20

CH APTER

Number and Algebra

Functions and inverse

functions
In earlier chapters, we have met a number of types of functions – polynomial
functions including quadratics and cubics, exponential functions, logarithmic
functions and trigonometric functions.
In this chapter we discuss two questions:
• What is a function?
• What is the inverse of a function, and which functions have inverses?
We shall meet the vertical line test and the horizontal line test, and develop a
method for constructing the inverse of a function when it exists.
We will concentrate as much as possible on concrete examples rather than
general theory.

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 20A Functions and domains
When a quantity y is uniquely determined by another quantity x as a result of some rule or formula,
then we say y is a function of x.
Here are some examples of functions:
1
y = x + 2, y = 3 x 2 − 7, y = sin x , y = 2 x , y =
and y = log2 x
x
These are all examples of functions that we have met in earlier chapters of this book. We know how
to draw their graphs.
y
y 1 y = sin x
y y= 3x2 −7

y=x+2 2 O x −360 −180 O 180 360 x

−2 O x
−1
−7

y
y
y y = 1x y = log2 x

y = 2x
O x O 1 x

O x

Domains
For the first four graphs above, there is a point on the graph corresponding to every x-value. That is,
you can substitute any x-value into the formula to obtain a unique y-value.
We therefore say that the natural domain of the functions y = x + 2, y = 3 x 2 − 7 , y = sin x and
y = 2 x is ‘the set of all real numbers’.
For the graph of y = log2 x , there is a point on the graph corresponding to every positive x-value.
That is, you can substitute any positive x-value into the formula to obtain a unique y-value.
1
For the graph of y = , there is a point on the graph corresponding to every non-zero x-value.
x
That is, you can substitute any non-zero x-value into the formula to obtain a unique y-value.

Definition
The set of allowable values of x is called the natural domain of the function.
The natural domain of a function is often simply called the domain of the function. We will refer to
it as the domain in this chapter.

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 20A FUNCTIONS AND DOMAINS

The domain of the function y = log2 x is the set of positive real numbers, {x : x > 0}, for which we
will use the shorthand x > 0 . We write, ‘ y = log2 x , where x > 0 ’.
The domains of some functions that you have met previously are presented below.

Function Domain
y = 4 x 3 + 2x 2 + 5 x − 4 all real numbers
y = cos 3x all real numbers
y= x x ≥0

y = 3x all real numbers

1
y= x ≠0
x

To be a little more precise we say y = 2 x for all real x is the function, whereas
y
y = 2x

O x
is the graph of the function.

Example 1

What is the domain of each function?

6
a y= b y= x−5
x −1
1 x 2 − 6x + 3
c y= 2 d y=
x −4 x2 + 4

Solution

a The domain is x ≠ 1, since the denominator must not be zero.

b x is only defined for x ≥ 0. Hence, the domain of y = x − 5 is x ≥ 5.
c The domain is all real numbers except 2 and −2, since the denominator is zero when
x = 2 or x = −2.
d x 2 + 4 is never zero, so the domain is all real numbers.

Note: You can often determine the domain of a function even though you may not be able to
easily sketch its graph.

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 20A FUNCTIONS AND DOMAINS

Graphs and the vertical line test

Not all graphs are the graphs of functions. For example, the graph of y
x 2 + y 2 = 25 is a circle with centre the origin and radius 5. When 5
we substitute x = 3, we get two y-values, y = −4 and y = 4 , because x2 + y2 = 25 (3, 4)
the line x = 3 cuts the circle at two points.
−5 O 5 x

(3, −4)
Hence, for some x-values, for example x = 3, there is not a unique
−5
y-value. Thus, this graph is not the graph of a function. Each vertical
x=3
line, x = c, must meet the graph at, at most, one point for the graph to
be the graph of a function.
y x = y2
In general, if we can draw a vertical line that cuts a graph more than once,
the graph is not the graph of a function. 2

This is called the vertical line test. O 4 x

The graph of the parabola to the right is not a graph of a function. −2

A vertical line has been drawn that crosses the graph at two places.
The y-values are not uniquely determined by the x-values.

Example 2

State whether or not each graph is the graph of a function, and illustrate using the vertical
line test.
a y b y
y = log3 x
1
y=x+1

–1 O x O 1 x

c y d y y 2 = x2

4 x2 + y2 = 16

x
O
−4 O 4 x

−4

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 20A FUNCTIONS AND DOMAINS

Solution

a y b y
(c, c + 1)
(c, log2 c)
1
O 1 c x
–1 O c x

It is the graph of a function.

