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Btech II
Analogue Communications
Recommended Text Books

• Contents • “An introduction to Analogue and Digital communication”, Haykin

(Wiley)

Introduction to Communication Systems • “Communication Systems”, Carlson (McGraw & Hill)

 Analogue Modulation
• “Information, Transmission, Modulation and Noise”, Schwartz
 Amplitude Modulation (AM) (McGraw & Hill)
 Types (DSBAM, DSBSC,SSB,SSBSC)
 Modulation • “Analogue and Digital Communication Systems”, Raden (Prentice-
Hall)
 Demodulation
• “Communication Systems”, Haykin (Wiley)

• “Electronic Communication Techniques”, Young (Merril-Publ)

Kwadwo Ntiamoah-Sarpong, Ph.D Kumasi Technical University
1 2

1 2

Introduction to Modulation and

Demodulation
Multiplexing

The purpose of a communication system is to transfer information from a source to a destination. Multiplexing is a modulation method which improves channel bandwidth utilisation.
For example, a co-axial cable has a bandwidth of 100's of Mhz. Baseband speech is a only a few kHz

In practice, problems arise in baseband transmissions,

the major cases being:

• Noise in the system – external noise

and circuit noise reduces the
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio at the receiver
(Rx) input and hence reduces the
quality of the output.

• Such a system is not able to fully utilise the available bandwidth,

for example telephone quality speech has a bandwidth ≃ 3kHz, a
co-axial cable has a bandwidth of 100's of Mhz.
• Radio systems operating at baseband frequencies are very difficult.
• Not easy to network.
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1) Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM 2) Time Division Multiplexing TDM

This allows several 'messages' to be translated from baseband, where they are all
in the same frequency band, to adjacent but non overlapping parts of the spectrum. TDM is another form of multiplexing based on sampling which is a modulation
An example of FDM is broadcast radio (long wave LW, medium wave MW, etc.) technique. In TDM, samples of several analogue message symbols, each one
sampled in turn, are transmitted in a sequence, i.e. the samples occupy adjacent
time slots.

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5 6

Radio Transmission Networks

•Aerial dimensions are of the same order as the wavelength, , of the signal
(e.g. quarter wave /4, /2 dipoles). • A baseband system which is essentially point-to-point
c
could be operated in a network. Some forms of access
 is related to frequency by λ=
f
where c is the velocity of an electromagnetic wave, and c =
3x108 m/sec in free space.
control (multiplexing) would be desirable otherwise the
3 x10 8
performance would be limited. Analogue
For baseband speech, with a signal at 3kHz, (3x103Hz) λ=
3x10 3
= 105 metres or 100km. communications networks have been in existence for a
long time, for example speech radio networks for
• Aerials of this size are impractical although some transmissions at Very Low Frequency (VLF) for specialist
applications are made. ambulance, fire brigade, police authorities etc.
• A modulation process described as 'up-conversion' (similar to FDM) allows the baseband signal to be
translated to higher 'radio' frequencies. • For example, 'digital speech' communications, in which
• Generally 'low' radio frequencies 'bounce' off the ionosphere and travel long distances around the earth,
the analogue speech signal is converted to a digital
high radio frequencies penetrate the ionosphere and make space communications possible. signal via an analogue-to-digital converter give a form
The ability to 'up convert' baseband signals has implications on aerial dimensions and design, long distance more convenient for transmission and processing.
terrestrial communications, space communications and satellite communications. Background 'radio' noise
is also an important factor to be considered.

• In a similar content, optical (fibre optic) communications is made possible by a modulation process in which
7 8
an optical light source is modulated by an information source.

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What is Modulation? Summary of Modulation Techniques 1

In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control the
parameters of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.

The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
analogue – denoted by m(t)
digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.

