Geol 11 4.

Structural geology – study of

geological structures such as faults
Lecture 1: Introduction to and beds.
Geology 5. Seismology – study of earthquakes,
seismic waves that travel through the
Definition of Geology Earth.
 Study of the earth (and other  Body Waves:
extraterrestrial bodies), its form and o Primary Waves – travel
composition, and the processes it has through both solid and liquid
undergone and is undergoing (Lutgens media in a compressional &
& Tarbuck, 2012) expansive manner.
 “Geo” meaning earth + “logos” o Secondary Waves – travel
meaning study of. through solid media only and
moves perpendicular to the
Geology as a Discipline
direction of the wave
THREE COMPLEX ISSUES IN GEOLOGY
propagation.
1. Relevance of Time  Surface Waves:
 Geologic Time (Deep Time) o Rayleigh Waves – move in an
 All processes/events are relative to elliptical manner.
each other against time o Love Waves – move parallel to
 Understand the vast changes that each other.
have occurred on Earth over millions  Lag Time – difference between the 1st
and billions of years ago and gives P-wave and the 1st S-wave.
context to them. 6. Environmental geology – study of
environmental monitoring.
2. Issue of Scale 7. Engineering geology – study of
 Small scale vs. large scale creating structures such as benches
 Micro scale vs. macro scale and retaining walls.
 Local scale vs. regional scale 8. Mining geology – study of ores and
 Interpreting and understanding application of geology and engineering
different geological features and to extract valuable minerals and ores.
processes across vastly different 9. Petroleum geology – study of
temporal/spatial scales. targeting petroleum sites (found in
porous rocks such as sandstone and
3. Complexity of replication natural limestone).
phenomena 10.Geomorphology – study of landforms
 Difficulty of replicating large-scale and their origins as well as other
phenomena or processes in a topographic features of the Earth.
laboratory setting. o Hexagon is the most efficient
shape in contractional stress
Branches of Geology
11.Planetary geology – study of other
A. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
celestial bodies in the solar system as
1. Mineralogy – study of minerals and
well as their processes and origin.
their properties and structure.
2. Petrology – study of rocks and their
B. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
mineral composition, as well as the
1. Paleontology – study of ancient life
processes that form and transform
on Earth as based on fossil records.
them.
2. Stratigraphy – study of rock layers
3. Volcanology – study of volcanoes and
and their relationship to geological
volcanic eruptions, including the
time.
geological processes that create them.
 o Biostratigraphy – use of fossil Lecture 2: The Universe and
content to determine relative
the Earth
ages of rocks.
3. Geochronology – study of Formation of the Universe and the
determining the age and history of Earth
rocks and rock formations.
o Half-life – time required for one The Big Bang Theory
half of the nuclei of the isotope  The Singularity: An infinitely small
in a sample to decay. region of space with zero volume and
 Relative dating – use of correlation no dimensions
and age relative to surrounding fossils  State of the universe before the Big
 Absolute dating – use of radioactive Bang
isotopes (half-life) to calculate the  Imagine it as a ticking time bomb in a
number of years which have elapses dark void:
since a rock formed. o There was no “around” around
it.
Early Schools of Thought
o There was no “before” before it.
A. Catastrophism
o It simply “was”
o Proposed by Baron Georges
 Diameter of the observable universe is
Cuvier in the 16th century.
estimated to be 28 billion parsecs
o Where sudden, worldwide
(about 93 billion light-years.
catastrophes are the agents of
o Increasing at a rate of 1.96
change that alter the physical
million km/s (about 6.5 times
features of Earth over time.
faster than the speed of light in
o In between these catastrophes,
empty space)
such physical features of the
o Age of the universe is estimated
Earth remain unchanged.
as 13.73 billion years since the
o Widely accepted by theologians
big bang (with an uncertainty of
in the early 1800s due to
about 120 million years)
similarity with Biblical events
 First proposed by Georges Lemaitre in
(e.g. Noah’s flood).
the 1920s
B. Uniformitarianism
 It is a model that describes how the
o Proposed by James Hutton in
universe expanded from an initial
the 18th century, who is
state of extremely high density and
considered to be the Father of
temperature.
Modern Geology.
 Not taken seriously until the following
o Where the Earth is continuously
evidences:
modified by geological o Cosmic Microwave Background
processes that have always
Reaction
operated throughout time at
o Abundance of primordial
different rates.
elements
o Popularized by Charles Lyell’s
o Hubble’s Law
Principles of Geology.
o This concept means that the Evidences of The Big Bang Theory
Earth has been around for a
1. Cosmic Microwave Background
very long time.
Radiation
o Lyell rebranded
 Remnant heat (electromagnetic
uniformitarianism to actualism.
radiation) from the Epoch of
Recombination where the universe is
3000 K.
  Redshifted to present-day (CMB Large planetesimals in the outer
radiation: 2.725 K) solar system have begun to form
2. Abundance of Primordial Elements d. Planetesimals continue to collide
 H and He make up nearly all the and grow. The gas giant planets are
nuclear matter. already formed.
 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: H, He, and e. Over the course of a hundred years
trace Be and Li – planetesimals form into a few
 Oddo-Harkins Effect – even-numbered large planets, or are ejected from
elements are more abundant than the solar system. Solar radiation
their immediate adjacent odd- “blows away” remaining dust.
numbered elements.  Nucleosynthesis: The formation of new
o Higher atomic number = less elements due to fusion in the Sun and
abundant = harder to other stars.
form/create  The sun is a 2nd or 3rd generation star.
3. Hubble’s Law  After hydrogen is exhausted, the star
 Redshift – galaxies move away from burns helium to form progressively
Earth at speeds proportional to their heavier elements (C, O, and so on),
