Principles of

Communication

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PRINCIPLES OP COMMUNICATION

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

The conveyance of information from the information source to a destination through the use of
electronic devices

Input Communication Recovered

Basic Components of anTransmitter
Electronic Communication
ChannelSystems
or Receiver
Informati lnc+mation
on
l. Transmitter

a coltecson of electronic components and circuits designed to convert the electrical sigpat to
a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium
made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers,
frequency synthesizers, ano other circus
II. Communication Medium or Channel
the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another
some types of media used in communication systems are wire conductors, fiber-optic cable,
and free space
Ill. Receiver
a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted message from
the channel and converts it back to a form understandable by humans
contains amplifiers. oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and fitters, and a demodulator or
detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier
Transceiver
communication equipment incorporate circu ts that both send and rece ve
Attenuation
also called signal degradation
proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver
Noise
- the bane of atT electronic communications
its effect s experienced In the receiver part of any communications system
the measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR),
which is
the signal power divided by the noise power and can be stated numerically or in terms of
decibels (dB)
Types of Electronic Communication Based on Signals Used

l. Analog Signals

a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or

current li, Digital Signals

- in contrast to analog signals, digital Signals do not vary continuously, but change in steps or in
discrete increments
most digital signals use binary or two-state codes

Principles of Communication
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PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

Types of Electronic Communication Based on Mode of Transmission

l. Simplex
- The simplest way in conducting electronic communication
- a unidirectional or one-way communication system where one party can only send (sender)
and the other party can only receive (receiver)
- common examples are television and radio broadcasting, remote controlled cars,
remote controlled drones, etc.
II. Duplex
- a bidirectional or two-way communication system where both parties can send and receive
A. HaP Duplex
a two-way communication in which only one party transmits at a time
common examples are walkie talkie, citizens band radio, amateur radio communication, etc.
B. Full Duplex
a two-way communication in which both parties can send and receive simultaneously
common examples are telephone, cellphone, video calling, video conferencing, etc.

TX RX X RX
TX R
RX X
Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
All electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free space fall into the electromagnetic spectrum.
Frequency
- the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given period of lime
Wavelength
the distance traveled by a wave during the time of one cycle
distance measured between identical points on succeeding cycles of a wave
where :

I —• wavelength in meters (m), feet (ft), or miles

(mi) r -• frequency in Hertz (Hz)
v —• velocity of a wave in meters per second
(mls), feet per second (ft/s), or miles per
second (mi/s)
Velocity of Electromagnetic
Waves
299 792 800 m/s < 3 x 108
Velocity of Sound
m/s Waves —+ speed of light and radio waves in vacuum or in air
6
v = 984 x 10

(343 —• speed of sound in air

m/s
Sound Absorption
sound energy is absorbed to some extent, by different media that sound waves encounter along their
transmission path from the source to the receiver
the product of sound absorption coefficient and surface area of a
material the common unit is Sabine or Sabin

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum Used in Electronic Communications
Name of Frequency Frequency Wavelength Applications or Occurence
AC powerlines, frequencies in the
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 30 — 300 Hz 107 — 10’ m low end human audio range

Normal range of human speech,

Voice Frequency (VF) 300 — 3 kHz 10 — 10* m most intelligible sounds occurs in
this range

Higher end of human hearing

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 — 30 kHz 105 — 10* m range musical instruments,
military communications

Aeronautical and marine navigation

Low Frequency (LF) 30 — 300 kHz 104 — 10* m subcarriers-baseband information

AM radio broadcasting
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz — 3 MHz 10*— 102 m (535-1605 kHz), marine and
amateur radio communication
All kinds of simplex and half duplex
High Frequency (HF) two-way radio communication,
or Short Waves 3 — 30 MHz 102 —10' m amateur radio and CB
communication
FM radio broadcasting
(BB-108MHz), TV channels 2 to
Very High Frequency (VLF} 30 — 300 MHz 10' — 100 m
13, mobile radio, aeronautical and
marine communication
TV channels 14 to 51, cellular
Ultra High Frequency (UHF} 300 MHz — 3 GHz 100 —10-' m telephones, radar and navigation
services

Super High Frequency (SHF} cellular telephone systems, LANs,

3 — 30 GHz 10—' — 10“ m satellite communication and radar
or Microwaves
Satellite communication telephony,
Extremely Frequency (EHF) 30 — 300 Hz 10“— 10 m computer data, short-haul cellular
or Millimeter Waves networks, and some specialized
radar
Fundamental and Harmonics
Fundamental Frequency - the lowest frequency component that can be produced by an instrument
or a device
Harmonic Frequency - multiple of the fundamental frequency