The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:

vc t  = Vc cosωc t + φc 
• If the message signal m(t) controls amplitude – gives AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
• If the message signal m(t) controls frequency – gives FREQUENCY MODULATION FM 9 10
• If the message signal m(t) controls phase- gives PHASE MODULATION PM or M

9 10

Summary of Modulation Techniques with

Summary of Modulation Techniques 2 some Derivatives and Familiar
Applications

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Modulation Types AM, FM, PAM Modulation Types AM, FM, PAM 2

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Analogue Modulation – Amplitude

Modulation
Message Signal m(t)

Consider a 'sine wave' carrier. In general m(t) will be a band of signals, for example speech or video signals. A
notation or convention to show baseband signals for m(t) is shown below

vc(t) = Vc cos(ct), peak amplitude = Vc, carrier frequency c radians per second.
Since c = 2fc, frequency = fc Hz where fc = 1/T.

Amplitude Modulation AM

In AM, the modulating signal (the message signal) m(t) is 'impressed' on to the
amplitude of the carrier.
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Message Signal m(t) Message Signal m(t)

In general m(t) will be band limited. Consider for example, speech via a microphone.
The envelope of the spectrum would be like:

In order to make the analysis and indeed the testing of AM systems easier, it is common to make
m(t) a test signal, i.e. a signal with a constant amplitude and frequency given by

17 m t V m cos m t 18

17 18

Schematic Diagram for Amplitude

Modulation
Equations for AM

From the diagram v s t  = VDC + mt cosωc t  where VDC is the DC voltage that can
be varied. The equation is in the form Amp cos ct and we may 'see' that the amplitude
is a function of m(t) and VDC. Expanding the equation we get:

VDC is a variable voltage, which can be set between 0 Volts and +V Volts. This vs t  = VDC cosωc t + mt cos ωc t 
schematic diagram is very useful; from this all the important properties of AM and
various forms of AM may be derived.
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Equations for AM Spectrum and Waveforms

Now let m(t) = Vm cos mt, i.e. a 'test' signal, vs t  = VDC cosωc t +Vm cosωm t cosωc t 
1
Using the trig identity cosAcosB = cos  A + B  + cos  A  B  The following diagrams
2
V V represent the spectrum
we have v s t  = VDC cosωc t + m cosωc + ωm t  + m cosωc  ωm t  of the input signals,
2 2
namely (VDC + m(t)),
with m(t) = Vm cos m t,
Components: Carrier upper sideband USB lower sideband LSB and the carrier cos ct
and corresponding
Amplitude: VDC Vm/2 Vm/2 waveforms.

Frequency: c c + m c – m
fc fc + fm fc - fm

This equation represents Double Amplitude Modulation – DSBAM 21 22

21 22

Spectrum and Waveforms Double Sideband AM, DSBAM

The above are input signals. The diagram below shows the spectrum and The component at the output at the carrier frequency fc is shown as a broken line with
corresponding waveform of the output signal, given by amplitude VDC to show that the amplitude depends on VDC. The structure of the
waveform will now be considered in a little more detail.
Vm Vm
vs t V DC cos c t cos c m t cos c m t
2 2 Waveforms
Consider again the diagram

VDC is a variable DC offset added to the message; m(t) = Vm cos mt

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Double Sideband AM, DSBAM Double Sideband AM, DSBAM

This is multiplied by a carrier, cos ct. We effectively multiply (VDC + m(t)) waveform
by +1, -1, +1, -1, ...

The product gives the output signal vs t V DC m t cos c t 25 26

25 26

Modulation Depth Modulation Depth 2

Consider again the equation v s t  = VDC +Vm cosωm t cosωc t  , which may be written as
2Emax = maximum peak-to-peak of waveform
 V 
vs t  = VDC 1+ m cosωmt cosωc t  2Emin = minimum peak-to-peak of waveform
 V DC 
Vm Vm 2E max  2 E min
The ratio is Modulation Depth m =
VDC defined as the modulation depth, m, i.e. Modulation Depth m = V DC 2E max + 2 E min
From an oscilloscope display the modulation depth for Double Sideband AM may be Vm
determined as follows: This may be shown to equal as follows:
VDC
Vm

2 Emax 2 V DC V m 2 Emin 2 V DC V m
VDC 2Emax
2Emin
2VDC + 2Vm  2VDC + 2Vm 4Vm Vm
m= = =
2VDC + 2Vm + 2VDC  2Vm 4VDC VDC

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Graphical Representation of Modulation

Double Sideband Modulation 'Types' Depth and Modulation Types.