distance until Fe and Ni are formed.
o Increase in wavelength of  Supernova explosions result when the
electromagnetic radiation from cores of massive stars have exhausted
an object. their fuel supplies and burned
o Redshift = away from Earth and everything into Fe and Ni.
light waves are stretched  Stellar Nucleosynthesis: H, He >>…
o Blueshift = approaching Earth Fe, Ni
and waves are compressed Protoplanetary Disk
Earth >> Solar System >> The Milky  Frost Line: distance from a central
Way Galaxy >> The Local Group >> The protostar where it is cold enough for
Local Supercluster: Laniakea volatiles to condense into solid ice
Supercluster >> The Universe grains
Nebular Hypothesis  Planetary embryos made of ice are
more massive than those in the inner
 Proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre
part.
Simon de Laplace in the 18th century
 After attaining enough mass, these
 Rotating gas-dust cloud began to
begin to accumulate gas from the disk
contract due to gravity. Most of the
to form the Jovian Planets.
mass became concentrated at the
center, forming the sun. TERRESTRIAL JOVIAN
 Remaining matter condensed to form Inner (nearest Outer (farthest from the
the planets: Terrestrial and Jovian the Sun) Sun)
a. The solar nebula after it has Rocky Gaseous or liquid form;
contracted and flattened to form a Composition lacks solid surfaces
spinning disk or protoplanetary Largely silicate Largely composed of
disk. rocks and light elements
b. Dust grains act as a condensation metals
nuclei, forming clumps of matter Si, Fe, O H, He, Ar, C, O, N
that accrete into planetesimals Layer: Rocky Layer: Visible clouds >
Crust > Rocky Gaseous hydrogen >
(km-sized) & planetary embryos
Mantle > Liquid hydrogen >
(moon-sized)
Metallic Core > Metallic hydrogen >
c. Strong outflows of the still-forming Inner Core Rocky core
Sun blow away the nebular gas.
Iron Catastrophe to the composition of the Earth’s crust
 How did the differentiated Earth form? and mantle.
o The Proto-Earth was a dust ball Origin of the Earth’s Atmosphere
o Accretion > Heating >
 Another stage of differentiation was
Differentiation
the rise of gasses towards the surface
o Liquid Fe and Ni (siderophiles)
after being trapped in the interior.
sank to the core
1. 4.5 billion years ago (Ga)
o Lighter and less dense elements
o Primordial gases (H and He –
(O, Si with Mg, Al, Ca, Na, K)
atmophile elements) lost to
were displaced to the surface
space due to solar wind, which
(rose up)
made the Earth’s first
a. Early Earth probably had a uniform
atmosphere.
composition and density throughout.
2. 4.0 billion years ago (Ga)
o Proto-Earth continued to accrete
o Volcanic venting and gas
materials from the
capture of volatiles released
protoplanetary disk.
from icy comets, which formed
b. The temperature of early Earth
the Earth’s second atmosphere
reached the melting point of iron and
(CO2, NH4, CH4, H2O –
nickel, which, being denser than
Greenhouse gases)
silicate minerals, settled to Earth’s
3. Steady addition of gases from volcanic
center. At the same time, the lighter
venting.
silicates flowed upward to form the
3.5 billion years ago
mantle and the crust.
o Cyanobacteria (blue-green
o Heat from collision and solar
algae) developed
radiation, radioactive heat, and
photosynthesis and began
increase in temperature from
converting CO2 into O2.
contraction.
600 million years ago (Ma)
c. In this way, a differentiated Earth
o O2 levels significantly
formed, consisting of a dense iron-
increased. Because the process
nickel core, an iron-rich silicate
of using O2 for respiration is
mantle, and a silicate crust with
more efficient, this rise in
continents and ocean basis.
oxygen levels lead to the rapid
Formation of the Moon development of more complex
 Collision with a Mars-sized multicellular life forms.
planetesimal (Theia) with the proto- o The huge gap from 3.5 billion
Earth at around 4.5 billion years ago. years and 600 million years ago
After the collision, debris were is caused by banded-iron
ejected in a disk around the formations (BIFs) in which
Proto-Earth, forming the moon. oxygen reacted with iron
Moon’s interior is molten. dissolved in the Earth’s ancient
Moon’s surface cools- crust forms – oceans. Once all available iron
smaller impacts create craters were depleted in the Earth’s
while large impacts create oceans, oxygen created by
basins. cyanobacteria finally build up in
Basins flood with lava to form the atmosphere.
maria. Features of the Earth
 It is speculated that the collision
happened after the iron catastrophe as A. Layers of the Earth
the composition of the moon is similar COMPOSITIONAL LAYERS
1. Core
  Iron-nickel alloy 2. Repetti Discontinuity: Upper-lower
 Iron-rich sphere with small amounts of mantle boundary
Nicker and other elements. 3. Gutenberg Discontinuity: Outer
 ~3,500 km in radius core-mantle
 ~16% of Earth’s volume and ~31% of 4. Lehmann Discontinuity: Outer-inner
Earth’s mass. core
2. Mantle
 Still iron-rich compared to crust, but 8 Most Common Elements in the
diluted with O, Si, Mg, etc. Continental Crust
 ~2,900 km thick, 83% of Earth’s Element % Weight Element % Weight
volume, and ~68% of Earth’s mass. Oxygen 46.6 Calcium 3.6
Silicon 27.7 Sodium 2.8
3. Crust Aluminum 8.1 Potassium 2.6
 Solid outer shell composed of O, Si, Al, Iron 5.0 Magnesium 1.5
Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg.
 Thickness varies: Continental (15-60 Cause of Variable Mechanical Properties
km), Oceanic (3-15 km)  Increase in both temperature and
 Less than ~1% of Earth’s mass and pressure
volume o Increase in temperature:
Oceanic Crust Continental Crust
melting
First ~4.5 Ga ~4.4 Ga o Increase in pressure:
Appearance solidification
Place of Mid-oceanic Subduction zones
Formation ridges (MORs)  Response of each layer to domination
Compositio Komatiite-basalt Tonalite-granodiorite variable at a certain depth.
n
Lateral Widespread Local
Extent Evidences
Generation Partial melting Partial melting of wet  Xenoliths – “foreign rock”; rock
of ultramafic mafic rocks in the
fragment trapped inside another rock
rocks in the descending slabs
upper mantle during the latter rock’s formation.
Average 3.0 g/cm3 2.7 g/cm3 o Since they originate from the
Density
Thickness 3-15 km 15-60 km (lower) mantle, it provides
information to Earth’s lower,
MECHANICAL LAYERS inaccessible layers.