It is the graph of a function.
c y d y=x
y = –x y
4 (c, c)

c x
–4 O 4 x O
(c, –c)
–4

It is not the graph of a function. If y 2 = x 2, then y = x or y = − x ,

so the graph consists of two straight
lines. It is not the graph of a function.

Relations y
• An equation such as + = 25 is called a relation. Indeed, the word
x2 y2 5 x2 + y2 = 25
‘relation’ is very general, and any set of points in the Cartesian plane is a
relation.
The vertical line test determines whether or not a relation is a function. −5 O 5 x

−5

• In a natural way, the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25 leads to two functions.

Solving x 2 + y 2 = 25 for y:
y 2 = 25 − x 2
y= 25 − x 2 or y = − 25 − x 2
The graph of the first of these is the top half of the circle. y

This graph satisfies the vertical line test. So y = 25 − x 2 , −5 ≤ x ≤ 5 is a 5 y = 25 − x2

function.

−5 O 5 x

Domain: −5 ≤ x ≤ 5

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 20A FUNCTIONS AND DOMAINS

The graph of the second of these is the bottom half of the circle and the graph satisfies the vertical
line test, so y = − 25 − x 2 , −5 ≤ x ≤ 5 is a function.

−5 O 5 x

y = − 25 − x2
−5

Domain: −5 ≤ x ≤ 5

Functions, domains and the vertical line test

• When a quantity, y , is uniquely determined by some other quantity, x, as a result of some
rule or formula, then we say y is a function of x .
• The set of allowable values of x is called the natural domain, or domain, of the function.
• Vertical line test. Each vertical line, x = c, must meet a graph at, at most, one point for
the graph to be the graph of a function.
Notice that each vertical line meets the graphs of the functions
on page 590 of this chapter at either zero or one point.
y

O x

x=c

Exercise 20A

Example 1 1 What is the domain of each function?

5 1
a y = 2x − 5 b y = x2 + 5 c y= d y=
x x−2
3 4 7 3x + 2
e y= f y= g y= h y= 2
x+4 3x − 6 x2 −4 x −9
2 What is the domain of each function?
a y= 7x b y= 7+x c y= 7−x
1 1
d y= 7x − 1 e y= f y=
7x x−7

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 20A FUNCTIONS AND DOMAINS

3 What is the domain of each function?

a y = 2x b y = 73 x + 5 c y = log5 x
d y = log3 ( x − 2) e y = log2 (− x ) f y = 2sin x

Example 2 4 Use the vertical line test to determine whether each graph is the graph of a function.
a y b y x=3
c y

y = 7x2 + 3
y=4

O x O x

O x

d y y = 2x3 e y f y

5
(2, 3) y=x−3
O x
O O 3 x
5
x −3
(x − 2)2 + ( y − 3)2 = 25

g y h y i y
y = log5 (x + 5)
−y2
2
1 1 x
+ y2 = 1 x=
4

−5 −4 O x −2 O 2 x O x

−1

5 a Solve the equation y 2 = 4 x 2 for y.

b Draw the graph of y 2 = 4 x 2.
c Does the graph satisfy the vertical line test?
d Is the graph of y 2 = 4 x 2 the graph of a function?

6 In a natural way the graph of y 2 = x leads to two functions y = x and y = − x .

a Draw the graph of y 2 = x.
b Draw the graphs of y = x and y = − x .

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 20B Inverse functions
We start with a very simple example.
If we add three to a number and then subtract three, we get back to the original number.
The function y = x + 3 corresponds to adding three to a number and similarly the function
y = x − 3 corresponds to subtracting three from a number.
The function y = x + 3 takes 2 to 5 and the function y = x − 3 takes 5 to 2.
y= x+3
x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
y −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

y= x−3
x −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

The tables show the values of all x and y pairs on one function swap places on the other.
The graphs of the two functions are shown below. It is clear from the diagram that one of the
functions is the reflection of the other in the line y = x .
y=x+3
y
4 (1, 4) y=x
3
y=x−3
2
1 (4, 1)

−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 x
(−4, −1) −1
−2
−3
(−1, −4) −4
y

y = x + 3 and y = x − 3 are said to be inverses of each other. 3 (1, 3)

This will be defined formally in Section 20E. 2
(3, 1)
A second very simple example. 1

If we multiply a number by 3 and then divide by 3, we get back to the O1 2 3 4 x

−1
original number.
−2
The function y = 3 x corresponds to multiplying a number by 3 and −3
x −4
similary the function y = corresponds to dividing a number by 3.
3