Example: If 100 Hz is the fundamental, the 2 and 3* harmonics are 200 Hz and 300 Hz, respectively

Octave - the range of frequencies wherein the fatio of the highest to lowest is equal to two

Example: If f = 500 Hz, one octave above is 1000 Hz

Bandwidth (BW}
- the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal
- the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit operates
- the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal or the
equipment operation range

' z fi where :
z upper frequency limit (Hz) f, —+ lower frequency limit (Hz)

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Modulation
- the process of imposing information contained in a lower-frequency electronic signal onto a
higher- frequency signal
- the higher-frequency signal is called the carrier, and the lower-frequency signal is called
the modulating signal
Demodulation
- also called detection
- the inverse of modulation, which is the process of retrieving or recovering original
information superimposed from a modulated carrier wave
Modem (MOduIator-OE 4odulator)
- A device that perform modulation and demodulation
- it translates the data from digital to analog and back again in order to facilitate the transmission
of daB to network
Types of Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
- the baseband information signal called the modulating signal, varies the amplitude of the
higher-frequency carrier signal while the frequency is kept constant
Single-Sideband Modulation (SSB)
- to improve the efficiency of amplitude
modulation, the carrier is suppressed and
one sideband is eliminated
Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier
(DSSC or DSB) Signal
- a case of AM with no carrier
- a DSB signal is the algebraic sum of two
sinusoidal sidebands produced when a
carrier is modulated by a single-tone sine
wave information signal
Single-Wideband Suppressed Carrier
(SSSC or SSB) Signal
- the remaining sideband, when one of the
sidebands is suppressed, in order to
convey information
Peak Envelop Power PEP Input Power
- the maximum power produced on - The dc input power of the transmitter’s
voice amplitude peaks final amplifier stage at the instant of the
- transmitter output in SSB voice envelope peak
Modulation
( )’ pP opP = VVIII
PEP = R

where : where :
PEP —+ peak envelope power (W) PEP —+ peak envelope power input power
V S -r rms or effective voltage (V)
(W) V$ —+ amplifier voltage supply (V)
R —+ resistance (ft) Ip —+ maximum or peak amplifier current (A)
Average Power:
PEP PEP
4 ave2 "

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Instantaneous AM Voltage Equation
mYg mV,
v(t)'c *'/ 2 fat
2 cos 2n(f — f„,) t — 2 cos 2Tf (fc + t

where :
V, —+carrier voltage amplitude m —+ modulation index or modulation factor
(V) f C —+ carrier frequency (Hz) —+ modulating frequency (Hz)

Modulation Index or Modulation Factor (m)

peak value or modulating signal8
peak value of unmodulated carfierA
modulated maxmodulated min
m = amplitudeamplitude
modulated maxmodulated min
amplitudeamplitude
Percent Modulation (°/+M):

0 oM = tTl x 1 00 x 100 percent (%)

> 100% —• overmodulation

0ZoM = 100% —+ ideal modulation
< l 000fo —+ undermodulation
Total Power in AM
T C+ SBT C+ LSB+ USB

where :

T —r total transmitted power

Pt —• power content of the carrier
Psig —• total power content on the sidebands
P Sq —+ lower sideband power
use —+ upper sideband power
Total Current in AM:
m2

where:

lg —• total current 1, —• carrier current

Simultaneous Modulation Bandwidth of AM Transmission

m = 2+ m + + W = 2

where : where :

mT —+total modulation index/factor —+ highest modulating frequency (Hz)

1. 2• q —+individual modulation indices
AM Broadcast Band : 525 kHz to 1705 kHz with Bandwidth or Spacing of 10 kHz

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II. Frequency Modulation
- the information signal varies the frequency of the carrier, where the carrier amplitude remains
constant
Advantages of Frequency Modulation Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation
Noise Immunity • Excessive Spectrum Space
Capture Effect
• Circuit Complexity
Transmitter Efficiency
Instantaneous FM Voltage Equation

() V st (2 fc + s 2 t)

Where :
V, —• carrier voltage amplitude ( mt —• modulation index or modulation facto r
I carrier rrequency (Hz) fp —• modulating rrequency in Hertz (Hz)
Modulation Index or Factor of
FM Transmission or Deviation Ratio ( Carrier Swing