There are 3 main types of DSB

• Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation, DSBAM – with carrier

• Double Sideband Diminished (Pilot) Carrier, DSB Dim C

• Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier, DSBSC

• The type of modulation is determined by the modulation depth,

which for a fixed m(t) depends on the DC offset, VDC. Note, when a
modulator is set up, VDC is fixed at a particular value. In the following
illustrations we will have a fixed message, Vm cos mt and vary VDC
to obtain different types of Double Sideband modulation.

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Graphical Representation of Modulation Graphical Representation of Modulation

Depth and Modulation Types 2. Depth and Modulation Types 3

Note then that VDC may be set to give

the modulation depth and modulation
type.

DSBAM VDC >> Vm, m  1

DSB Dim C 0 < VDC < Vm,
m > 1 (1 < m < )
DSBSC VDC = 0, m = 

The spectrum for the 3 main types of

amplitude modulation are summarised

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Bandwidth Requirement for DSBAM Bandwidth Requirement for DSBAM

In general, the message signal m(t) will not be a single 'sine' wave, but a band of frequencies
extending up to B Hz as shown Amplitude Modulation is a linear process, hence the principle of superposition
applies. The output spectrum may be found by considering each component cosine
wave in m(t) separately and summing at the output.
Note:

• Frequency inversion of the LSB

• the modulation process has effectively shifted or frequency translated the baseband
m(t) message signal to USB and LSB signals centred on the carrier frequency fc
• the USB is a frequency shifted replica of m(t)
Remember – the 'shape' is used for convenience to distinguish low frequencies from high • the LSB is a frequency inverted/shifted replica of m(t)
frequencies in the baseband signal. • both sidebands each contain the same message information, hence either the LSB or
USB could be removed (because they both contain the same information)
• the bandwidth of the DSB signal is 2B Hz, i.e. twice the highest frequency in the
baseband signal, m(t)
• The process of multiplying (or mixing) to give frequency translation (or up-conversion)
forms the basis of radio transmitters and frequency division multiplexing which will be
discussed later.

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Power Considerations in DSBAM Power Considerations in DSBAM

2
 V pk  From this we may write two equivalent equations for the total power PT, in a DSBAM signal
Remembering that Normalised Average Power = (VRMS)2 =  
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
we may tabulate for AM components as follows: VDC V V V V VDC m 2V DC m 2VDC
PT = + m + m = DC + m and PT = + +
V V 2 8 8 2 4 2 8 8
v s t  = VDC cosωc t + m cosωc + ωm t + m cosωc  ωm t 
2 2
VDC
2 m2 m2  m2 
Component Carrier USB LSB
The carrier power Pc = i.e. PT = Pc + Pc + Pc or PT = Pc 1+ 
2 4 4  2 
Amplitude pk VDC Vm Vm
2 2 Either of these forms may be useful. Since both USB and LSB contain the same information a
Power useful ratio which shows the proportion of 'useful' power to total power is
2 2 2 2
VDC  Vm  V m  Vm  Vm
2
Total Power PT =
  = 8  2 2  = 8 m2
2 2 2   Carrier Power Pc Pc
+ PUSB PUSB 4 m2
Power 2 2 2 = =
VDC
2 2
m VDC m VDC + PLSB PT  m2  4 + 2m 2
2 Pc 1+ 
8 8 35  2  36

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Power Considerations in DSBAM Example

For DSBAM (m  1), allowing for m(t) with a dynamic range, the average value of m
Suppose you have a portable (for example you carry it in your ' back pack') DSBAM transmitter
may be assumed to be m = 0.3
which needs to transmit an average power of 10 Watts in each sideband when modulation depth
m = 0.3. Assume that the transmitter is powered by a 12 Volt battery. The total power will be
Hence,
m2
=
0.3 = 0.0215
2

