitude West

Greenwich Time (Least) Longitude East
Conversely, Local Time(-)East LIT = Greenwich Time
Conversely, Local Time(+)West LIT = Greenwich Time
HOME WORK – Exercise 22 Page 66 of Practical
Navigation Text Book
 UNIT 4.
Altitude Corrections: 7 hrs

Visible, sensible and rational horizons; horizontal parallax;

Sextant altitude and corrections; Observed altitude, apparent
altitude and true altitude; Dip, refraction, semi-diameter and
parallax; Index error; Altitude correction tables; True zenith
distance; Calculation based on above.
 ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS
VISIBLE HORIZON: Visible horizon is a small circle on the
Earth’s Surface that binds the observer’s view. It is the boundary
of the Sea Horizon as seen by the observer
RATIONAL HORIZON: Rational Horizon is a great circle on the
celestial sphere, the pole of which is the Observer’s zenith or the
great circle every point on which is 90° from the observer’s zenith.
SENSIBLE HORIZON: Sensible Horizon is a small circle on the
celestial sphere whose plane is parallel to the Plane of rational
horizon and passes through the eye of the observer.
ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS
Outer Circle is the Celestial Sphere,
Inner circle is Earth,
SS = Sensible Horizon,
VV = Visible Horizon,
RH= Rational Horizon,
O = Observer,
Z = Zenith,
C = Centre of Earth/Celestial Sphere,
OE = HE(Height of Observer’s Eye
above sea surface),
X = Celestial Body(CB)
SEXTANT ALTITUDE: Sextant altitude is the altitude of a body, above the
visible horizon, as read off from the sextant.
OBSERVED ALTITUDE: Altitude of the body above the visible horizon is
called observed altitude. It is sextant Altitude corrected for Index Error(IE).
Note: If IE is ON the arc you SUBTRACT IE from Sextant Altitude to obtain
Observed Altitude. If IE is OFF the arc, then ADD IE to Sextant Altitude to
obtain Observed Altitude.
APPARENT ALTITUDE: It is the altitude of the body above the sensible
horizon and is obtained by applying dip correction to the observed altitude.
Note: Dip is always subtracted from Observed Altitude to obtain Apparent
altitude. Dip varies with HE & its value is given in Nautical Almanac &
Norris Tables.
TRUE ALTITUDE: True altitude of the body is arc of vertical circle passing
through the body contained between the observer’s rational horizon and the
body or it is the angle at the centre of the earth between the observer’s
rational horizon and the centre of the body.
DTP: Dip is the angle at the observer between plane of the observer’s
sensible horizon and direction to his visible horizon.
Note: Dip is always subtracted from Observed Altitude to obtain
Apparent altitude. Dip varies with HE & its value is given in Nautical
Almanac & Nories Table.
Higher the HE, the greater the value of DIP & Vice Versa
REFRACTION: Refraction is the deviation of light rays passing
from one medium to another. When passing from a rarer medium
into a denser medium, the ray bends towards the normal to the
surface of separation between the two media. The atmosphere of
the Earth is most dense at the Earth’s surface and becomes rarer
as the height above the surface increases. Refraction is max when
altitude is 0° (when CB is on SS) as the light rays pass obliquely
through the atmosphere. It is nil when the altitude is 90° (CB is
overhead at Zenith) as light rays pass through layers of the
atmosphere with angle of incidence = 0°.
⸫Refraction corrn. Varies as the cos of App Alt.
REFRACTION
SEMI-DIAMETER: Tabulated semi-diameter is the angle
subtended by the radius of the Sun or the Moon at the centre of
the Earth. Half the visible diameter of the Sun (or Moon),
expressed in minutes of arc, is called Semi- Diameter (SD). What
we require in Cel Nav is the altitude of the centre of the Sun (or
Moon). However, only the Upper end (called the Upper Limb or
UL) orlower end (called the Lower Limb or LL) is visible to us.
Hence we measure the Altitude up to the LL or UL & then apply a
correction called SD corn. & obtain the altitude of the centre of
the Sun(or Moon).
App Alt of Sun’s centre = App Alt of UL - SD of Sun
App Alt of Sun’s centre = App Alt of LL + SD of Sun
∠XEV = Obs. Alt
∠ZSEV = Dip
∠ZXES = App Alt
App. Alt = Obs. Alt – Dip
X is the CB
∠EXC = Parallax in altitude
∠XES = Apparent Alt
∠CH = True Alt
In triangle JEX, ∠SJX = ∠JEX + ∠EXJ
Exterior ∠ = Sum of Interior opposite angle
Or, ∠SJX = App Alt + parallax
But ∠SJX = ∠ XCH (corresponding angles)
Hence = True Alt
Hence True Alt = App Alt + Parallax in Alt
Parallax is max when App alt is 0°
(CB is on SS Horizon)
The value of parallax is then termed as
Horizontal Parallax(HP)
Parallax is Zero when
CB is overhead at Zenith.
⸫Parallax in Alt = HP x Cos App Altd
PARALLAX: Parallax is the angle at the centre of the body
between a line drawn to the observer & another to the center of
the Earth.
Horizontal Parallax (HP): is the angle subtended at the centre of
the body by the radius of the Earth, when the body is at sensible
horizon.
True Altitude = Apparent Altitude + Parallax
Hence Parallax is always added.
PARALLAX IN ALTITUDE: Horizontal parallax is the parallax
when the body is on the observer’s sensible horizon. Parallax in
altitude is the angle at the centre of the body between the centre of
the earth and the observer at the surface. The parallax like the
refraction is maximum when the altitude is zero and nil when, the
altitude is 90°.
Parallax in Altitude = Horizontal Parallax X Cos Apparent Altitude
a) DCXO is called as the Parallax in altitude.
b) Parallax increases with the nearness of the body to the earth.
In fig above the True altitude RCX = U STX (alternate angles)
But STX = SOX + TXO (ext angle of triangle XOT)
⸫ True altitude = altitude above the sensible horizon + Parallax in altitude.
This means that the parallax in altitude is always additive
 Corrections to Sextant Altitude of