)
CS 2
—A—f ——6
r,„
Percent Modulation (%M)
_ actual deviatiOfl ( actual)
%M allowed deviation ( allowed) x 100 percent (%)

Bandwidth of FM Transmission

1. Approximate Bandwidth (Carson's Rule)

BW = ( + r
2. Exact Bandwidth

FM Broadcast Band : BW
88=MHz
2 x Ip
to x108
number
MHz or significant
with Bandwidth sideband
or Spacing of 200 kHz

Phase Modulation
the carrier phase is varied in accordance with the data signal. When the phase is changed,
it also affects the frequency, which makes this modulation comes under Frequency
Modulation.
The Optical Spectrum
right above the millimeter wave region is what we call the optical spectrum occupied by light
waves Types of Light Waves

l. Infrared
between the highest radio frequencies (i.e., millimeter waves) and the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, and is the basis of all fiber-optic communication
wavelength ranges from 700 nm to 0.1 mm
used in astronomy, advanced weaponry, TV remote controller, etc.
II. Visible Spectrum
above the infrared region is the Visible Spectrum, ordinarily referred to as light
wavelength ranges from about 400 nm to about 800 nm usually expressed in
éngstrdm (é), 1 é = 10-' 0 m
used in all communications that uses laser
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PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

Ill. Ultraviolet (UV}

- beyond the visible region is the ultraviolet, generated by the sun, mercury vapor lights
and other lamps
- wavelength ranges from 4 to 400 nm
- primarily applied for medical uses such as X-rays, gamma rays, cosmic rays
Optical Communication Systems
- use light as the carrier of the information to be transmitted
- the medium used may be free space or a special light"pipe” or waveguide
known as the Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber Optic Cable
- a non-conducting cable consisting of a glass or plastic center cable surrounded by a
plastic cladding encased in a plastic outer sheath
- has a circular cross section with a diameter of only a fraction of an inch
- operate on the optical principles of total internal reflection, which uses light rather than
electricityB communicate
Principles of Fiber Optic Communication

1. The information signal to be transmitted (voice, video, or computer data) is converted to a

form compatible with the communication medium, usually by converting continuous analog
signals such as voice and video {TV} signals to a series of digital pulses. An Analog-to-
Digital (A/D) converter is used for this purpose.
2. These digital pulses are then used to flash a powerful light source off and on very rapidly.
In simple low-cost systems that transmit over short distances, the light source is usually a
light- emitting diode that emiB a low-intensity infrared light beam. Infrared beams such as
those used in TV remote controls are also used in transmission.
3. The light beam pulses are then fed into a fiber-optic cable, which can transmit them over
long distances. At the receiving end, a light-sensitive device known as a photocell, or
light detector, is used to detect the light pulses. It converts the light pulses to an electric
signal. The electrical pulses are amplified and reshaped back into digital form. They are
fed to a decoder, such as a Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converter, where the original voice or
video is recovered.
Types of Fiber Optic Cables According to Index of Refraction
I. Step Index Cable — there is a sharply defined step in the index of refraction between
the fiber core and the cladding interface
II. Graded Index Cable - the index of refraction of the core is not constant, where it varies
smoothly and continuously over the diameter of the core
Types of Fiber Optic Cables According to Mode
I. Single Mode — light follows a single path through the core
II. Multimode — light follows multiple paths through the core

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Common Configurations of Fiber Optic Cables