What is the inverse of y = 2 x + 1? If we double a number and add one we must first subtract one
and then halve it to get back to the original number.
x −1
Thus y = is the inverse of y = 2 x + 1.
2

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 20B INVERSE FUNCTIONS

The graphs of the two functions are shown below. Each is the reflection of the other in the line
x −1
y = x . The function y = is the inverse of the function y = 2 x + 1 and y = 2 x + 1 is the
x −1 2
inverse of y = .
2
y = 2x + 1 y=x
y

x−1
y= 2

1
− 12
O 1 x
(−1, −1) − 12

Now consider the two functions y = log2 x and y = 2 x.

The graphs of the two functions are shown below. Each graph is the reflection of the other in the line
y = x . Moreover, for each point (a, b) on one function, the point (b, a) lies on the other. The function
y = log2 x is the inverse of the function y = 2 x and y = 2 x is the inverse of y = log2 x . This has
been discussed in Chapter 14.

y y = 2x y=x
(3, 8)

(2, 4) (8, 3)
y = log2 x
1 (1, 2)
(−2, ) (4, 2)
4 1 (2, 1)
O ( 1 , −1) x
2

1
( 4 , −2)

Constructing inverses
As we saw from the above examples, there is a simple method for finding the formula for the inverse
of a function.
We interchange x and y and then make y the subject.
For example, if y = x + 3
Then x = y+3 (Interchanging x and y.)
y = x−3
y = x − 3 is the inverse function of y = x + 3 as we saw above.

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 20B INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Example 3

Find the inverse function of:

a y = 2x + 1 b y = x3

Solution

a y = 2x + 1
x = 2y + 1 (Interchanging x and y.)
x −1
so y = is the inverse function of y = 2 x + 1
2

b y = x3
x = y3 (Interchanging x and y.)
so y = x is the inverse function of y = x 3
3

We return to our study of inverse functions in Section 20E of this chapter.

Exercise 20B

Example 3a 1 Find the inverse of each function. Sketch the graph of each function and its inverse on the
one set of axes and also include the line y = x.
a y= x+4 b y = 2x + 2
x−2
c y = 2x − 1 d y=
3
2x − 4
e y = 3x + 2 f y=
3
x
g y = 5x h y=
3
i y = 6 − 2x j y = 5− x
x
k y = 6 − 3x l y=2−
2
Example 3b 2 Find the inverse of each function. Sketch the graph of each function and its inverse on the
one set of axes and also include the line y = x.

a y = x3 + 1 b y = − x3
1
c y = x3 + 8 d y = +3
x
1
e y = 2x3 − 4 f y = −3
x
2 4
g y= −3 h y = −1
x x

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 20C Function notation and the
range of a function
In Section 20A we said that ‘y is a function of x’ if the value of y is uniquely determined by the
value of x.
y
There is a standard and very convenient notation for functions. For example, we y = x2
can write the function y = x 2 as:
(x, f (x))
f (x) = x 2
This is read as ‘ f of x is equal to x 2’. (1, 1)
To calculate the value of a function, we substitute the value of x. O x
So in this case:
f (3) = 32 = 9 f (0) = 0 f ( −2) = 4 f (a) = a 2
We say that the graph of the function f ( x ) = x 2 is the graph of y = x 2 . So f ( x ) is the y-value.
This new way of writing functions is called function notation and was introduced to mathematics
by Leonhard Euler in 1735. We have previously used this in the chapter on polynomials but from
now on we shall use it for all functions.
So, for example, the statement P ( x ) = x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5 can be thought of as defining the polynomial
P( x ) or the function P( x ).
P (1) = −2 is a value of the function P. It is also the value of the polynomial at x = 1.

Example 4

Let f ( x ) = 3 − x 2 . Calculate:
a f (0) b f (1) c f (−1)
d f (t ) e f (2a) f f (a − 2)

Solution

a f (0) = 3 − 0 2 = 3
b f (1) = 3 − 12 = 2
c f (−1) = 3 − (−1)2 = 2
d f (t ) = 3 − t 2
e f (2a) = 3 − (2a)2
= 3 − 4a2
f f (a + 2) = 3 − (a − 2)2
= 3 − (a 2 − 4 a + 4)
= −a2 + 4a − 1

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 2 0 C F U N C T I O N N O TAT I O N A N D T H E R A N G E O F A F U N C T I O N

The natural domain and range of a function

Natural domain of a function
Recall from the previous section that the natural domain of a function is the set of all allowable
x-values and can be known simply as the ‘domain’. For example, the function f ( x ) = log5 x has
domain ‘the positive real numbers’, or simply x > 0 .