Stars Planets Sun Moon

1. IE 1. IE 1. IE 1. IE

2. Dip NA 2. Dip NA 2. Dip NA 2. Dip NA

3. Refraction NT 3. Refraction NT 3. Refraction NT 3. Refraction NT

4. Corrn. For 4. SD NA 4. SD + Augmented

Parallax & Phase SD NA+NT
(Venus & Mars
Only) NT
5. Parallax In Alt. 5. Parallax In Alt.
NT NT
On 14th Oct 2008, Sextant altitude of Sun’s UL was observed to be
35°19.1’, I.E. = Nil; Height of Eye = 12.8 m. Calculate the true
altitude of Sun without using the ‘Total Correction Values’?
Sextant Altitude 35° 19.1’
I.E. NILL
Observed Altitude 35° 19.1’
Dip (H.E = 12.8m) - 6.3’
Apparent Altitude 35° 12.8’
Refraction - 1.4’
35° 11.4’
Semi-Dia. (U/L) - 16.1’
34° 55.3’
Parallax + 0.1’
True Altitude 34° 55.4’ (Ans)
On 16th March 2008,the sextant altitude of the sun lower limb was
56° 11.4’. If the index error of sextant was 2.8' off the arc and
the height of eye was 12m, find the true altitude.

Sextant Altitude = 56° 11.4’

Index error (off the arc) = + 2.8’
Observed altitude = 56° 14.2’
Dip (HE = 12m) = - 6.1’
Apparent altitude = 56° 8.1’
Total Corrections = + 15.6’
True altitudes = 56° 23.7’
On 14th SEP 2008, the sextant altitude of the sun upper limb was
70° 29.8’. If the IE was 3.2’ off the arc and HE was 14m, find true
altitude.

Sextant Altitude = 70° 29.8’

Index error (off the arc) = + 3.2’
Observed altitude = 70° 33.0’
Dip (HE = 14m) = - 6.6’
Apparent altitude = 70° 26.4’
Total Corrections = - 16.2’
True altitudes = 70° 10.2’
On 1st Dec 2008, the sextant meridian altitude of the star
PROCYON was 39°28.8’. If IE was 1.5’ off the arc and HE was
25m, find true altitude.