1. Inner Core – solid, made out of Ni and

Fe. B. Earth’s Size
2. Outer Core – liquid, made out of Ni  Eratosthenes – Greek mathematician
and Fe. and astronomer (around 240 BCE)
3. Mesosphere (lower mantle) – solid. o Angle from Syene, Egypt (no
4. Asthenosphere (upper mantle) – shadow during summer solstice)
solid (plastic-like) to Alexandria, Egypt (distance
5. Lithosphere – solid between the two cities = 800
km) was 7° .
 Geotherm – line that connects points o Measured 41,000 km
of equal temperature within or on
Earth. Circumference 360 °
=
o If geotherm of that layer within 800 km 7°
Earth is higher than the layer’s
 Equatorial Circumference = 40,076 km
melting curve (e.g. in the outer
 Polar Circumference = 40,008 km
core), it becomes liquid.
 Earth’s shape = Oblate spheroid/geoid
1. Mohorovičić Discontinuity: Crust-
mantle
C. Large-scale Features o Continental Shelf – submerged
 Continents extension of a continent gently
 Plains sloping towards the ocean,
 Mountain belts which are originally part of the
o Two most active: Alpine- continental crust but have been
Himalayan Belt and Circum- submerged due to sea-level rise
Pacific Belt or gradual sinking, erosion,
 Craton – part of continental crust that sediment deposition, and glacial
has attained stability; has not been activity over millions of years.
affected by significant tectonic activity o Continental Slope – steep slope
during Phanerozoic eon. connecting the shelf to the deep
 Shield – large, relatively flat expanse ocean formed by the break in
of ancient metamorphic rock within continental crust and shaped by
the stable continental interior. underwater landslides, turbidity
 Stable platform – part of the craton currents, and tectonic activity.
that is mantled by relatively o Continental Rise – a gentle
undeformed sedimentary rocks and incline at the base of the
underlain by a basement complex of continental slope made of
igneous and metamorphic rocks. sediments from the slope that
 Oceanic basins accumulated at the base built
o Abyssal plains – flat, deep-sea up by turbidity currents
floor formed by the slow (underwater landslides that
accumulation of fine sediments transport sediments).
(dead planktons) that settle on o Hydrothermal Vents – openings
the deep ocean floor. in the seafloor where heated,
o Mid-ocean Ridges – underwater mineral-rich water escapes
mountain range formed by usually found along MORs
continuous seafloor spreading o Submarine Canyons – a deep,
pushing out the older crust steep-sided valley cut into the
while the new crust forms at the continental slope and rise,
center. primarily formed by turbidity
 East Pacific Rise: fastest currents that carve into the
spreading mid-oceanic seabed, and usually originate
ridge (MOR) near the mouths of large rivers
o Trenches – deep, narrow as rivers extend out to the sea
depressions in the ocean floor during low sea levels and the
which occurs at convergent canyons carved will be
plate boundaries where the submerged during high sea
subducting plate pulls the levels.
seafloor downward. D. Theories of Isostasy
o Seamounts – active underwater
 Explains how Earth’s crust is able to
volcanic mountains that form
maintain equilibrium between the
from rising magma in hotspots
lithosphere and asthenosphere
or MORs, which can form an
 It is based on opposing forces of
island if it reaches the surface
gravity and buoyancy.
(e.g. Hawaii)
1. Pratt’s Theory – lateral changes
o Guyots – inactive flat-topped
in rock density across the
seamounts caused by wave
lithosphere
erosions over time and subsides
2. Airy’s Theory – Earth’s crust as
as the oceanic plate moves.
blocks of constant density floats on
a denser mantle.
 3. Flexural Theory – Earth’s far apart, which suggests that these
lithosphere as an elastic plate that landforms must have been connected
bends or flexes under load, when they formed.
distributing the weight of a mass  The Appalachian Mountains
over a wider area. in the USA match the
Caledonian Mountains in
Lecture 3: Plate Tectonics Scotland and Norway
(Scandinavia) in age and
Continental Drift Hypothesis rock composition.
 Alfred Wegener – German D. Paleoclimatic Evidence – fossilized
meteorologist and geophysicist. evidence of tropical plants is found in
o Wrote “The Origin of Continents Antarctica, and glacial deposits are
and Oceans: Pangea” (~200 found in warm regions, which suggests
Mya) that continents were once in different
 Pangaea – “all land” climatic zones and have since moved.
o Laurasia: North America,  Glacial scratches (striations)
Europe, and Asia in South America, Africa,
o Gondwanaland: South America, India, and Australia suggest
Africa, India, Australia, and that they were once closer to
Antarctica. the South Pole.
 Panthalassa – “all sea”  Coal deposits (formed from
tropical forests) in Antarctica
Evidences of Continental Drift indicate it was once in a
Hypothesis warmer climate zone.
A. Continental Jigsaw Puzzle Fit – Lignite, Subbituminous,
continents fit each other like a jigsaw Bituminous Coal
puzzle, which suggests that they were (Sedimentary) and
once connected and later drifted Anthracite (Metamorphic).
apart.  Scientists at his time rejected his
 Western coastline of Africa hypothesis as he lacked a mechanism
and Eastern coastline of to explain how the continents moved.
South America fits if Atlantic
Ocean is closed. Seafloor Spreading
B. Fossil Match Across Continents –
 Introduced by Harry Hess in the 1960s
identical fossils of extinct animals and
o Extensive mapping of the ocean
plants were found on continents that
floor during World War II.
are now separated by vast oceans,
o Noticed the ocean floor was
which suggests that the continents
younger at MORs and older near
were once joined since the organisms
trenches, the oceanic crust was
could not have travelled through the
thinner at ridges and thicker at
oceans.
trenches, and MORs had a rift
 Glossopteris, a fossilized
valley where new crusts are
plant, were found in Africa,
formed.
South America, Antarctica,
o Submarine volcanoes: mid-
India, and Australia, which
oceanic ridges (longest chain of
suggests a shared ancient
volcanoes), guyots, and
landmass.
seamounts
C. Rock Type and Geologic Features –
 Marie Tharp – first to map the ocean
similar mountain ranges, rock
floor in detail using sonar data from
formations, and geological structures
navy ships which revealed that it is not
are found on continents that are now
just a vast floor under the ocean and
 revealed underwater features and locking in the direction and
supported plate tectonics. strength of the magnetic
 Magma rises at MORs, creating new field.
oceanic crust.  The magnetic north of the Earth is
 The new crust pushes older crust not in the same location as its
outside like a conveyor belt. geographic north.
 Old oceanic crust is destroyed at deep-  Polar Wandering – apparent shift
sea trenches via subduction into the of Earth’s magnetic poles over
mantle. time, recorded in rocks.
 Plankton Layers (Calcareous: CaCO3, o Recorded magnetic pole
Siliceous – SiO2) and Ash Layers (from positions did not match the
volcanoes/volcanic eruptions) current pole locations.
 Thickness of sediments increase with o If the poles had truly moved,
distance from the MOR crest: all continents should show
o Age of seafloor: older as crust the same polar wandering
moves away from the ridge. path.
