1

LECTURE 1 - INTRO TO GEOLOGY - Volcanology - study of volcanoes

- Structural geology - study of geologic
Geology structures that we observe in the earth
- gē + -logia (rock beds, layers, etc)
- Geo + logos - Seismology - study of earth plates and
- Earth + study of/discourse seismic waves
- Study of the earth (and other - Environmental geology - study of
extraterrestrial bodies), its form and geology and its effects on our
composition, and the processes it has environment
undergone and is undergoing (Lutgens - Engineering geology - combination or
& Tarbuck, 2021) application of our engineering
knowledge to geologic landscape
Geology as a discipline - Mining geology - in mines (when we
● Issue of scale search for mineral oils
- Small vs. large scale - Petroleum geology
- Seen in zoomed-in and out - Geomorphology - study of formation of
maps (example: map of Batanes, the earth
and zoomed-in Namria map of - Planetary geology - we use our
Batanes) observations from the earth to describe
- Micro vs macro scale what we observe on the other planets
- Micro scale (photo of minerals 2. Historical Geology
and rocks less than 5mm) - The study of the origin and evolution of
- Macro scale (what is visible only the earth through time (processes)
to the eye); ridges are seen - Paleontology - study of fossils (which
- More macro scale (photo from is used to construct the history of the
google maps/google earth); earth)
ridges are seen - Statisgraphy - order of the layers of
- Local vs regional scale the earth (which one is new/old) as
- Local scale - photo of well as what happened
mountains - Geochronology - using chemicals or
- Regional scale - google earth minerals left in our old rocks to date
view of mountains beside the them (carbon dating, lead dating, etc)
dessert
● Complexity of replicating natural Early schools of thought
phenomena ● Catastrophism
- Baron Georges Cuvier, 16th century
Branches of Geology - Sudden, worldwide catastrophes are
1. Physical Geology the agents of change that alter the
- Examines the earth’s rocks and physical features of the Earth over
minerals and seeks to understand the time, and that the latter remains
processes that operate beneath or on unchanged in between these periods of
its surface upheavals
- Most branches fall under this category - Widely accepted by theologians in the
(what, and where) early 1800s due to its similarity with
- Mineralogy - identification of minerals biblical events
and common gemstones
- Petrology - study of rocks
 2

● Uniformitarianism
- James Hutton, 18th century (The Father
of Modern Geology)
- The earth is continuously modified by
geological processes that have always
operated throughout time (at different
rates)
- The physical, chemical, and biological
laws that operate today also operated
in the past
- “the present is the key to the past”
- Popularized by Charles Lyell’s
principles of geology
- Acceptance of this concept meant
accepting that the earth has been
around for a very long time
- Things that took a long time:
Continental Drift, India, Baguio,
Formation of Philippines