Definition of the range of a function

The set of all values of f ( x ) (or, if you like, the set of all y-values) is called the range of the
function. To determine the range, it is best to first graph the function.

Example 5

What is the domain and the range of f ( x ) = 4 − x 2 ?

Solution

f ( x ) is defined for all real numbers and so the domain is ‘all real numbers’.
From the graph, the range of f ( x ) = 4 − x 2 is y ≤ 4 .
y

−2 O 2 x

y = 4 − x2

Example 6

What is the domain and the range of f ( x ) = 3x + 2?

Solution

The domain of the function is all real numbers.

The range of the function is all real numbers greater than 2, or y > 2.
y

y = 3x + 2
3

y=2

O x

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Example 7

What is the domain and the range of f ( x ) = 16 − x 2 ?

Solution

y
Suppose that y = 16 − x 2
4 y = √16 − x2
Then y 2 = 16 − x 2
x 2 + y 2 = 16
−4 O 4 x
So the graph of f ( x ) = 16 − x2 is the top half of the circle with
centre the origin and radius 4.
From the graph: The domain of f ( x ) is −4 ≤ x ≤ 4 . The range of f ( x ) is 0 ≤ y ≤ 4.

Exercise 20C

Example 4 1 If f ( x ) = 3 − 5 x , find:
3
a f (0) b f (4) c f⎛ ⎞
⎝ 5⎠
d f (1) + f (2) e f (4) f (3) f 3 f (10) − 4 f (5)
2 If f ( x ) = x 2 + 2 , find:
a f (2) b f (0) c f (−3)
1
d f⎛ ⎞ e f ( 2) f f (10) + f (20)
⎝ 2⎠
5+ x
3 If g( x ) = , find:
5−x
5
g⎛ − ⎞
5
a g(0) b g(−5) c g(7) d g(1) e g⎛ ⎞ f
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
1
4 Let f ( x ) = . Find x if:
x
5
a f (x) = 6 b f (x) = c f ( x ) = f (−2)
2
5 Let k ( x ) = x 2 − 4 x . Find x if:
a k (x) = 0 b k ( x ) = −4 c k (x) = 5
d k ( x ) = −5 e k (x) = 1 f k ( x ) = k (3)
6 If h( x ) = x 2 − 4 , find and simplify:
a h(a) b h( y + 2) c h(2b) d h(−3c − 1) e h( x 2 ) f h( x 3 )
7 If f ( x ) = x 2 , state whether each statement is true or false.
a f (5) = f (3) + f (4) b f (4) = 2 f (3) − f (1)
c f ( x + y) = f ( x ) + f ( y) d f ( xy) = f ( x ) f ( y)
e f (ax ) = a 2 f ( x ) f f (a + b) − f (a) − f (b) = 2ab

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 8 If g( x ) = 3 x, state whether each statement is true or false.
a g(3) = 2 g(2) + 3g(1) b g(2) = g(1) + 2 g(0) c g ( x + y) = g ( x ) + g ( y)
d g ( x + y) = g ( x ) g ( y) e g( xy) = g( x ) g( y) f g(2a) = 2 g(a)
Example
5, 6, 7
9 Find the domain and the range of:
2
a f (x) = 3 − x 2 b f (x) = x c f (x) = 2x + 4

d f (x) = 9 − x2 e f ( x ) = 6 − 5x 2 f f (x) = x 2 + 4
g f ( x ) = 5x − 3 h f (x) = 2x + 7 i f ( x ) = − 25 − x 2
−3
j f (x) = x3 − 7 k f (x) = l f ( x ) = log2 (7 − x )
x
⎛ sin x ⎞
m f ( x ) = sin x n f ( x ) = tan x ⎜ =
⎝ cos x ⎟⎠

20D Transformations of
graphs of functions
In Chapter 7 of this book, we saw how to draw the graphs of quadratic functions starting with the
basic parabola y = x 2 by:
• translating up and down
• translating to the left and to the right
• reflecting in the x-axis
• stretching from the x-axis.
1
In Chapter 11 of this book, these transformations were applied to the graph of y = .
x
These same transformations can be applied to any function and its graph. We will also see the effect
of reflecting a graph in the y-axis.