o The older the crust, the more o Instead, each continent
time it has to accumulate seemed to show a different
sediments path for where the magnetic
o As oceanic crust moves away poles used to be, which
from the ridge, it cools and made no sense if the poles
becomes denser, causing it to were the ones that moved.
sink deeper into the mantle o When the continents were
which creates a deeper seafloor reassembled into their past
that allows more sediments to orientations (Pangaea), the
accumulate over time. polar wandering paths from
 Square-like patterns seen on MORs in different continents aligned
ocean floor maps are because of perfectly.
displaced faults (transform faults) that o This showed that the
offset the spreading ridge and displace continents moved, not the
the seafloor. poles.
B. Hotspot Volcanism
Additional Evidence for Plate Motion  Localized; long-lasting hot regions
A. Paleomagnetism and Polar below the lithosphere.
Wandering  Volcanic activity that occurs when a
hot mantle plume rises from deep
 Curie Point – temperature at
within the Earth, melting the crust
which a mineral’s magnetic
and forming volcanoes.
properties change (e.g. magnetite:
 Frame of reference for tracking
585° C)
plate motion.
 Paleomagnetism – study of  Age of volcanism corresponds to
Earth’s ancient magnetic field the time elapsed since it was on
recorded in rocks. top of the hotspot/mantle plume.
 Small magnetite minerals point to o Hotspots stay fixed while the
the magnetic north during their
plates move.
birth.
o The oldest islands are
o When magma cools and
farthest from the hotspots
solidifies, iron-rich minerals
while the younger ones are
like magnetite align with
closer.
Earth’s magnetic field at that
time and act like compasses,
 o This age pattern matches o Unlike shallow earthquakes,
the direction and speed of the cold, dense ocean plate
the plate motion. sinks into the mantle, which
 Ex: Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount stays cooler than the
Chain surrounding mantle, which
o As the Pacific Plate moves allows it to remain brittle
northwest, a chain of enough to break and
volcanic islands has formed. produce earthquakes.
(Kilauea is over the hotspot,  Since new crust is formed at ridges
Kauai is extinct) (MORs), they are shallower there,
o Before the Hawaiian Islands thus creating shallow earthquakes.
are formed, the Pacific Plate As it moves away from the ridge, it
moved from North to South, cools and contracts, making it
forming the Emperor denser and heavier. When the crust
Seamount Chain, before reaches a subduction zone, it is old
drastically changing its and dense enough to sink into the
direction to northwest. mantle, thus creating deeper
earthquakes.
C. Seismicity and Plate Boundaries
 Seismicity – frequency, intensity,
and distribution of earthquakes in a Plate Tectonics
region, which are caused by the  Unifying theory/tenet of geology
release of energy when rocks break  Lithosphere composed of rigid
due to stress from tectonic forces. segments that move over the
o Earthquakes occur when asthenosphere called tectonic
tectonic plates interact, plates.
making seismic activity a  These plates are in constant motion
key indicator of plate relative to one another.
boundaries and movement.  Broken into major (Pacific, North
 Shallow earthquakes: regions of American, South American, African,
rifting Eurasian, India-Australian,
o Rifting occurs at divergent Antarctic) and minor (Arabian,
Caribbean, Cocos, Juan de Fuca,
boundaries, where tectonic
Nazca, Philippine Sea, Scotia,
plates are moving apart (e.g.
Somali) tectonic plates.
Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
o As the lithosphere stretches
and thins, it breaks at Types of Plate Boundaries
shallow depths.
o The hot and partially molten A. Divergent boundaries
mantle beneath spreading (constructive)
centers prevent deep quakes  Where two plates move apart,
because rock becomes too creating new oceanic crust as
ductile (soft and flexible) at seafloor
greater depths.  Spreading centers: oceanic ridges
 Deep earthquakes (>150km): and continental rifts
location of subducting slabs  Ophiolites – sections of oceanic
o At subduction zones, an crust and upper mantle that have
oceanic plate sinks beneath been uplifted and exposed on land,
another plate into the rather than being subducted back
mantle (e.g. Japan trench) into the mantle.
 o Ocean sedimentary rocks B. Convergent boundaries
(from dead planktons) (destructive)
o Crustal igneous rocks (Pillow  Where two plates move together,
lavas/basalts, Sheeted dikes, forming either arcs or mountain
Gabbros) systems.
o Mantle igneous rocks  Forms subduction zones when
(Peridotites) oceanic lithosphere is involved.
 Continental Rifting – process a) Oceanic-continental – denser
where a continent stretches, thins, oceanic plate subducts under
and eventually splits apart, forming the continental plate, melting in
a new ocean basin. the mantle and forming volcanic
o Rising mantle heat creates mountain ranges.
upwarping and weakens the i. Deep trenches off the
lithosphere, forming faults coast (Peru-Chile Trench)
and fractures in the ii. Volcanic mountain ranges
continental crust and (e.g. Andes Mountains)
develops volcanism due to iii. Earthquakes and volcanic
magma rising below eruptions (Nazca plate
o After this, the crust subducting under South
continues to stretch and American plate: Andes
thin, creating a large valley Mountains)
where a down-dropped block b) Oceanic-oceanic – denser
(graben) forms between two oceanic plate subducts beneath
uplifted blocks (horst) which the other, forming a deep-sea
is filled by lakes and rivers trench and volcanic island arc.
due to faulting. There is also i. Deep-sea trenches (e.g.
increased volcanic activity Mariana Trench)
due to mantle upwelling. ii. Volcanic island arcs (e.g.
o The rift valley then deepens, Japan and Philippines)
allowing seawater to flood in, iii. Earthquakes and
turning the rift into a narrow tsunamis due to
ocean (linear sea). An MOR subduction (e.g. Mariana
begins forming, creating a Trench and Mariana
new oceanic crust and Islands)
continental crusts become c) Continental-continental – two
passive margins (no more continental plates collide but do
active rifting) not subduct (as they are both
o Continuous seafloor buoyant), and instead crumple
spreading widens the ocean and fold, forming huge
basin, forming a full ocean mountain ranges.
with an MOR, where the two i. Massive mountain ranges
continents are now (e.g. Himalayas)
completely separated and ii. Intense earthquakes but
the rift zone becomes a no volcanoes
spreading center (e.g. iii. Plate thickening and uplift
Atlantic Ocean from rifting of (e.g. Indian plate colliding
Pangaea) with Eurasian Plate:
Himalayas)
C. Transform boundaries B. Slab Pull
(conservative)  When an oceanic plate subducts
 Where two plates grind past each into the mantle, it becomes denser
other. and heavier than the surrounding
 Connects oceanic ridge systems material.
into a continuous network.  Gravity pulls the sinking slab
o MORs are not continuous, downward, dragging the rest of the
broken into segments rather plate with it.
than forming one long,  The faster a plate subducts, the
uninterrupted ridge. faster it moves
o Transform boundaries offsets  This force is strongest in
ridges, which aid in seafloor convergent boundaries with deep
spreading. trenches