In summary…
- Geology is the study of the earth, its
form, and composition, and the
processes it has undergone and is
undergoing
- In studying Geology, it is important to
take into account the following:
relevance of time, issue of scale, and
the complexity of replicating natural
phenomena
- Geology has two main branches:
physical geology, which examines the
earth’s materials and the various
processes that occur beneath or on its
surface, and historical geology, which
studies the origin and evolution of the
earth throughout time
- Early schools of thought that shaped
geology as a discipline are
catastrophism and uniformitarianism.
Catastrophism is the notion that earth
processes are sudden and drastic,
while uniformitarianism is the notion
that earth processes are gradual and
repetitive or cyclical
 3
LECTURE 2 - THE UNIVERSE AND THE EARTH will become galaxies; smaller clumps
of gas collapse to form the first stars
TOPIC OUTLINE 7. As galaxies cluster together under
Formation of the Universe and the Earth gravity, the first stars die and spew
a. The Big Bang Theory heavy elements into space; those will
b. The Nebular Hypothesis eventually turn into new stars and
c. Formation of the Moon planets.
d. The Iron Catastrophe
e. Formation of the Atmosphere - Today, the diameter of the observable
—---------------------------------- universe is estimated to be 28 billion
Formation of the Universe and the earth parsecs (about 93 billion light-years).
The singularity This diameter is increasing at a rate of
- An infinitely small region of space with about 1.96 million km/s, which is about
zero volume and no dimensions 6.5 times faster than the speed of light
- Imagine if you can stuff the entire in empty space. The age of this huge
universe into a singularity universe is estimated as 13.73 billion
- This was the state of the universe years since the Big Bang, with an
before the big bang uncertainty of about 120 million years.
- It may be tempting to imagine it as a Evidence:
tiny ticking time bomb hanging around - The BBT was first proposed by Georges
in a dark void Lemaitre in the 1920s.
- But there was no “around” - not taken seriously until Cosmic
around it Microwave Background radiation (CMB)
- There was no “before” before it - Abundance of Hydrogen & Helium
- It simply “was” - Hubble’s Law → redshift
- Edwin Hubble observed a
I. THE BIG BANG THEORY “redshift” in 1929
1. The cosmos goes through a superfast - So if the universe is expanding,
“inflation,” expanding from the size of then it must’ve been smaller in
an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny the past
fraction of a second
2. Post-inflation, the universe is a II. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
seething hot soup of electrons, quarks Origin of solar system & galaxies
and other particles Proposed by Immanuel kant and Pierre Simon
3. A rapidly cooling cosmos permits de Laplace in the 18th century
quarks to clump into protons and 1. Rotating gas-dust cloud contract due
neutrons to gravity
4. Still too hot to form into atoms, a. Most of the mass became
charged electrons and protons prevent concentrated at the center (sun)
light from shining: the universe is a 2. Forms the sun
superhot fog 3. Remaining matter condensed to form
5. Electrons combine with protons and planets
neutrons to form atoms, mostly - (1) jovian
hydrogen, and helium. Light can finally - (2) terrestrial
shine.
6. Gravity makes hydrogen and helium gas Nucleosynthesis
coalesce to from the giant clouds that
 4
- Formation of new elements due to - 68% in mass
fusion in the sun & other stars 3. CRUST
- Inner or terrestrial planets - Thickness varies
- Nearest to the sun
- Rocky composition By Mechanical Property
- Largely silicate rocks and 1. LITHOSPHERE
metals - Crust + uppermost mantle
- Si, Fe, O 2. ASTHENOSPHERE
- Giant or Jovian Planets - Upper mantle
- Outer planets; far from sun 3. MESOSPHERE
- Lack solid surfaces - Lower mantle
- In gaseous or liquid form 4. OUTER CORE
- H, He, Ar, C, O, N 5. INNER CORE

VARIABILITY DUE TO
III. IRON CATASTROPHE - Temperature
- Liquid iron sank to the core - Pressure
- Lighter elements were displaced
- Causes of meltion (?) EVIDENCES
- Heat from collision - Seismic waves
- Heat from solar radiation - Xenoliths (alien rocks)
- Radioactive heart
- Increases in temperature EARTH’S SIZE
from contraction - Equilateral circumference = 40076 km
- Polar circumference = 40008
FORMATION OF THE MOON
- Collision with mars-sized planetisimal LARGE SCALE FEATURES
(ejected debris-moon) - Ocean Basins
- Mid ocean ridges
FORMATION OF ATMOSPHERE - Trenches
1. Primordial gases lost dues to solar - Abyssal plains
wind - Continent
2. Volcanic venting releases CO, CO2, - Plains
NH4, CH4, H2O - Mountains
3. Steady addition of gases from volcano
4. Cyanobacteria convert CO2 to O THEORIES OF ISOSTACY
1. Pratt’s Theory
LAYERS OF THE EARTH - Different crust densities
By Composition - Mountainous = denser
1. CORE 2. Airy’s Theory
- Iron-nickel - Same density for all
- 3500km radius - High elevation = deep root
- 16% in volume 3. Flexural Theory
- 31% in mass - Lithosphere is benching
2. MANTLE
- Iron-rich QUIZ 1 QUESTIONS
- 83% in volume
 5
1-2. What are the 2 main branches of 6-7. The earth’s layers can be identified based
Geology? on either two properties, what are these
- Physical Geology & Historical Geology properties?
3-4. What are the two early schools of - By composition & By Mechanical
thought? Property
- Catastrophism, Uniformitarianism 8-10. What are the theories of isostasy?
5. The event which led to the differentiation - Pratt’s Theory, Airy’s Theory. Flexural
of the Earth’s Surface. Theory
- Iron Catastrophe
- Similarities across continents
(i.e. Appalachian & Caledonian
LECTURE 3 - PLATE TECTONICS Mountains)
4. Paleoclimate
LAYERS OF THE EARTH - Coal seams in Northern
Lithosphere hemisphere with tropical trees
- Crust and uppermost mantle - Glacial evidence
- Rigid - glacial til & striations in
Asthenosphere Southern Africa, South
- Relatively weak; mostly mantle America, Australia & India

I. CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS Opposition:

- Alfred Wegener Mechanism for continent movement
- German meteorologist & geophysicist - Tides → not enough strength/force to
- Origin of the continents & oceans push that kind of land mass
- Pangaea (^200 MyA) - Can land mass as large as continents
Pangaea broke through an oceanic crust?
- “All land”
- 2 supercontinents: Laurasia & II. SEAFLOOR SPREADING
Gondwanaland - Harry Hess in early 1960s
- Laurasia - Extensive mapping of the ocean
- North America, Europe, Asia floor during WWII
- Gondwanaland - Submarine volcanoes:
- South America, Africa, India, mid-oceanic ridges (MOR)
Australia, Antarctica - Earth’s crust is moving away from MOR
Panthalasa - New material is being formed along
- “All sea” MOR
- Old materials sink (subduction!)
Evidence:
1. Continental jigsaw puzzle fit III. ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE FOR PLATE
- Africa & South America fits if MOTION
Atlantic ocean is closed 1. Paleomagnetism & Polar Wandering
2. Fossil match across continents - Curie point temperature at
- Fossils of animals & plants that which a mineral’s magnetic
could not have traveled through properties change
oceans (i.e. Mesosaurus, - Small magnetic minerals point to
Glossopteris, and Lystrosaurus) the magnetic north during their
3. Rock type & geologic features birth (Paleomagnetism)
 6
- Apparent polar wandering - Move apart creating new oceanic
2. Magnetic Reversals crust as seafloor
3. Magnetic Strips on the ocean floor - Spreading centers: oceanic
- Each strip has a different ridges & continental rifts
magnetic polarity 2. Convergent Boundaries (destructive)
- Supports seafloor spreading →←
4. Hotspot volcanism - Move together forming either
- Localized; long-lasting hot island arcs or mountain systems
regions below the lithosphere - Subduction zones
- Frame of reference for tracking - When the oceanic
plate motion lithosphere is involved
- Age of volcanism corresponds to - Oceanic plates have
the time elapsed since it was on different densities (older =
top of the hotspot/mantle plume denser)
- Hotspot does NOT move, plates - Orogenic belts
do - When continental vs
- Can inactive volcanoes become continental
active again? NO, since there is - No subduction since
no more source of heat for it to continental plates have
be active again average similar densities
5. Seismicity and Plate boundary (walang mas dense)
- Deep earthquakes (>150km); 3. Transform Boundary (conservative)
location of subducting slabs - Grind past each other
- Shallow earthquakes; regions of - Connect oceanic ridge systems
rifting into a continuous network

IV. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY VI. Mechanics for Plate Motions