Translations
The graph of y = f ( x ) + a (where a is a constant) is the graph of y = f ( x ) with a translation of a
units in the vertical direction.
For example:
y y y = 3x + 7
y= 3x

8
and
y=7

O x
1

0 x

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 2 0 D T R A N S F O R M AT I O N S O F G R A P H S O F F U N C T I O N S

The graph of y = f ( x − h) is the graph of y = f ( x ) with a translation of h units in the horizontal

direction.
For example:
y y y = log2 (x − 3)
y = log2 x

O 3 4 x
and
O 1 x

Reflection in the x-axis

The graph of y = − f ( x ) is the reflection of the graph of y = f ( x ) in the x-axis.

Combinations of translations and reflections in the x-axis

Reflection in the x-axis sends (2, 3) to (2, −3) and in general (a, b) to (a, −b).
y

(a, b)

O x

(a, −b)

Example 8

Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = 7 − 3x and find its domain and range.

Solution

We start with the graph of y = 3x and reflect in the x-axis to obtain the graph of y = −3x .
Next, we translate the graph upwards 7 units to obtain the graph of y = 7 − 3x .
y
y y
y = 3x
O y=7
6
x
−1
y = −3x
1

O x O x
y = 7 − 3x

The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is y < 7.

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Example 9

a Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = − x 3 + 6 and find its domain and range.

b Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = −( x 2 + 2) and find its domain and range.

Solution

a The graph of f ( x ) = − x 3 + 6 can be drawn by first reflecting the graph of g( x ) = x 3 in

the x-axis and then translating 6 units up.
y y y

6
y = x3 y = −x3 y = −x3 + 6

O x O x O 3√6 x

We can write f ( x ) = − g( x ) + 6.
The range of f ( x ) is ‘all real numbers’.
b The graph of f ( x ) = −( x 2 + 2) can be drawn by first translating the graph of g( x ) = x 2
two units up and then reflecting in the x-axis.
y

y = x2 + 2

2 O x
−2
O x
y = −(x2 + 2)

We can write f ( x ) = −( g( x ) + 2).

The range of f ( x ) is y < −2 .

Reflection in the y-axis

The graph of y = 2− x is the reflection of the graph of y = 2 x y = 2−x y y = 2x
in the y-axis.

O x

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Reflection in the y-axis sends (2, 3) to (−2, 3) and in general (a, b) to (− a, b) . y

(−a, b) (a, b)
The point ( x , f ( x )) on the graph of y = f ( x ) reflects to the point (− x , f ( x ))
and, similarly, (− x , f (− x )) goes to ( x , f (− x )) .
That is, the reflection of the graph of y = f ( x ) in the y-axis is the graph of
y = f (− x ). O x

Example 10

Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = log2 (− x ).

Solution

The graph of f ( x ) = log2 (− x ) is the reflection of the graph y

of y = log2 x in the y-axis. y = log2 (−x) y = log2 x

Note: If g( x ) = log2 ( x ) then f ( x ) = g(− x ).

−1 O 1 x

Stretches from the x-axis

The graph of y = af ( x ) is a stretch (or dilation) of the graph y = f ( x ) from the x-axis by a factor
of a. The point ( x , f ( x )) on the original graph becomes the point ( x , af ( x )) on the transformed
graph.

Example 11

Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = 2 x 3.

Solution

The graph of f ( x ) = 2 x 3 is the stretch of the graph of y

g( x ) = x 3 by a factor of 2. y = 2x3

(1, 2)

O x

(−1, −2)

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 Exercise 20D

1 Let f ( x ) = 2 x + 3. Sketch the graphs of:

a y = f (x) b y = f (x) + 4 c y = − f (x) d y = − f (x) + 2

2 Let f ( x ) = 3 x . Sketch the graphs of:

a y = f (x) b y = f (x) + 4 c y = − f (x) d y = − f (− x )

Example
8, 10
3 Use transformations to sketch the graphs of each function and find its domain and range.
a f (x) = x 2 + 5 b f ( x ) = ( x − 5)2 c f ( x ) = ( x + 4)2
d f ( x ) = 3− x e f ( x ) = 5x + 1 f f ( x ) = 5x − 4
g f ( x ) = 2 + log3 x h f ( x ) = log3 ( x − 4) i f ( x ) = − log3 (− x )

Example 9 4 Sketch the graph of each function and find its domain and range.
a f (x) = x 2 + 2 b f ( x ) = x 2 − 6 x + 13 c f (x) = x
d f (x) = 2x + 2 e f (x) = − x − 2 f f (x) = 2 − x+2

5 Let f ( x ) = 25 − x 2 .
Sketch the graphs of y = f ( x ), y = f ( x ) + 5 and y = − f ( x ) on the one set of axes.

Example 11 6 Let f ( x ) = x 3 − 3 x 2 + 2 x .
Sketch the graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = − f ( x ) and y = −2 f ( x ) on the one set of axes.
1
7 Let f ( x ) = .
x
Sketch the graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = 2 f ( x ) , y = − f ( x ) and y = −2 f ( x ) on the one set
of axes.