l. Multimode Step Index Cable

the most commonly used type of fiber optic cable
widely used for short to medium distances at relatively low pulse frequencies
least expensive and is large in size that enables it to gather and transmit light efficiently
II. Single Mode Step Index Cable
also called monomode step index fiber cable
eliminates modal dispersion by making the core so small that the total number of modes or
paths through the core is minimized
the pulse repetition rate can be high and the maximum amount of information can be carried
preferably used for long distance transmission and maximum information content
Ill. Multimode Graded Index Cable
have several modes or paths of transmission through the cable, but they are more orderly
and predictable
very high pulse rates, and therefore a considerable amount of information can be carried
wider in diameter that makes it easier to splice and interconnect, cheaper, and less
intense light sources can be used
Attenuation of Fiber Optic Cable
- refers to the loss of light energy as the light pulse travels from one end of the cable to the other
- expressed in decibels (dB) per unit of length (the standard is decibels per kilometer, dB/km)
p where :
„,
d B = 1 Olog P„„ —r output power
P„ —• in put power
Local Area Network (LAN) Hardware
1. Cables - carry data from one computer to another via baseband transmission
A. Coaxial Cable - consists of a thin center conductor surrounded by an insulating material
that is, in turn, completely encircled by a shield. The shield can be
crisscrossed wire braid or solid metal foil. Surrounding the shield is an
outer sheath, usually made of PVC. Its wide bandwidth permits very high-
speed bit rates.
B. Twisted Pair Cable — is the most widely used network cable. Composed of two insulated
copper wires twisted together loosely to form a cable. Two basic types
used in LANs are (a) unshielded or UTP and shielded or STP.
C. Fiber Optic Cable
II. Connectors — provide a fast and easy way to connect and disconnect the equipment trom
the cabling and maintain the characteristics of the cable through the
connection
III. Network Interface Controller (NIC) — provides the l/O interface between each node on a network
and the network wiring
IV. Repeaters — is an electronic circuit that takes a partially degraded signal, boosts its level,
shapes it up, and sends it on its way. Over long transmission distances, several
repeaters may be required. Repeaters are small, inexpensive devices that can be
inserted into a line with appropriate connectors or built into other LAN equipment.
V. Hub — is a LAN accessory that facilitates the interconnections of the cables to the nodes
VI. Bridge — is a network device that is connected as a node on the network and performs
bidirectional communication between two LANs
VII. Switch —a hub-like device used to connect individual PC nodes to the network wiring
VIII. Router — basic function is to expedite traffic flow on both networks and maintain
maximum performance
IX. Gateway — is another internetwork device that acts as an interface between two LANs or
between a LAN and a larger computer system
X. Modems —are interfaces between PCs and communications systems, such as the telephone
or cable TV networks

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Satellite Communication Systems and Radar Sensors

Orbiting Satellite Systems - functions as relay stations with wide area coverage of the Earth’s surface

Satellite Transponders - The path of each channel — from the point of reception by the antenna,
transfer through the repeater, and final retransmission through the antenna
Antenna - it is a metallic conductor system capable of radiating and capturing electromagnetic
energy
Satellite Antenna System — designed to produce beams tailored to match the areas served by the
satellite. Antenna arrays are particularly suitable for this purpose
Types of Antenna According to Direction
1. Directional — have a narrow “beam” that allows highly directional propagation
2. Semi-directional —antennas that propagates in a constricted fashion,
defined by a specific angle
3. Omni-directional —antennas that propagates equally well in all directions
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) - an electromagnetic sensor that illuminates a region of
space and then measures the echoes due to reflecting
objects
Signal Waveform - the collective features of the energy transmitted by a radar
Unambiguous Range (Ru) - the maximum target range that can measure unambiguously. It
corresponds to the maximum range that a target can have such
that its echo is received before the transmission of the next pulse
where :
cT _ c
rp lnterpulse rrequency (HP) Tp iflterpulse period (s)
c = 3 x 10° m /s —+ speedof light

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1. Which of the following characteristics of a sine wave can be modulated?
A. amplitude B. angular phase C. angular velocity D. all of these

2. The following are advantages of modulation except

A. allow the use of practical-size antenna
B. separate differing transmission
C. circuit simplicity
D. overcomes difficulty in transmission at low frequencies

REE - Sept. 2019

3. Amplitude modulation generated at a very low voltage or power amplifier is
modulation.
A. minimum B. collector C. high-level D. low-level

4. In AM, carrier amplitude variation depends on modulating signal’s

A. amplitude C. amplitude and frequency
B. frequency D. none of these

5. A 400 watts carrier is modulated to a depth of 75 pement. Calculate the total power in the
modulated wave.
A. 512.5 W B. 500 W C. 530 W D. 515.5 W

6. If the receive signal is 600 kHz in an AM broadcast, what is the local oscillator frequency?
A. 600 kHz B. 145 kHz C. 1055 kHz D. 455 kHz

7. The instantaneous voltage of modulated FM carrier is given

by v = 10 sin (750x106 t + 10 sin 100Q). The carrier
frequency is
A. 750 MHz B. 1000 MHz C. 119.37 MHz D. 1000 Hz

REE - May 2009

8. The amount of frequency deviation from the carrier center of frequency in an FM
transmitter is proportional to the
A. shape B. amplitude C. frequency D. phase

