2023

MANGO ORCHARD ESTABLISHEMENT

Mango Orchard Establishment

Afrostain Farmtech
12/28/2023
Mango Production

1 Introduction

Mangos belong to the genus Mangifera of the family Anacardiaceae and to the species
Mangifera indica. Mango has become naturalized and adapted throughout the tropics and
subtropics. There are over 1000 named mango varieties throughout the world, which is a
testament to their value to humankind. It is a common garden tree throughout the tropics.
Mango is biennial bearer / alternate bearing (where a fruit tree produces a heavy crop in
one season (on-season) and very little or nothing in another season (off-season).

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2.1 Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Outline the classification, botany and adaptation of mangos.

• Describe the agronomic practices involved in mango production.

• Explain the different methods of harvesting mangoes.

2.2 Origin and Distribution

The genus Mangifera originated in tropical Asia, with the greatest number of species found
in Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. The most-cultivated Mangifera species,
M. indica (mango), has its origins in India and Myanmar. Mango is now cultivated
throughout the tropical and subtropical world.

2.3 Uses of Mangoes

• Mangos are a highly nutritious fruit containing carbohydrates, proteins, fats,

minerals, and vitamins, in particular vitamin A (beta carotene), B1, B2, and vitamin
C (ascorbic acid). Mango fruit is mostly eaten ripe as a dessert fruit.
• Mature green mangos are also eaten fresh or as pickles. Green eating varieties are
sweet, non-starchy and have a non-astringent flavour at the green-mature stage of
fruit development.
• Mango adds flavour to many products, such as fruit juices, ice creams, wines, teas,
breakfast cereals, and biscuits.
• The fruit and its by-products are used for animal fodder.

• Timber for firewood

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2.4 Botany

2.4.1. Size

Mangos are long-lived evergreen trees that can reach heights of 15–30 m. Most cultivated
mango trees are between 3 and 10 m tall when fully mature, depending on the variety and
the amount of pruning.

2.4.2 Canopy

Mango trees typically branch 0.6–2 m above the ground and develop an evergreen, dome-
shaped canopy.

2.4.3 Roots

The mango tree has a long taproot that often branches just below ground level, forming
between two and four major anchoring taproots that can reach 6 m down to the water
table. The more fibrous finer roots (feeder roots) are found from the surface down to
approximately 1 m and usually extend just beyond the canopy diameter. Distribution of
the finer roots changes seasonally with the moisture distribution in the soil.

2.4.4 Flowers

The inflorescence is a many-branched, terminal panicle 6.4 to 40.6 cm long, possessing

from 550 to more than 4,000 small, pinkish-white flowers. The mango has two flower
forms, hermaphrodite and male, with both forms occurring on the same inflorescence. The
ratio of hermaphrodite to male flowers on an inflorescence varies with variety and season
and is influenced by the temperature during inflorescence development.

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2.4.5 Leaves

The leaves are simple and alternate, with petioles 1–12 cm long. The leaves are variable in
shape and size but usually are oblong with tips varying from rounded to acuminate. Mature
leaves are dark green with a shiny upper surface and lighter green lower surface. New
leaves emerge in flushes of 10–20 leaves. Leaves emerge green, turning tan-brown to purple
during leaf expansion and then gradually changing to dark green as the leaves mature.

2.4.6 Fruit

Mango fruit is classed as a drupe (fleshy with a single seed enclosed in a leathery endocarp).
Fruits from different varieties can be highly variable in shape, colour, taste, and flesh
texture. Fruit shapes vary from nearly round, ovate to oblong. Fruits can weigh from less
than 50 g to over 2 kg. The fruit has a dark green background colour when developing on
the tree. When ripe, its colour varies from yellow to orange and its texture from smooth
to fibrous. Some varieties develop a red background colour at fruit set that remains until
the fruits ripen. The mesocarp is the fleshy, paleyellow to deep-orange edible part of the
fruit.