Sextant Altitude = 39° 28.8’

Index error (off the arc) = + 1.5’
Observed altitude = 39° 30.3’
Dip (HE = 14m) = - 8.8’
Apparent altitude = 39° 21.5’
Total Corrections = - 1.2’
True altitudes = 39° 20.3’
On 15th Dec 2008, the sextant altitude of VENUS was 19° 48.6’. If
IE was 2.1’ on the arc and HE was 19m, find true altitude.

Sextant Altitude = 19° 48.6’

Index error (on the arc) = - 2.1’
Observed altitude = 19° 46.5’
Dip (HE = 19m) = - 7.7’
Apparent altitude = 19° 38.8’
Total Corrections = - 2.7’
True altitudes = 19° 36.3’
On 29th NOV 2008, the sextant altitude of Moon LL was 68° 53.7’
at 29d 09h 23m 25s GMT. If HE was 14m and IE was 0.2’ off the
arc, find true altitude.

Sextant Altitude = 68° 53.7’

Index error (off the arc) = + 0.2’
Observed altitude = 68° 53.9’
Dip (HE = 14m) = - 6.6’
Apparent altitude = 68° 47.3’
1st Correction = + 31.2’
(HP = 53.9, SD = 14.7) = 69° 18.5’
2nd Correction = + 2.6’
True altitudes = 69° 21.1’
On 29th NOV 2008, the sextant altitude of Moon LL was 68° 53.7’
at 29d 09h 23m 25s GMT. If HE was 14m and IE was 0.2’ off the
arc, find true altitude.

Sextant Altitude = 52° 26.8’

Index error (off the arc) = + 0.6’
Observed altitude = 52° 27.4’
Dip (HE = 149) = - 7.7’
Apparent altitude = 52° 19.7’
1st Correction = + 45.2’
(HP = 54.7, SD = 15.0)
2nd Correction = + 2.6’
True altitudes = 53° 07.5’ + 30’
= 52° 37.5’
LTITUDE CORRECTIONS
Greenwich
INDEX ERROR
The Marine Sextant, even after adjustment, can contain small residual
errors. These errors are termed "on the arc" or "off the arc" and must be
applied to the "sextant altitude" to correct it to "observed altitude".
Index Error "on the arc" is subtracted from the sextant altitude to obtain
observed altitude.
Index Error "off the arc" is added to the sextant altitude to obtain observed
altitude.
Sextant Altitude + Index Error = Observed Altitude.
DIP (HEIGHT OF EYE)
The height of an observer above sea level will affect the observed altitude.
"Dip" is the angle between the Visible Horizon and the Sensible Horizon.
Dip is always negative.
Observed Altitude – Dip = Apparent Altitude.
LTITUDE CORRECTIONS
Greenwich

TOTAL CORRECTIONS
The Total Correction allows for: Refraction, Parallax and Semi-
Diameter, where applicable. SUN, Entered with: Date, Limb and
Apparent Altitude. PLANETS, Entered with Apparent Altitude.
N.B. Additional corrections for Venus and Mars. STARS, Entered
with Apparent Altitude.
Apparent Altitude - Total Correction = True Altitude.
TRUE ZENITH DISTANCE
90° - True Altitude = True Zenith Distance
 UNIT 5.
Daily Motion and Horizontal System of Coordinates: 5 hrs

True and apparent motion of bodies; ‘Zenith’ and ‘Nadir’,

‘vertical circle’ and ‘prime vertical circle’, ‘elevated pole’ and
‘depressed pole’, observer’s upper and lower celestial meridian.
 APPARENT MOTION OF THE SUN
The Earth orbits the Sun in eastward direction. Therefore, as
observed from the Earth, the Sun appears to move eastwards
on the celestial sphere, in the same plane as the Earth’s orbit.
In the diagram we see the apparent motion of the Sun along
the Ecliptic on the celestial sphere, due to Earth’s orbital
motion. The projection of the Sun on the Ecliptic from
successive positions of the Earth in its orbit, appears to
constantly move eastwards. The great circle on the celestial
sphere, along which the Sun appears to move, is called
ecliptic.
The Observer’s Zenith: It is the point on the celestial sphere
vertically above the observer i.e. the point at which a straight line
from the centre of the Earth through the observer meets celestial
sphere.