4 + 2m 2 4 + 20.32 m2 m2
PT = Pc + Pc + Pc
4 4
Hence, on average only about 2.15% of the total power transmitted may be regarded m2 410  40
where Pc = 10 Watts, i.e. Pc = = = 444.44 Watts
as 'useful' power. ( 95.7% of the total power is in the carrier!) 4 m2 0.32
Hence, total power PT = 444.44 + 10 + 10 = 464.44 Watts.
m2 1
Even for a maximum modulation depth of m = 1 for DSBAM the ratio = 464.44 amps!
4 + 2m 2 6 Hence, battery current (assuming ideal transmitter) = Power / Volts =
12
i.e. a large and heavy 12 Volt battery.
i.e. only 1/6th of the total power is 'useful' power (with 2/3 of the total power in the
carrier). Suppose we could remove one sideband and the carrier, power transmitted would be
10 Watts, i.e. 0.833 amps from a 12 Volt battery, which is more reasonable for a
37 38
portable radio transmitter.

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Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation

One method to produce signal sideband (SSB) amplitude modulation is to produce

DSBAM, and pass the DSBAM signal through a band pass filter, usually called a
single sideband filter, which passes one of the sidebands as illustrated in the diagram
below.

The type of SSB may be SSBAM (with a 'large' carrier component), SSBDimC or
SSBSC depending on VDC at the input. A sequence of spectral diagrams are shown
on the next page.
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Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation

Note that the bandwidth of the SSB signal B Hz is half of the DSB signal bandwidth.
Note also that an ideal SSB filter response is shown. In practice the filter will not be
ideal as illustrated.

As shown, with practical filters some part of the rejected sideband (the LSB in this
case) will be present in the SSB signal. A method which eases the problem is to
produce SSBSC from DSBSC and then add the carrier to the SSB signal. 41 42

41 42

Single Sideband Amplitude Modulation Power in SSB

 m2 
From previous discussion, the total power in the DSB signal is PT = Pc 1+ 
 2 
2 2
m m
= PT = Pc + Pc + Pc for DSBAM.
4 4
Hence, if Pc and m are known, the carrier power and power in one sideband may be
with m(t) = Vm cos mt, we may write: determined. Alternatively, since SSB signal =
Vm V Vm
v s t  = VDC cosωc t + cosωc + ωm t + m cosωc  ωm t  v s t  = VDC cos ωc t + cos ωc + ωm t 
2 2 2
The SSB filter removes the LSB (say) and the output is then the power in SSB signal (Normalised Average Power) is
V
vs t  = VDC cos ωc t + m cos ωc + ωm t  2 2 2 2
VDC  V  V V
2 PSSB = +  m  = DC + m
2 2 2  2 8
Again, note that the output may be For SSBSC, output signal =
SSBAM, VDC large 2 2
V VDC V
SSBDimC, VDC small v s t  = m cosωc + ωm t  43 Power in SSB signal = + m 44
SSBSC, VDC = 0 2 2 8

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Demodulation of Amplitude Modulated

Signals
Envelope or Non-Coherent Detection

An envelope detector for AM is shown below:

There are 2 main methods of AM Demodulation:

• Envelope or non-coherent Detection/Demodulation.

• Synchronised or coherent Demodulation.

This is obviously simple, low cost. But the AM input must be DSBAM with m << 1, i.e.
it does not demodulate DSBDimC, DSBSC or SSBxx.
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45 46

Small Signal Operation – Square Law

Large Signal Operation Detector

For large signal inputs, ( Volts) the diode is switched i.e. forward biased  ON, reverse For small AM signals (~ millivolts) demodulation depends on the diode square law
biased  OFF, and acts as a half wave rectifier. The 'RC' combination acts as a 'smoothing characteristic.
circuit' and the output is m(t) plus 'distortion'.

If the modulation depth is > 1, the distortion below occurs

The diode characteristic is of the form i(t) = av + bv2 + cv3 + ..., where

v = VDC + mt cosωc t  i.e. DSBAM signal.

47 Dc component of diode output is proportional to the square48
of
the AC input voltage

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Small Signal Operation – Square Law

Synchronous or Coherent Demodulation
Detector

aVDC + mt cosωc t + bVDC + mt cosωc t  + ... A synchronous demodulator is shown below
2
i.e.