Type Example Landforms Volcanis

m C. Ridge Push
Divergent
Oceanic Mid-Atlantic Mid-oceanic Basalt
 MORs are elevated due to hot, less
Ridge ridge dense magma rising beneath them.
Continental East African Rift valleys Basalt,  As the magma cools and solidifies,
Rift Valley Rhyolite
Convergent it becomes denser and slides away
Oceanic- Andes Continental Andesite from the ridge under gravity.
continental Mountains Mt. Range,  Helps push plates away from the
offshore
oceanic MORs toward subduction zones.
trench  Works together with slab pull to
Oceanic- Aleutian Volcanic Andesite
oceanic Islands, island arc,
keep plate motion going.
Japan, offshore
Philippines oceanic
trench D. Mantle Drag
Continental Himalayas Orogenic belt Minor
-continental  Occurs when the moving mantle
Transform San Fault Valley Minor drags the base of a tectonic plate
Andreas
Fault along with it.
 Caused by friction between the
asthenosphere and lithosphere.
Mechanisms of Plate Motions  As mantle material moves due to
convection currents, it can exert a
A. Mantle Convection
dragging force on the base of the
 Due to temperature and density lithosphere.
differences  Can either help move the plate
 Heat from the Earth’s core causes forward (if the mantle flow is in the
hot mantle material to rise and same direction) or resist plate
cooler material to sink in a cyclic motion (if the mantle flow is in the
motion. opposite direction).
 This creates convection currents
that push and pull tectonic plates
 Rising hot mantle material at MORs Philippine Tectonics
pushes plates apart (seafloor
A. Volcanism
spreading).
 Sinking cooler mantle material at  Pacific ring of fire; 24 active
subduction zones pulls plates volcanoes
downward B. Earthquakes
 Everywhere besides Palawan as:
 o Part of the Eurasian Plate (water vapor) are not minerals,
(Sunda Block), not the because they are not solid.
Philippine Mobile Belt. 4. Definite chemical composition – have
o Palawan was part of a specific chemical formula that can be
Mainland Asia (China) that expressed using a fixed ratio of elements.
eventually drifted apart, 5. Ordered internal structure – have a
which means it is mostly crystalline structure where atoms are
composed of old, stable arranged in a regular, repeating pattern.
continental crust.  Glass is an amorphous solid; no
o Not near a subduction definite structure
zone/trench and lacks active  Glass is a mineraloid (Obsidian –
fault lines volcanic glass, Opal).