20E Composites and inverses

Composites of functions
Let f ( x ) = x 2 and g( x ) = 2 x + 3. We can combine these two functions to obtain a composite
function. Since f ( x ) is a number we can calculate g( f ( x )) .
For example, f (3) = 32 and g(32 ) = 21
Thus g( f (3)) = g(32 ) = 21
and for any x, g( f ( x )) = g( x 2 ) = 2 x 2 + 3
This procedure is called taking the composite of the two functions f ( x ) and g( x ) . This composite is
a function, since there is a rule that uniquely determines g( f ( x )) .

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 20E COMPOSITES AND INVERSES

Note:
• f ( g(3)) = f (9) = 81 and in general
f ( g( x )) = f (2 x + 3) = (2 x + 3)2 , so f ( g( x )) ≠ g( f ( x ))
1
• The composite g( f (a)) is defined when f (a) lies in the domain of g. For example, if f ( x ) =
x
and g( x ) = x − 3, the composite f ( g(3)) is not defined, since g(3) = 0, which is not in the
domain of f .

Example 12

1
Let f ( x ) = and g( x ) = 2 x + 5.
x−3
a Find g( f (4)), f ( g(4)), g( f ( x )) and f ( g( x )) .
b Explain why f ( g(−1)) does not exist.
c What are the domains of the functions g( f ( x )) and f ( g( x ))?

Solution

1
a g( f (4)) = g(1) = 7, f ( g(4)) = f (13) =
10
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2 1
g( f ( x )) = g ⎜ ⎟ = +5 f ( g( x )) = f (2 x + 5) =
⎝ x − 3⎠ x−3 2x + 2

b g(−1) = 3, which does not belong to the domain of f ( x ). Hence, f ( g(−1)) does not exist.
c g( f ( x )) has domain x ≠ 3 and f ( g( x )) has domain x ≠ −1.

Inverses of functions
In Section 20B, we introduced the idea of the inverse of a function. We now consider what happens
when we compose a function with its inverse.
If we add 2 to a number and then subtract 2, we get back to the original number. We can express this
as the composition of the functions f ( x ) = x + 2 and g( x ) = x − 2.
f ( g( x )) = f ( x − 2) = x − 2 + 2 = x
and g( f ( x )) = g( x + 2) = x + 2 − 2 = x
Applying f ( x ) and then g( x ), or vice versa, returns the original value of x.
The functions f ( x ) = x + 2 and g( x ) = x − 2 are said to be inverses of each other.
Two functions, f ( x ) and g( x ), are inverses of each other if f ( g( x )) = x and g( f ( x )) = x.
The first equation must hold for all x in the domain of g and the second must hold for all x in the
domain of f .
Of course, this is consistent with the idea of inverses introduced in Section 20B. Cubing a number
and then finding the cube root returns the original number. Hence, we would expect f ( x ) = x 3 and
g( x ) = 3 x to be inverse functions. The following example demonstrates this.

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 20E COMPOSITES AND INVERSES

Example 13

Show that f ( x ) = x 3and g( x ) = 3

x are inverses and sketch their graphs.

Solution

y
f ( g( x )) = f ( 3 x ) = ( 3 x )3 = x y = x3
3
g( f ( x )) = g( x 3 ) = x3 = x
3
y = √x
Hence, f ( x ) and g( x ) are inverses of each other for all x.
O
x
−1 1

Geometrically, reflecting the graph of a function in the line y = x corresponds algebraically to

interchanging x and y in the equation. This can be seen through the discussion in Section 20B.
It can easily be proved that the point (a, b) is the reflection of the point (b, a) in the line y = x .

Example 14

Find the inverse function g( x ) of the function f ( x ) = 4 x − 7. Sketch the graphs of

y = f ( x ), y = g( x ) and y = x on the one set of axes.