 2 2

= aVDC + amt cosωc t  + b VDC + 2VDC mt + mt  cos ωc t + ...
2

  12
= aVDC + amt cos ωc t + bVDC + 2bV DC mt + bmt   + cos 2ωc t 
2 2 1
2

 
2bV DC mt  bmt 
2 2 2
bVDC V
= aV DC + amt cosωc t + + + + b DC cos2ωc t + ... This is relatively more complex and more expensive. The Local Oscillator (LO) must be
2 2 2 2
synchronised or coherent, i.e. at the same frequency and in phase with the carrier in the
'LPF' removes components. AM input signal. This additional requirement adds to the complexity and the cost.
2
bVDC
Signal out = aVDC + + bVDC mt  i.e. the output contains m(t) However, the AM input may be any form of AM, i.e. DSBAM, DSBDimC, DSBSC or
2 SSBAM, SSBDimC, SSBSC. (Note – this is a 'universal' AM demodulator and the
49 process is similar to correlation – the LPF is similar to an integrator). 50

49 50

Synchronous or Coherent Demodulation Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

If the AM input contains a small or large component at the carrier frequency, the LO If we assume zero path delay between the modulator and demodulator, then the ideal
may be derived from the AM input as shown below. LO signal is cos(ct). Note – in general the will be a path delay, say , and the LO
would then be cos(c(t – ), i.e. the LO is synchronous with the carrier implicit in the
received signal. Hence for an ideal system with zero path delay

Analysing this for a DSBAM input = VDC + mt cosωct 

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Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

VX = AM input x LO

= VDC + mt cos 2 ωc t 

= VDC + mt cosωc t   cosωc t 
= VDC + mt  1 + 1 cos2ωc t 
2 2 

VDC VDC mt  mt 

Vx = + cos 2ωc t + + cos 2ωc t 
2 2 2 2
We will now examine the signal spectra from 'modulator to Vx' (continued
on next
53 54
page)

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Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator Synchronous (Coherent) Local Oscillator

The LPF with a cut-off frequency  fc will pass only the baseband signal i.e.
VDC mt 
Vout = +
2 2

and In general the LO may have a frequency offset, , and/or a phase offset, , i.e.

Note – the AM input has been 'split into two' – 'half' has moved or shifted up to The AM input is essentially either:
 mt   V mt 
2 fc  cos2ωc t + VDC cos2ωc t  and half shifted down to baseband, DC and • DSB (DSBAM, DSBDimC, DSBSC)
 2  2 2 55 • SSB (SSBAM, SSBDimC, SSBSC) 56

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1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

The equation for DSB is VDC + mt cosωc t  where VDC allows full carrier (DSBAM), The LPF with a cut-off frequency  fc Hz will remove the components at 2c (i.e.
components above c) and hence
diminished carrier or suppressed carrier to be set.

Vx = VDC + mt cosωc t .cosωc + Δω t + Δφ 

V DC mt 
Hence, Vx = AM Input x LO Vout = cos( t + φ) + cos ωt + φ
1
2 2
Since cosAcosB = cos A + B + cos A  B  VDC mt 
2 Obviously, if Δω = 0 and Δφ 0 we have, as previously Vout = +
2 2
Vx =
VDC + mt  cosω + ωc + Δω t + Δφ + cosωc + Δω t + Δφ  ωc t 
Consider now if  is equivalent to a few Hz offset from the ideal LO. We may then
c
2 say
V mt   V mt 
V x =  DC + cos2ωc + Δω t + Δφ + cos Δωt + Δφ  Vout = DC cos  Δωt + cos  Δωt 
 2 2  2 2

VDC V The output, if speech and processed by the human brain may be intelligible, but
Vx = cos2ωc + Δω t + Δφ + DC cos Δωt + Δφ  would include a low frequency 'buzz' at , and the message amplitude would
2 2
fluctuate. The requirement  = 0 is necessary for DSBAM.
mt  mt 
+ cos2ωc + Δω t + Δφ  + cos Δωt + Δφ  57 58
2 2

57 58

1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs 1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs

Consider now if  is equivalent to a few Hz offset from the ideal LO. We may then The 'VDC' component is not important, but consider for m(t),
say
V mt 
Vout = DC cos  Δωt + cos Δωt  π π mt   π 
2 2 • if Δφ = (900), cos  = 0 i.e. Vout = cos  = 0
2 2 2 2
The output, if speech and processed by the human brain may be intelligible, but would
π mt 
include a low frequency 'buzz' at , and the message amplitude would fluctuate. The
• if Δφ = (1800), cosπ  = 1 i.e. Vout = cosπ  = mt 
requirement  = 0 is necessary for DSBAM. 2 2
Consider now that  = 0 but   0, i.e. the frequency is correct at c but there is a
phase offset. Now we have The phase inversion if  =  may not be a problem for speech or music, but it may be
a problem if this type of modulator is used to demodulate PRK
V DC mt  π
Vout = cos Δφ + cos Δφ  However, the major problem is that as  increases towards the signal strength
2 2 2
π
output gets weaker (fades) and at the output is zero
'cos()' causes fading (i.e. amplitude reduction) of the output. 2
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1. Double Sideband (DSB) AM Inputs 2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input

If the phase offset varies with time, then the signal fades in and out. The variation of The equation for SSB with a carrier depending on VDC is
amplitude of the output, with phase offset  is illustrated below
Vm
VDC cos ωc t + cos ωc + ωm t 
2
i.e. assuming mt  = Vm cosωm t 

 V 
Hence Vx =  VDC cosωc t + m cosωc + ωm t cosωc +  t + Δφ 
 2 
VDC V
= cos2ωc + Δω t + Δφ + DC cos Δωt + Δφ 
2 2
Vm Vm
+ cos2ωc + ωm + Δω t + Δφ + cosωm  Δω t  Δφ 
Thus the requirement for  = 0 and  = 0 is a 'strong' requirement for DSB amplitude 4 4
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modulation.

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2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input 2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input

The LPF removes the 2c components and hence The spectrum for Vout with  offset is shown

VDC V
cos Δωt + Δφ + m cosωm  Δω t  Δφ 
2 4
VDC Vm
Note, if  = 0 and  = 0, + cos ωm t  ,i.e. mt  = Vm cosωm t  has been
2 4
recovered.
Consider first that   0, e.g. an offset of say 50Hz. Then Hence, the effect of the offset  is to shift the baseband output, up or down, by .
For speech, this shift is not serious (for example if we receive a 'whistle' at 1kHz and
VDC V
Vout = cos  Δωt + m cosωm  Δω t  the offset is 50Hz, you hear the whistle at 950Hz ( = +ve) which is not very
2 4 noticeable. Hence, small frequency offsets in SSB for speech may be tolerated.
Consider now that  = 0,  = 0, then
If m(t) is a signal at say 1kHz, the output contains a signal a 50Hz, depending on VDC
VDC V
and the 1kHz signal is shifted to 1000Hz - 50Hz = 950Hz. Vout = cos Δφ + m cosωm t  Δφ 
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2. Single Sideband (SSB) AM Input Comments

• In terms of 'evolution', early radio schemes and radio on long wave (LW)
• This indicates a fading VDC and a phase shift in the and medium wave (MW) to this day use DSBAM with m < 1. The reason for
output. If the variation in  with time is relatively slow, this was the reduced complexity and cost of 'millions' of receivers compared
to the extra cost and power requirements of a few large LW/MW
thus phase shift variation of the output is not serious for transmitters for broadcast radio, i.e. simple envelope detectors only are
speech. required.

• Nowadays, with modern integrated circuits, the cost and complexity of

synchronous demodulators is much reduced especially compared to the
• Hence, for SSB small frequency and phase variations in additional features such as synthesised LO, display, FM etc. available in
the LO are tolerable. The requirement for a coherent LO modern receivers.
is not as a stringent as for DSB. For this reason, SSBSC
Amplitude Modulation forms the basis for:
(suppressed carrier) is widely used since the receiver is
relatively more simple than for DSB and power and • Digital Modulation – Amplitude Shift Keying ASK
bandwidth requirements are reduced. • Digital Modulation – Phase Reversal Keying PRK
• Multiplexing – Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM
• Up conversion – Radio transmitters
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• Down conversion – Radio receivers

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THANK YOU

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