- Unifying theory of geology - Mantile Convection
- Litosphere composed of segments - Due to temperature and density
(plates) differences
- Plates in constant motion relative to - Ridge push, slab pull, and mantle drag
one another
VII. Philippine Tectonics
MAJOR PLATES VOLCANOES
1. North America - Pacific Ring of Fire
2. South America - 25 active volcanoes
3. Pacific EARTHQUAKES
4. Eurasian - Everywhere besides Palawan
5. Australian - Palawan has its own plate
6. Indian CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY
7. Antarctic - Oceanic vs Oceanic
- Mature island arch
V. Plate Boundaries - PH mobile belt + PH fault zone
- Where most movement occurs - Continental vs Oceanic
- Palawan microcontinental block
1. Divergent Boundaries (constructive) & suture zones
←→ PLATES
 7
- Eurasian Plate, Philippine Mobile belt,
Philippine Sea Plate
TRENCHES
- West
- Manila Trench, Negros Trench,
Cotobato Trench, Sulu Trench
- East
- East Luzon Trough, Philippine
Trench
 8
LECTURE 4 - MINERALS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES (C,S,L,D,H,H,C,F)
→ CS Lib Daw Ha Ha Chos F → 8 properties
Topic Outline: 1. Color
I. Characteristics of Minerals ● Caused by absorption, scattering
II. Physical Properties of light
—--------------------------------- ● Idiochromatic minerals
CHARACTERISTICS ○ Minerals that always
What is a Mineral? (NIHDO) occur in one particular
● Naturally occurring color
○ Diamonds - not naturally ○ Ex. Azurite (Blue),
occurring, thus not a mineral Malachite (Green), Sulfur
● Inorganic (Yellow)
○ Sugar - not completely organic; ● Allochromatic Minerals
it’s an organic substance ○ Minerals with a range of
● Homogenous solid colors due to chemical
○ Ice - a mineral; but water is not substitutions and
● Definite chemical composition impurities
○ Can be represented by a ○ Ex. Quartz
chemical formula ● Diagnostic property
● Ordered internal structure 2. Streak
● Color of a substance in
Mineraloids powdered form
- Naturally occurring, inorganic material ● TRUE COLOR – since the streak
that is amorphous of a mineral
- Amorphous - no internal ● More diagnostic than color
structure; chaotic ● Ex. Hematite
- Ex.: grass, opal 3. Luster
● Ability to reflect light
Polymorphism ● Metallic luster
- “Many forms” ○ adamantine
- Ability of a specific chemical substance ● Non-metallic luster
to crystallize in more than one ○ Vitreous
configuration ○ Resinous
- Ex.: diamond, graphite ○ silky
4. Diaphaneity
Minerals vs Rocks ● Degree of transparency or
● Rocks opacity
○ More loosely defined (not ● Describes the amount of light
homogenous solid) being transmitted
○ Any solid consisting of ● Transparent, translucent, opaque
1. An aggregate of minerals 5. Habit
2. Pieces of preexisting rocks ● Shapes and aggregates that a
3. Mass of mineral-like certain mineral is likely to form
matter (glass) (as an individual, and as a group)
A rock cannot be a mineral, but a mineral can ● Habits are distinct in certain
be a rock minerals
○ Massive
 9
■ No distinct shape
● Botryoidal
○ Dikit-dikit na bilog-bilog
○ Ex. hematite
● Specular / Saccharoidal
○ Grainy (looks like grains of
sugar)
○ Ex. olivine
● Cubic
○ Forms into a cube
○ Ex. Galena
● Platy
○ Flattened and thin
○ Ex. Muscovite
6. Hardness
● Resistance of mineral to
abrasion or scratching
● Moh’s scale of hardness
1. Talc
2. Gypsum
3. Calcite
4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond
● The Good Cat Fly Around Our
Queen To Catch Dogs

7. Cleavage
● Tendency to break along their
weak planes
● Some atomic bonds within a
mineral are weaker than others
8. Fracture
● Irregular shapes occur when
bond strengthens
● No planes of weakness
 10
Lecture 4B - Minerals
—-----------------------------
Minerals in Number
● 4,000 minerals identified
● Only a few dozen abundant minerals
○ Rock-forming minerals
■ make up most of the
earth’s crust
○ The rest are found deeper into
the mantle

Elements in the continental crust

● Oxygen (O) - 46.6%
● Silicon (Si) - 27.7%
● Aluminum (AI) - 8.1%
● Iron (Fe) - 5%
● Calcium (Ca) - 3.6%
● Sodium (Na) - 2.8%
● Potassium (K) - 2.6%
● Magnesium (Mg) - 2.1%
** Silicon and Oxygen are the most abundant

Silicon-Oxygen tetrahedron
● Basic building block
● SiO4-
● Joined in sheets, chains or 3D Mineral/ Cleavage Silicate
Formula Structure
structures primarily by cations Fe, Mg,
K, Na, and Ca Olivine group None Triangle
(Mg, Fe) SiO4 (single
Mineral Classification tetrahedrons
1. Silicates )
● More than 800 are known (90%
Pyroxene Two Planes Triangle
of Earth’s crust group at 90 joined at
● Presence of silicon-oxygen (Mg, Fe) SiO3 degrees eges
tetrahedron in the structure (single
2. Non-silicates chains)
● Minerals without silicon
Amphibole Two planes Honeycomb-i
● Includes most of economic
group at 60 sh (?)
minerals Ca2(Fe, degrees, and (Double
Mg)5Si8O22(OH 120 degrees chains)
)2