The Observer’s Nadir: It is the point on the celestial sphere

vertically opposite his Zenith.

Vertical Circles: are great circles on the celestial sphere passing

through the observer’s Zenith & Nadir.
RATIONAL HORIZON: Rational Horizon is a great circle on the
celestial sphere, the pole of which is the Observer’s Zenith or the
great circle, every point on which is 90° from the Observer’s
Zenith. The celestial horizon is always perpendicular to the
navigator.

PRIME VERTICAL CIRCLE: It is the vertical circle passing

through East West points of observer’s rational horizon. This great
circle is reference used for defining amplitude of abody.

PRINCIPAL VERTICAL CIRCLE: It is the vertical circle passing

through North South points of observer’s rational horizon. This
great circle is reference used for defining azimuth of a body.
 ELEVATED AND DEPRESSED POLE
In the rational horizon system the observer is always
perpendicular to the rational horizon and as the observer
moves North or South along the meridian the celestial sphere
visible to him changes. When the observer is at the Equator
his zenith is on the equinoctial and the North and South
celestial poles are on his rational horizon.
Observer at Equator
As the observer moves North from the Equator, the north
celestial poles get elevated above his rational horizon equal
to the Latitude and the South celestial pole gets depressed
below his rational horizon. In such condition the North
Celestial Pole (NCP) is referred to as the Elevated Pole and
the South Celestial Pole (SCP) as the Depressed Pole.
To prove: Elevation of the pole is equal to the Latitude of the observer.

In the above figure,

Arc NZ = 90° (Z is observer’s zenith and N is a part on his rational
horizon)
Arc NP + Arc PZ = 90° …1
Arc PQ = 90° (P is celestial pole and Q is a point on the equinoctial)
Arc PZ + Arc ZQ = 90° …2
Equating Eqn 1 & 2
Arc NP + Arc PZ = Arc PZ + Arc ZQ
Arc NP (Elevation of the celestial pole) = Arc ZQ (Latitude of the observer)
⸫ Elevation of the Celestial Pole = Latitude of Observer
Observer at North Latitude
Observer at North Latitude Observer at South Latitude

Similarly, when the observer moves South, the South Celestial Pole
gets elevated and North Celestial Pole is depressed below rational
horizon.
 UNIT 6.
Latitude by Meridian Altitude: 9 hrs