C. Convergent Plate Boundary  Polymorphism (“many forms”) – ability of

 Oceanic vs oceanic (mature island a specific chemical substance to
arc): Philippine mobile belt (PMB) + crystallize in more than one configuration.
Philippine Fault zone (PFZ)
Calcite (CaCO3) Aragonite (CaCO3)
 Continental vs oceanic: Palawan - Rhombohedron - Rhombic dipyramids
microcontinental block (PCB) and - Crystallizes in - Crystallizes in the
suture zones the hexagonal orthorhombic system
system - Less stable
 PMB is traverse by PFZ, which is a
- More stable at
dominantly left-lateral (sinistral) present time and
fault. surface
conditions
D. Plates Enargite Luzonite (Cu3AsS4)
 Eurasian Plate, PMB, Philippine Sea (Cu3AsS4) - A sulfosalt (type of
- A sulfosalt (type sulfide)
Plate - Crystallizes in the
of sulfide)
- Crystallizes in tetragonal system
E. Trenches - Type locality:
the
 West: Manila, Negros, Cotabato, orthorhombic Mankayan, Benguet,
and Sulu Trench crystal system) Luzon Island
 East: East Luzon Trough, Philippine
Trench Polymorphs of Aluminum silicate
(AlSiO3)
1. Kyanite – Low temperature (~200–
Lecture 4: Minerals 800°C), high pressure
Five Characteristics of a Mineral 2. Andalusite – High temperature (~500–
(NIHDO) 800°C), low pressure
1. Naturally occurring – made by natural 3. Sillimanite – High temperature (~600–
geologic processes 1000°C), high pressure
2. Inorganic – not made by biological
processes. Minerals vs. Rocks
 Limestone (CaCO3) and Chert (SiO2)  Rocks are more loosely defined. Any solid
are minerals as they already consisting of:
underwent diagenesis (lithification and  Aggregate of minerals
compaction by burial). o Conglomerate – round clasts
3. Homogeneous solid – must be a solid o Breccia – sharp/angular clasts
substance that has a consistent  Pieces of pre-existing rocks
composition and structure throughout its  Pieces of mineral-like matter (glass)
entirety.
 Ice (H2O) is a mineral; however, its Monominerallic vs. Polyminerallic Rocks
liquid form (water) and gaseous form
1. Monominerallic – composed of a single Garnet Resinous
mineral. Ilmenite Greasy
Quartz Vitreous (glass-like)
Ex: Chert (SiO2), Sulfur (S), Galena (PbS) Diamond Luster exclusive for a diamond called
2. Polyminerallic – composed of two or Adamantine
more minerals.
Ex: Granite – made of quartz, hornblende, Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O)
potassium feldspar (K-spar)  Satin Spar: With satiny luster
 Selenite: With vitreous luster
 Some rocks may also be composed of  Alabaster: With massive habit
non-mineral matter. (external appearance of a mineral),
Ex: Coal (organic), Obsidian (no ordered fine-grained crystals, and dull luster
internal structure), Opal (variable
chemical composition & lacks crystalline 4. Diaphaneity – degree of transparency or
structure) opacity; describes the amount of light
being transmitted.
 The higher reflectance, the more
Physical Properties of a Mineral coherent light reflection is with dull or
1. Color – caused by absorption, reflection, earthy minerals such as Churt being
transmission, refraction, scattering, and the lowest reflectance.
dispersion of light.  Higher light transmission = increasing
 Idiochromatic Minerals – always light transmission, with transparent
occur in one particular shade of color; minerals having the highest light
a diagnostic property. transmission.
Ex: Azurite (Azure blue), Malachite
(Dark green), Sulfur (Lemon yellow) 5. Habit – shapes and aggregates that a
 Allochromatic Minerals – with a mineral is likely to form
range of colors due to chemical  Individual Crystal Habits – external
substitution and impurities. shape displayed by a single crystal
Ex: Hematite (Metallic or specular -  Aggregate Habits – shape displayed
silvery, Earthy – reddish-brown, by a group of crystals
Specularite – silvery, Pisolitic – pea- o Kyanite – bladed/tabular
sized) o Malachite – concentric bands
o Olivine – saccharoidal; sugar-like
2. Streak – color of a substance in its
crystals encrust the rock
powdered form; mineral’s true color as
o Quartz – columnar or in encrusting
the streak of a mineral is constant; more
in Geodes
diagnostic property than color.
Ex: Metallic and red varieties of
Crystal Colloquial Crystal
hematite both have reddish-brown
Habit Description Dimensio
streak, All varieties of quartz ((SiO2)
ns
will have a white streak (Rock crystal, Equant (Ex: Equal dimensions; a=b=c
Tiger’s eye, Amethyst, Smoky quartz, Pyrite) shape may
Aventurine) approach that of
cube or sphere
Tabular Tablet/diskette-like a = b > c; c
3. Luster – ability of minerals to reflect light is thin
 Metallic minerals – high reflectance Platy (Ex: Sheet-like a = b >> c; c
muscovite) is very thin
of light, non-metallic minerals – low
Prismatic or Pillar-like or a > b = c; a
reflectance of light columnar (Ex: column-like; is long
quartz) slender to stubby
Mineral Property (Luster) Bladed (Ex: Blade- or knife-like a > b > c; a
Kyanite) is long, c is
Satin Spar Satiny/Silky
thin
Muscovite Pearly
Acicular (Ex: Needle-like; a >>> b = c;
Chromite Pitchy
 Natrolite – slightly thicker b and c are curved patterns (occurs in quartz and
Divergent: than filiform very thing
glass).
aggregate)
Capillary or Hair-like a >>> b = c;  Gold & Copper: Hackley fracture –
filiform b and c are breakage producing jagged and sharp
extremely edges.
thin