(Micas) One plane Sheets

SIlicate Minerals
Biotite
K(Mg,
Fe)2AlSi2O10(O
H)2
 11
NON-SILICATE MINERALS
(Micas) One plane Sheets
Muscovite
KAI2(AlSI2O10)( CARBONATES
OH)2 ● Carbonate ion [CO32-]
● Calcite
(Feldspars) Two planes Three-dimen
○ Calcium carbonate
Potassium at 90 sional
feldspar degrees networks ○ CaCO3
(orthoclase) ● Dolomite
KAlSi3O8 ○ Calcium-magnesium carbonate
○ (CaMg(CO3)2)
(Feldspars) Two planes Tree-dimensi
Plagioclase at 90 onal
SULFATES
(Ca,Na(AlSi3O degrees networks
● Sulfate ion [SO42-]
8)
● Gypsum
Quartz none ○ Calcium sulfate + water
SIO2 ○ CaSO42H2O
○ Used in dentistry and
orthopedics
SILICATES ○ Plaster of Paris
And common rock-forming minerals ● Barite
○ Barium sulfate
Nesosilicates ○ BaSO4
● “Island silicates” ○ Greek word Barys meaning
○ Not chained to each other “heavy”
● Single tetrahedrons
● Olivine SULFIDES
● Sulfur ion [S2-]
Inosilicates ● Pyrite
● Single chains & double chains ○ Iron sulfide
● Pyroxene & amphibole ○ FeS2
● Galena
Phyllosilicates ○ Lead sulfide
● sheets ○ PbS
● Sheet silicates
● Muscovite & biotite OXIDES
● Magnetite
Tectosilicates ○ Fe3O4
● Three-dimensional networks ● Hematite
● Framework silicates ○ Fe2O3
● Quartz and feldspars
○ Feldspars - most abundant HALIDES
silicate minerals which is 50% of ● Halogens that bond with positive ions
earth’s crust ○ Fluorine (F)
○ Quartz - second most abundant ○ Chlorine (Cl)
○ Bromine (Br)
The warmer the temperature, the more ○ Iodine (I)
complex the silicate structure is ● Halite
 12
○ Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
● Fluorite
○ Calcium fluoride (CaF2)
● Bromargyrite
○ Silver Bromide (AgBr)

NATIVE METALS
- Metals of a single substance
- Does not need to bond with
other elements
- Gold (Au), Copper (Cu)

Summary of non-silicates and their use

Guide Questions to wrap up understanding of

lecture
1. What are minerals?
NIHDO
2. What are the different physical
properties used to identify minerals?
C S Lib Daw Ha Ha Chos F
Color, Streak, Luster, Diaphaneity
Hardness, Habit, Cleavage,
Fracture

3. What are the 8 most abundant

elements in Earth’s continental crust?
4. What are silicate minerals? How do
silicate structures change as
temperatures change?
5. What are examples of common
rock-forming minerals?
6. What are some examples of
non-silicate materials and their
economics use?
 13
March 22, 2023 - Rocks
 14
Continuation on Rocks

I. MAGMA TYPES
Ultramafic
- SiO2 content: <45%
- Temp Range ( C): >1200
- Rel. Density: high
- Rel. Viscosity: Low
- Gas Content: Low

Mafic
(Basaltic/Gabbroic)
- SiO2 content: 45-52%
- Temp Range ( C): 1000-1200

Intermediate PLUTONIC STRUCTURES

(Andesitic/Dioritic)
- SiO2 content: 52-63% SUBVOLCANIC/PLUTONIC
- Temp Range ( C): 800-1000 1. Hypabyssal (shallow) structures
a. Dike - vertical
Felsic/Acidic b. Sill - above layer
(Rhyolitic/Granitic) c. Laccolith - frown yung bed sa
- SiO2 content: >63% taas
- Temp Range ( C): 650-800 d. Lopolith -upward;
- Rel. Density: Low gravitating/pulling downwards
- Rel. Viscosity: High yung bed underneath
- Gas Content: High 2. Deep-seated structures / Plutons
a. Pluton - active magma chamber
*higher SiO2 content = more viscous when cooled and entirely
crystallized
II. MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION b. Batholith - large body of rock
- Any process that causes magma composed of several plutonic
composition to change intrusions
- Process:
1. Assimilation - incorporation of
elements from surrounding rock
into the magma
2. Magma mixing - two or more
magmas are mixed together
3. Partial melting - rocks melt
incrementally because the
minerals that compose them
have different melting points
4. Fractional crystallization -
process of crystallizing and
removal of crystals from magma
Browens Reaction Series