REE - Sept. 2003

9. What is the common unit of the sound absorption
coefficient? D. decibel
A. watt B. erg C. sabine

10. The input is 0.1 W and the network gain is 13 dB, the output D. 1.8 W
is A. 2.0 W B. 2.5 W C. 1.5 W

11. Tendency of sound energy to spread

A. Reflection B. C. Rarefaction D. Refraction
Diffraction

12. One octave above 600 Hz is C. 1400 Hz D. 1200 Hz

A. 601 Hz B. 800 Hz

13. A technique that enables more than one data source to share the use of a common facility
A. companding B. multiplexing C. sharing D. all of these

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REE - April 2003
14. Which of the following carries the most number of channels?
A. 50 multiplexer B. 100 pairs of cables C. 100 chips D. 1 fiber optic

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REE - April 2005
15. What is the optical soume for the transmitting end of an optic fiber cable?
A. Halogen C. Injection Laser Diode
B. LED D. Photocell

REE - Sept. 2004

16. What is the most commonly used fiber optic cable?
A. single mode step index C. Multi mode step index
B. single mode graded index D. Multi mode graded index

17. Which type of fiber optic cable is best for very high speed data?
A. Single mode step index C. Single mode graded index
B. Multimode graded index D. Multimode step index

REE - Sept. 2005

18. What replaces coaxial cable for terrestrial transmission?
A. copper cable C. aluminum cable
B. point to point wireless transmission D. fiber optics

19. The core of a fiber optic cable is made of

A. Air B. Glass C. Diamond D. Quartz

REE - April 2004

20. A type of communication that uses light rather than electricity to communicate is
called
A. Laser carrier B. Microwave C. Powerline carrier D. Fiber optic

REE - Sept. 2017

21. Which of the following principle will the operation of fiber-optic cable is based?
A. dispersion B. refraction C. reflection D. absorption

REE - Sept. 2019

22. A transponder with a bandwidth of 400 MHz uses polarization diversity. If the wavelength
allocated to transmit a single telephone channel is 4 kHz, how many telephone channels
can be carried by the transponder?
A. 300,000 B. 400,000 C. 100,000 D. 200,000

REE - April 2016

23. The master control center for a cellular telephone system is the
A. cell site C. central office
B. mobile telephone switching office D. branch office

REE - Sept. 2007

24. What contains in each cell site of cellular telephone system?
A. repeater C. direct-link to branch
B. touch tone processor D. control computer

REE - May 2009 / Sept. 2017

25. What is the maximum output power of a cellular transmitter?
A. 60 watts B. 3 watts C. 6 watts D. 30 watts

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26. As a cellphone user passes from one cell to another:
A. A “handoff” process occurs C. both cells will handle the cell
B. A “sectoring” process occurs D. nothing occurs

REE - Sept. 2017 / April 2019

27. In which type of electronic communications does the information travel in two directions?
A. half duplex B. full duplex C. multiplex D. bicomm

REE - April 2018 / Sept. 2018

28. A type of electronics communication in which only one party transmits at a time.
A. Full duplex B. Half duplex C. Bicom D. Simplex

29. A “repeater™ is used to:

A. send a message multiple times over a channel
B. send a message over multiple channels at the same time
C. extend the range of a radio communications system
D. cancel the effects of fading

REE - Sept. 2017 / April 2019

30. Single-Side Band signal produces a peak to peak voltage of 720 V on voice peaks across
a 75-ohm antenna. What is the peak envelope power?
A. 865 W B. 856 W C. 835 W D. 853 W

REE - Sept. 2003

31. In 1885, who invented antenna for long distance transmission of electromagnetic waves?
A. Benjamin Franklin C. Isaac Newton
B. Guglielmo Marconi D. Carl Siemen

REE - April 2004

32. An antenna that transmits and receives equally well in all direction is said to be

A. Omnidirectional B. Bidirectonal C. Unidirectional D. Quasidirectional

33. Radiated power unit area

A. Air density B. Sound density C. Power density D. Signal density

REE - April 2004

34. It refers to a device that merely boosts a signal and passes it on.
A. amplifier B. booster C. op-amp D. repeater

REE - Sept. 2009

35. A collision avoidance radar is designed to detect the presence of vehicles up to a range of
0.50 km. What is the maximum pulse repetition frequency, PRF?
A. 600 kHz B. 300 MHz C. 300 kHz D. 600 MHz

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