Relationship between the altitude of the elevated pole and the

latitude of the observer; Meridian zenith distance; Polar
distance of the body; Position line through an observer and a
position through which it passes; Time of the meridian passage
of Sun; Calculation of latitude by meridian altitude of Sun.
Definition of a position line / position circle.
Polar Distance: is the arc of a celestial meridian between the body
and the elevated pole.
PX is normally the polar Distance (PD).
 ALTITUDE CORRECTIONS
VISIBLE HORIZON: Visible horizon is a small circle on the
Earth’s Surface that binds the observer’s view. It is the boundary
of the Sea Horizon as seen by the observer
RATIONAL HORIZON: Rational Horizon is a great circle on the
celestial sphere, the pole of which is the Observer’s zenith or the
great circle every point on which is 90° from the observer’s zenith.
SENSIBLE HORIZON: Sensible Horizon is a small circle on the
celestial sphere whose plane is parallel to the Plane of rational
horizon and passes through the eye of the observer.
 PZX Triangle
The Celestial triangle PZX is a spherical triangle on the celestial
sphere. The vertices of the celestial triangle are the elevated pole
(P), observer’s Zenith (Z), the celestial body (X). The sides of the
triangle are great circle sides and so the triangle is a spherical
triangle PZX on the celestial sphere. Its sides are PZ (co-latitude,
90° - latitude), ZX (Zenith Distance, 90° - True Altitude), PX
(Polar distance, 90° ± declination). The angles of the celestial
triangle are P (Hour angle, Z (Azimuth angle), X (Parallatic angle)
Navigational Triangle
The so called ’’Navigational Triangle” is a spherical triangle
formed on the earth's surface by the North Pole (true North), the
observer’s Estimated Position and the Geographical Position of
the celestial body. These points are connected by Great Circles,
two of which are Meridians. One Meridian is the Longitude for the
EP and the other is the GHA of the Geographical Position.
There are six angles associated with any spherical triangle. In the
Navigational triangle, three of these angles are known, leaving
three unknown angles. We need to find two of them to determine
the Azimuth and the calculated Altitude.
The calculated Altitude is derived from the angle 90° - Alt. which
is shown in the drawing. When this angle is zero for example, the
celestial body will be directly overhead and the Altitude of the
celestial body will be 90° above the horizon.
Similarly, the Azimuth angle shown is the obverse of the included
angle in the triangle which is actually calculated. It is shown this
way because the Azimuth is defined as the bearing of the
Geographical Position as measured clockwise from true North. If
the GP and the EP were swapped over in this diagram, the
Azimuth would then be the included angle in the triangle.
Here, Dec. is the Declination of the celestial body, Lat. is the
Latitude of your estimated position and LHA is the Local Hour
Angle between the two positions. (Use the convention that
Declinations and Latitudes South of the equator are negative.)
The Azimuth derived using these formulae will always be an angle
less than 90°, convert the quadrantal bearing to true bearing
depending on the Azimuth Quadrant in which the observed
celestial body is located.
PZX Triangle
The Celestial triangle can also be shown on the plane of the observer’s
rational horizon
In Spherical triangle PZX
PZ = Co Lat. = 90° - Lat.
PX = 90° - Dec.
(when lat & dec of same name)
PX = 90° + Dec.
(lat and dec of opposite name)
ZX = Zenith dist = 90° -T. Alt
Z.P = EHA (when body East of meridian)
PZX Triangle
∠P = LHA (when body w of meridian QZ = Lat. of observer
∠Z = Azimuth angle MX = Dec. of the body
∠X = Parallactic angle AX = True Altitude
NP = Elevation of the pole = Lat. NESW = Observer’s RH
 MERIDIAN PASSAGE
Over the period of a day, a heavenly body will pass the observer’s
meridian. The meridian passage occurs when the body is on the
observer’s meridian. At meridian passage P, Z and X are in line on
the observer’s meridian.
If the body is on the observer’s upper meridian, it is called upper
transit or upper meridian passage. At this moment, the LHA of
the body is 0° and the bearing will be true north or south of the
observer.
 MERIDIAN PASSAGE
Meridian Passage occurs when the body is on the same meridian
as the observer.
1. The LHA will be 000° 00.0’
2. The body will be bearing 000° T or 180° T.
3. The body will be at its greatest altitude.
There are times that a body can be observed when it is on the
observer’s lower meridian. The only bodies that can be observed
at lower transit are the circumpolar bodies. For a body to be
circumpolar for the observer, the latitude and declination must be
of same names. Lower meridian passage is also termed lower
transit. At this moment, the LHA is 180° and the bearing is always
0° if observer is in the northern hemisphere and 180° if the
observer is in the southern hemisphere.
There are only four variations possible:
1. Latitude > Declination (both same names and upper meridian
passage) then
Latitude = Declination - True Altitude + 90°
2. Latitude < Declination (both same names and upper meridian
passage) then
Latitude = Declination + True Altitude - 90°
3. Latitude and Declination contrary names (upper meridian
passage) then
Latitude = 90° - True altitude – Declination
4. Regardless of the names and values of latitude and declination
(lower meridian passage) then
Latitude = 90° + True Altitude - Declination
1. Name True Alt same as Azimuth at Meridian passage N or S
2. Name MZD opposite to True Alt
3. If MZD & True Alt are Same name then ADD & retain name
If MZD & True Alt are Different name then SUBTRACT &
name the larger one.
4. If MZD & Dec are large then whether to ADD or subtract, you
can have an idea by knowing that the answer should be close to
DR lat.
5. If DR lat is not given, then Azimuth at Meridian passage will
be given.
Steps in Latitude by Meridian passage:
Step 1: Obtain the LMT of Merpass Sun for the given date from the Nautical Almanac.
Step 2: Convert DR long into Time (LIT).
Step 3: Determine GMT from LMT by adding LIT(W) or subtracting LIT(E).
Step 4: Obtain declination Sun for the GMT from nautical almanac. Apply d correction (using ’d’
from daily page down and increment table(for minutes) to get d correction. Note d correction is to
be added or subtracted depending upon whether dec is increasing or decreasing in the daily
pages).
Step 5: Using sextant altitude find True Altitude. (Applying IE, dip, and total correction.)
Step 6: Obtain MZD (90°00’ – True Altitude = MZD)
Step 7: Obtain Latitude( Apply dec to the MZD, using the rule ‘same name add, different names
subtract, & name the latitude so obtained according to the greater of the two.
The Position Line obtained will be East -West.
Lat – ZQ, QX – Dec, ZX – MZD
Lat > Dec Lat & Dec North