Mineral Crystal Habit Other Physical Properties

Malachite Acicular; radiating
 Magnetism
Hematite Reniform – kidney-shaped blobs
Chalcedony Botryoidal – spherical blobs  Reaction to chemicals
Asbestos Acicular – fibrous  Taste (sylvite = bitter; halite = salty)
Pyrite Pyritohedral or cubic  Odor (sulfur = rotten eggs)
Muscovite Platy – crystallizes in thin paper-like
and Biotite sheets
 Luminescence
Aggregate Habits of Hematite (Fe2O3) o Fluorescence – occurs when
a. Earthy Hematite – massive; no materials are subjected to short
discernable features wavelength radiation such as
b. Specularite – specular; bedazzled gamma rays, X-rays, or UV
form of hematite waves.
c. Pisolitic Hematite – presence of cm- Ex: Fluorite under UV light
sized circular grains o Phosphorescence – material
emits visible light after it is no
6. Hardness – resistance of the mineral to longer subjected to incident
scratching or abrasion; Tenacity – how radiation; used in glow-in-the-
long before a mineral gets crushed dark toys.
o Thermoluminescence –
7. Cleavage – tendency of crystalline materials emit visible light when
materials to split along definite heated to 50 to 475 degrees
crystallographic structural planes; Celsius.
Cleaving: tendency to break along their o Triboluminescence – materials
weak planes emit visible light in response to
a) 1 – flat sheets stress induced by rubbing or
Ex: Muscovite crushing the specimen
b) 2 at 90 degrees – elongated form with Ex: Quartz while being drilled
rectangle cross section (prism)  Play of Light
Ex: Feldspar o Asterism – optical
c) 2 not at 90 degrees – elongated form phenomenon where a star-like
with parallelogram cross section pattern appears on the surface
(prism) of a gemstone when it is viewed
Ex: Hornblende (Amphibole) under a single light source
d) 3 at 90 degrees – cube caused by the reflection of light
Ex: Halite from needle-like inclusions
e) 3 not at 90 degrees – rhombohedron within the gemstone
Ex: Calcite Ex: Sapphire
f) 4 – octahedron o Chatoyancy – manifested as a
Ex: Fluorite band of bright reflected light
caused by aligned inclusions in
8. Fracture – random, irregular breakages the stone.
that occur when bond strengths in a Ex: Chrysoberyls
crystal structure are equal in all direction. o Labradorescence – arises from
 Obsidian & Quartz: conchoidal fracture the scattering of light by
– breakage in smooth, concentric, and microscopic structures within
the stone, causing spectral
 colors to flash across its surface 1. Olivine
when illuminated. 2. Pyroxene (Augite)
Ex: Labradorite 3. Amphibole (Hornblende)
 Specific Gravity – a dimensionless 4. Biotite
quantity (a ratio); weight of a material 5. Plagioclase (Calcium- to sodium-rich)
compared to the weight of an equal 6. K-feldspar (Potassium feldspar)
volume of water. 7. Muscovite
o SG < 1: lighter & will sink on 8. Quartz
water Silicate Composition Intrusive -
Extrusive
o SG > 1: heavier & will float on Olivine Ultramafic Peridotite –
water Komatiite
Pyroxene (Augite) Mafic Gabbro - Basalt
Ex: Barite “Heavy Spar” (BaSO 4) – SG Amphibole Intermediate Diorite – Andesite
= 4.5 (Hornblende)
Biotite Intermediate/ Granodiorite –
Felsic Dacite
Classification of Minerals Ca-rich Mafic Gabbro – Basalt
1) Silicates Plagioclase
Na-rich Intermediate Diorite – Andesite
a. Nesosilicates – “island silicates” Plagioclase
b. Inosilicates – “chain silicates” K-Feldspar Felsic Granite - Rhyolite
c. Phyllosilicates – “sheet silicates” Muscovite Felsic Granite - Rhyolite
Quartz Felsic Granite - Rhyolite
d. Tectosilicates – “framework
silicates”
Non-Silicates
2) Non-silicates
a. Carbonates [CO32-] 1. Carbonates – used as cement
b. Oxides [O2-] Calcite CaCO3 Dolomit (Ca, Mg) CO3
e
c. Sulfates [SO42-] Magnesi MgCO3 Malachi Cu2CO3(OH)2
d. Sulphides [S2-] te te
e. Halides [Halogens – F, Cl, Br, I, At] Siderite FeCO3 Azurite Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
f. Phosphates [PO43-]
g. Native Elements [Single Element] 2. Sulfates – used as Plaster of Paris
Minerals in Number Anhydri CaSO4 Gypsum CaSO4 · 2H2O
te
 4000 known and identified minerals
Barite BaSO4 Celestit SrSO4
 Only a few dozen are abundant – The e
Rock-Forming Minerals – make up most
of the Earth’s crust. 3. Sulphides – Ore of lead
Elements in the Continental Crust Galena PbS Chalcopyrit CuFeS2
Element % Weight Element % Weight e
Oxygen 46.6 Calcium 3.6 Pyrite FeS2 Molybdenit MoS2
Silicon 27.7 Sodium 2.8 e
Aluminum 8.1 Potassium 2.6
Stibnite Sb2S3 Sphalerite ZnS
Iron 5.0 Magnesium 1.5
Bornite Cu5FeS4 Arsenopyri FeAsS
te
Silicates
4. Oxides – Ore of iron
 Basic building block: Silicon-Oxygen Hematit Fe2O3 Limonit 2Fe2O3 · 3H2O
tetrahedron (SiO4)4- e e
 Joined in sheets, chains, or 3D Magneti Fe3O4 Bauxite Al2O3 · 2H2O
structures primarily by cations Fe, Mg, te
K, Na, and Ca. Corundu Al2O3
 More than 800 are known; 90% of the m
Earth’s crust.
First (Highest Temperature) to Last 5. Halides – Used as common salt
Halite NaCl Cryolite Na3AlF6
(Lowest Temperature) to Form in
Fluorit CaF2 Bromargyr AgBr
Bowen’s Reaction Series
 e ite