Solution

f (x) = 4 x − 7 y
7
then y = 4x − 7 x+7 4
g (x) = 4
The inverse is x = 4 y − 7 (Interchange x and y.)
x+7 −7 O 7 x
y= 4
4
x+7 f (x) = 4x − 7
so g( x ) =
4
Geometrically, the graphs of f ( x ) and g( x ) are
reflections in the line y = x . −7
y=x
Note:
x + 7⎞ (4 x − 7) + 7
f ( g( x )) = 4 ⎛ −7 g( f ( x )) =
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4
= x+7−7 4x
= x =
4
= x

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 20E COMPOSITES AND INVERSES

The horizontal line test

Not all functions have inverse functions. For example, the function f ( x ) = x 2 does not have an
inverse. We can see this by noting f (2) = 4 and f (−2) = 4 .
y
f (x) = x2

4
(−2, 4) (2, 4)

−2 O 2 x

So if the inverse g( x ) existed, we would have g(4) = 2 and g(4) = −2, which is impossible, because
a function cannot have two y-values for the same x-value.
In general, a function, f ( x ), has an inverse function when no horizontal line crosses the graph of
y = f ( x ) more than once.
This is called the horizontal line test.

Example 15

a Show that f ( x ) = x 3 − 1 satisfies the horizontal line test, and find its inverse function.
b Show that f ( x ) = x ( x − 1)( x + 1) does not satisfy the horizontal line test and hence does
not have an inverse.

Solution

a Each horizontal line, y = c, meets the graph of y = f ( x ) y y = x3 − 1

exactly once.
y=c
The function is y = x 3 − 1
The inverse is x = y3 − 1 (Interchanging x and y.) O x
1 −1
y = (x + 1) 3 1
The inverse function of f ( x ) = x − 1 is g(x) g( x ) = ( x + 1) 3
3

b The graph does not satisfy the horizontal line test, as shown y = x(x −1)(x + 1)
in the diagram. y

Hence, the function f ( x ) = x ( x − 1)( x + 1) does not have

y=c
an inverse function.
−1 O 1 x

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 20E COMPOSITES AND INVERSES

Example 16

1
Find the domain and range of f ( x ) = .
x+3
Show that f ( x ) has an inverse function g( x ) and find g( x ).

Solution

1
If f ( x ) = , then the domain of f ( x ) is x ≠ 3.
x+3 y
The range of f ( x ) is y ≠ 0 .
Since the graph satisfies the horizontal line test, 1
1
f ( x ) has an inverse function. 3 y= x+3
1 −3 O x
Write y =
x+3
1
The inverse is x = (Interchanging x and y.)
y+3
1
y+3 =
x
1
y = −3
x
1
So the inverse function is g( x ) = − 3
x
The domain of g( x ) is x ≠ 0 and the range of g( x ) is y ≠ 3.
1 ⎞ 1
Check: g( f ( x )) = g ⎛ f ( g( x )) = f ⎛ − 3⎞
⎝ x + 3⎠ ⎝x ⎠
1 1
= −3 =
1 1 −3+3
x+3 x
= x+3−3 = x as required
= x

Note: When we reflect in the line y = x , every vertical line becomes a horizontal line. Thus, the
horizontal line test for f ( x ) becomes a vertical line test for its reflection. So they are really the same
test, one for the function and the other for the inverse.

Composite and inverse

• If f ( x ) = x + 2 and g( x ) = x 3, then
f ( g( x )) = f ( x 3 ) = x 3 + 2 and g( f ( x )) = g( x + 2) = ( x + 2)3
• Two functions, f ( x ) and g( x ), are inverses of each other if f ( g( x )) = x and g( f ( x )) = x.
The first equation must hold for all x in the domain of g and the second for all x in the
domain of f .
• If f ( x ) and g( x ) are inverses of each other, then the domain of f is the range of g and
vice-versa.

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 20E COMPOSITES AND INVERSES

Exercise 20E

Example 12 1 Suppose that f ( x ) = x − 2 and g( x ) = x + 5. Calculate:

a g( f (0)) b g( f (2)) c g( f (7)) d g( f (a)) e g( f ( x ))
Interpret these calculations in terms of translations along a line.
2 If f ( x ) = x − 2 and g( x ) = x 2 − 4, find:
a g( f (0)) b f ( g(0)) c g( f (2)) d f ( g(2)) e f ( f (7))
f g( g(2)) g f ( g( x )) h g( f ( x )) i f ( f ( x )) j g( g( x ))
k Does f ( g( x )) = g( f ( x ))?
1
3 If f ( x ) = 3 x − 2 and g( x ) = ( x + 2), find:
3
a g( f (2)) b f ( g(2)) c g( f (4))
d f ( g(4)) e f ( g( x )) f g( f ( x ))
g Describe the relationship between f ( x ) and g( x ).
1 x +1
4 If f ( x ) = and g( x ) = , find:
x −1 x
a g( f (2)) b f ( g(2)) c g( f (4))
d f ( g(4)) e f ( g( x )) f g( f ( x ))
g Describe the relationship between f ( x ) and g( x ).
Example 14 5 Find the inverse function g( x ) of each function f ( x ). Sketch the graph of each function
and its inverse function on the one set of axes and also sketch the line y = x .
a f (x) = x + 5 b f ( x ) = 3x − 2 c f ( x ) = 3x + 2
1
d f ( x ) = 4 − 3x e f (x) = 3 − x
2
Example 6 For each function f ( x ), find the inverse function g( x ).
13, 15
a f (x) = x3 − 2 b f (x) = 2 − x3 c f ( x ) = 32 x 5
Example 16 7 For each function f ( x ), find the domain. Then find the inverse function g( x ) and its domain.
1 1 x+2 3x
a f (x) = + 1 b f (x) = c f (x) = d f (x) =
x x +1 x−2 x+2
8 Show that each function is its own inverse.
1
a f (x) = 5 − x b f (x) = − x c f (x) = −
x
6 2x − 2 −3 x − 5
d f (x) = e f (x) = f f (x) =
x x−2 x+3
9 For each function f ( x ), find its domain. Then find the inverse function g( x ) and its domain.
a f ( x ) = 3x b f ( x ) = 23 x c f (x) = 5 × 7x
d f ( x ) = log5 x e f ( x ) = 2 log4 3 x f f ( x ) = log2 ( x − 3)
g f (x) = 5x −1 h f ( x ) = 4 + log4 x i f ( x ) = 53 x + 5
10 Consider the graph of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 49. Show that it is possible, in a natural way, to
divide the circle into four pieces, each of which is the graph of a function that has an inverse.

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 Review exercise
1 Find the domain of each function.
7 1 3
a y = 4x + 3 b y= c y= d y=
x x−5 x+8
2
e y= x−2 f y = 2x 2 + 3 g y= h y= x+6
x+5
2 Let h( x ) = x 2 − 4 . Calculate:
a h(0) b h(1) c h(−1) d h(−4)
e h(a) f h(− a) g h(2a) h h(a − 2)

3 Let h( x ) = 3 − 2 x . Calculate:
a h(0) b h(1) c h(−1) d h(−4)
e h(a) f h(− a) g h(2a) h h(a − 2)

4 State the domain and range of:

a f (x) = 5 − 2x
b f (x) = 4 − x 2
2
c f (x) =
x+6

5 Let h( x ) = 4 x + 2 . Sketch the graphs of:

a y = − h( x )
b y = h( x ) + 5
c y = h( x ) − 2
d y = 2h( x )

6 Let f ( x ) = x 2 − 2.
Sketch the graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = − f ( x ) and y = f ( x ) + 3 on the one set of axes.

7 If f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 and g( x ) = 5 − x 2, find:
a g( f (0)) b f ( g(0)) c g( f (2)) d f ( g(2)) e f ( f (7))
f g( g(2)) g f ( g( x )) h g( f ( x )) i f ( f ( x )) j g( g( x ))
k Is it true that f ( g( x )) = g( f ( x ))?

8 Find the inverse function of each function.

a f ( x ) = 3x − 4
b f ( x ) = 2 − 3x
c y = x3 + 2
1
d y=
x+2

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 Challenge exercise

1 a Let f ( x ) = 2 x . Show that f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) and f ( ka) = kf (a) for all real
numbers a, b and k.
b Let f ( x ) = x + 2. Show that f (a + b) ≠ f (a) + f (b) for any real numbers a and b.
Also show that f ( ka) = kf (a) for all real numbers a and b unless k = 1.

2 a Let f ( x ) = 2 x. Show that f ( x + y) = f ( x ) f ( y) for all real numbers x and y.

b Let f ( x ) = x. Which whole numbers x and y satisfy f ( x + y) = f ( x ) f ( y)?

3 Assume that the domain is the real numbers for the functions being considered in the
following.
A function f ( x ) is said to be even if f ( x ) = f ( − x ) for all x.
A function f ( x ) is said to be odd if f ( − x ) = − f ( x ).
a Give an example of an even function and an odd function.
b Prove that the sum of two even functions is an even function.
c Prove that the product of two even functions is an even function.
d Prove that the product of two odd functions is an even function.
e Prove that the composition of two odd functions is an odd function.

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