ZQ = QX + ZX
Lat = Dec + MZD
Lat – ZQ, QX – Dec, ZX – MZD
Lat < Dec Lat & Dec North

ZQ = QX – ZX
Lat = Dec – MZD
Lat – ZQ, QX – Dec, ZX – MZD
Lat S & Dec N

ZQ = ZX – QX
Lat = MZX – Dec
 UNIT 7

Nautical Almanac: 7 hrs

Information in Nautical Almanac and using it for celestial
observations; and related calculations;
 The Nautical Almanac
This is the essential yearly reference work for celestial navigation at sea
using a marine sextant. It is carried on every ship. It is also at the core of
celestial navigation training courses worldwide.
The Nautical Almanac contains tabulations of the Sun, Moon, navigational
planets and stars for use in the determination of position at sea from sextant
observations. In addition, it gives times of sunrise, sunset, twilights,
moonrise and moonset, phases of the Moon and eclipses of the Sun and
Moon for use in the planning of observations. All the necessary
interpolation and altitude correction tables are provided as well as pole star
tables and diagrams and notes for the identification of stars and planets.
Information on standard times for most countries around the world is
provided. A concise set of sight reduction tables and sight reduction form are
also included.
 The Nautical Almanac
The major portion of the Nautical Almanac is devoted to hourly tabulations
of Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and declination, to the nearest 0.1’ of arc.
On each set of facing pages, information is listed for three consecutive days.
On the left-hand page, successive columns list GHA of Aries ( ), and both
GHA and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, followed by the
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) and declination of 57 stars. The GHA and
declination of the Sun and Moon, and the horizontal parallax of the Moon,
are listed on the right-hand page.
Where applicable, the quantities v and d are given to assist in interpolation.
The quantity v is the difference between the actual change of GHA in 1 hour
and a constant value used in the interpolation tables, while d is the change in
declination in 1 hour. Both v and d are listed to the nearest 0.1’.
Inner Cover page: Altitude corrections
Refraction corrections for non standard temperatures & pressures.
List of contents.
Calendar for the year, notes & maps giving info on eclipses during
the year. Planet notes, Planet diagram for the year showing LMT
merpass of Sun & five planets(MVMJS). This diagram indicates the
period when each planet is too close to the Sun for observation &
when planets are visible. Also indicates whether they are available
for morning or evening sights also position of planets at twilight.
Ephemeris Tables
Explanation and examples. Standard Times. Star Chart
173 stars, magnitude, their constellation name(left page) and proper
name(right page) with SHA.
Polaris tables
Conversion of arc to time table.
Increment tables
Interpolation table Table I for interpolating LMT sunrise, sunset,
twilight, moonrise moon set & Moon’s merpass for the required lat.
Table II is for interpolating the times of the above for longitude. The
index to selected stars gives number, magnitude, SHA & declination
of the 57 selected stars, both in alphabetical & numerical order.
Altitude correction tables for Moon.
In the ephemeris tables, the white rectangular box indicates that the
Sun or Moon remains continuously above the horizon, the black box
indicates that they do not rise, & the strokes indicates that twilight
last all night.
 HOME WORK:
Exercise 25 Page 94 & Exercise 26 Page 98 of Practical
Navigation Text Book