6. Phosphates – Used as phosphate

fertilizer
Apatit Ca5(PO4)3(F, Turquois CuAl6(PO4)4
e Cl,OH) e (OH)8·
3H2O

7. Native Elements – Used as conductors

Ex: Carbon – Diamond & Graphite

The 6 Crystal Systems (Increasing

symmetry)
1) Triclinic – Rhodonite & Microcline
2) Monoclinic – Pyroxene & Gypsum
3) Orthorhombic – Olivine & Aragonite
(Rhombi dipyramids)
4) Tetragonal – Zircon (Tetragonal pyramid
in combination with a tetragonal prism)
5) Hexagonal (Trigonal) – Apatite & Quartz
(Hexagonal Prism) & Calcite
(Rhombohedron)
6) Isometric (Cubic) – Fluorite
(Octahedrons), Pyrite
(Cubic/Pyritohedrons) & Garnet
(Dodecahedron)
 Mohs Hardness Scale

Mineral Chem. Color Strea Hard Luster Habit Cleavag Mineral Crystal
Formula k ness e Group System
Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Colorless, White 1 Sub-Vitreous, Platy 1 perfect Phyllosilicate Triclinic
white, pale Resinous, (Basal) s
green, bright Waxy,
emerald-green Greasy,
to dark green, Pearly
brown, gray
Gypsum CaSO4 · 2H2O Colorless to White 2 Vitreous, Tabular 1 good, 2 Sulfates Monoclinic
white, often Sub-Vitreous, fair
tinged other Silky, Pearly,
hues due to Dull
impurities;
colorless in
transmitted
light
Calcite CaCO3 White, Yellow, White 3 Vitreous, Rhomb 3 perfect Carbonates Trigonal
Red, Orange, Sub-Vitreous, ohedral (Rhombo
Blue, Green, Resinous, hedral)
Brown, Gray Waxy, Pearly
etc.
Fluorite CaF₂ Purple, lilac, White 4 Vitreous, Cubic 4 perfect Halides Isometric
golden-yellow, Dull (Octahed
green, ral)
colorless,
blue, pink,
champagne,
brown
Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(Cl/ Colorless, White 5 Vitreous to Hexago Poor, Phosphates Hexagonal
F/OH) white, yellow, sub-resinous nal indistinct
brown, gray, prismat
red, pink, ic
purple, blue,
green or multi-
colored
Orthoclase K(AlSi3O8) Colorless to White 6 Vitreous, Blocky, 1 perfect, Silicates Monoclinic
(K-felds) white, Sub-Vitreous, prismat 1 good
greenish Resinous ic (90°)
white, grayish
yellow, pale
pink
Quartz SiO₂ Colorless, White 7 Vitreous Hexago None Silicates Trigonal
purple, rose, nal (Conchoi
red, black, prismat dal
yellow, brown, ic Fracture)
green, blue,
orange, etc.
Topaz Al2(SiO4) Colorless, White 8 Vitreous Orthorh 1 perfect Silicates Orthorhom
(F,OH)2 white, pale ombic bic
blue, light prismat
green, yellow, ic
yellowish
brown, or red
Corundum Al₂O₃ Colorless, White 9 Adamantine, Hexago None Oxides Trigonal
blue, red, Vitreous, nal (parting
pink, yellow, Pearly barrel- possible)
grey, golden- shaped
brown
Diamond C Colorless, Colorl 10 Adamantine, Octahe 4 perfect Native Isometric
yellowish to ess Greasy dral (Octahed Element
yellow, brown, ral)
black, blue,
green or red,
pink,
champagne-
tan, cognac-
brown, lilac
(very rare)
 Bowen’s Reaction Series

Mineral Chem. Color Strea Hard Luster Habit Cleavag Mineral Crystal
Formula k ness e Group System
Olivine (Mg,Fe)₂SiO₄ Yellowish- White 6.5-7 Vitreous, Granula None Silicate Orthorhom
(Si:O Ratio – green, Olive glassy r (Conchoi (Nesosilicate bic
1:4) green, dal )
Greenish- fracture)
black,
Reddish-brown
Pyroxene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 Typically dark White 5-6 Vitreous, dull Blocky, 2 at 1 Chain Monoclinic
(Si:O Ratio – green to black, , gray prismat nearly Silicate
1:3) but can range ic 90° (Inosilicate)
from apple
green, lilac to
colorless
depending on
composition
Amphibole Ca2(Fe, Colorless, White 5-6 Vitreous, dull Acicula 2 at 2 Chain Monoclinic
Mg)5Si8O22(OH) white, green, , gray r, about Silicate
2 (Si:O Ratio – brown, black, prismat 60° and (Inosilicate)
4:11) blue, or ic 120°
lavender
Biotite K(Mg, Usually brown White 2.5-3 Vitreous, Platy, 1 perfect Silicate Monoclinic
Fe)3AlSi3O10(O to black in , gray Pearly foliated (Basal) (Phyllosilicat
H)2 (Si:O Ratio color, but can e)
– 2:5) also be
greenish,
reddish-black,
or opaque.
Muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10) Usually White 2-2.5 Vitreous, Platy, 1 perfect Silicate Monoclinic
(OH)2 (Si:O colorless, Pearly foliated (Basal) (Phyllosilicat
Ratio – 2:5) white or silver, e)
occasionally
yellow or
brown
Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Colorless to White 6 Vitreous, Blocky, 1 perfect, Silicate Monoclinic
(K-felds) white, Sub-Vitreous, prismat 1 good (Tectosilicate
greenish Resinous ic (90°) )
white, grayish
yellow, pale
pink
Quartz SiO₂ Colorless, White 7 Vitreous Hexago None Silicate Trigonal
purple, rose, nal (Conchoi (Tectosilicate
red, black, prismat dal )
yellow, brown, ic Fracture)
green, blue,
orange, etc.
Plagioclase (Ca, Na)AlSi3O8 Usually white White 6-6.5 Vitreous, Hexago 2 at Silicate Triclinic
feldspar to gray in Pearly nal nearly (Tectosilicate
color, but can prismat 90° )
also be ic
colorless, pink,
reddish brown,
or nearly black