2.4.7 Seed

The fruits possess a single large, flattened, kidney-shaped seed that is enclosed in a woody
husk. Mango varieties produce either mono-embryonic or poly-embryonic seeds. In mono-
embryonic varieties, the seed contains only one embryo that is a true sexual (zygotic)
embryo. Monoembryonic seeds are a result of cross pollination between the maternal and
paternal parents. Fruit from mono-embryonic seedlings will often vary from the parent
trees, so propagation by grafting is used to produce true-to-type mono-embryonic trees.
Poly-embryonic seeds contain many embryos, which are asexual in origin and genetically
identical to the maternal parent. A tree planted from a poly-embryonic seed will be
identical to its parent tree, whereas a tree planted from a mono-embryonic seed will be a
hybrid.

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2.5. Varieties

There are over a thousand mango varieties around the world. The most common varieties
grown in Zimbabwe include:

• Early maturity - Haden, Zill and Peach.

• Early mid-season - Tommy Atkins and Irwin.

• Late season - Kent and Sensation.

Selection of mango varieties

The characteristics by which mangos are typically selected are a mix of eating quality,
keeping, and growing characteristics. Fruit quality characteristics include flavour, aroma,
flesh texture, fibre as well as fruit size, external appearance, and yield performance.

The adaptations of a variety to environmental pressures of drought, wet weather during

flowering, temperature, pests, and diseases are also important selection criteria, because
they determine the cropping consistency and fruit quality.

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2.5. Environmental and Soil Requirements

2.5.1. Climate

Mangoes grow over a wide range of frost-free climates. The trees produce best in climates
that have a well defined, relatively cool dry season with high heat accumulation during
the flowering and fruit development period. Rain or free moisture (high humidity, heavy
dew) during the flowering and fruiting period is conducive to the development of fungal
diseases that cause flower and fruit drop. Optimum growing temperature is 24–27°C. Frost
will kill small mango trees and severely defoliate mature trees. Low temperature stress is
necessary for floral induction.

Mango trees grow over a wide range of rainfall volumes and patterns. The trees produce
best when the most rain falls during summer months and there is a well defined winter dry
period. Mangoes need a dry period of 3 to 5 months to induce maturity of vegetative
parts and flower. Fruit development also needs plenty of sunlight up to 120 -135 days after
flower induction. Bearing is best when the dry period lasts from 1 to 2 months before
flowering to after harvest. They require an annual rainfall range of 400–3600 mm.

2.5.2 Altitude

Mango grows and produces fruit over a wide range of elevations from sea level up to 1200
m in tropical latitudes. Most commercial varieties do not produce consistently above 600
m elevation.

2.5.2 Soil Requirements

Mangos are tolerant of a wide range of soils(light to heavy), but production is best on well
drained sandy or gravelly soils that dry out rapidly after the wet season, forcing the trees
into a dormant period, essential for heavy flowering. The optimal pH range is 5.5–7.5.

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2.6 Propagation

Seed and various vegetative methods propagate mango. The genetic quality of a mango
seedling depends on the embryo type of the seed. Poly-embryonic seeds will usually
produce three to ten seedlings from each seed, most of which will come true to type with
the tree they came from.

Poly-embryonic seeds also contain one embryo that is genetically different from the
parents; that is, this embryo will produce an off-type seedling.

In contrast to poly-embryonic seeds, mono-embryonic seeds produce only one seedling

for each seed that is always genetically different from the parents. For this reason, most
mono-embryonic varieties are propagated by grafting onto poly-embryonic rootstocks.

2.6.1. Seed Propagation

Seed from fully mature or ripe fruits are selected from trees that are free of seed weevils.
Seeds from the larger fruits generally produce the most vigorous seedlings. Only poly-
embryonic seeds will produce seedlings that are true to type. The best germination results
are achieved when the seed is removed from the leathery endocarp. Once the seeds are
removed from the leathery endocarp, they lose viability very rapidly due to desiccation
and should be planted immediately or soaked in water for up to 24 hours before planting.

Planting techniques

Seeds should be planted to a depth of 2 cm and oriented on their side to facilitate a straight
stem and roots. Seeds should be planted into seedling beds of sand with an impenetrable
root barrier at 15 to 20 cm depth. The root barrier makes it easier to lift the seedlings when
potting up. This is usually done when the seedlings are approximately 30 cm high.

When potting up, only use the three or four most vigorous seedlings from each seed and
discarding the rest. Choosing only the most vigorous seedlings will avoid selecting the
zygotic embryo that is often the source of off-type trees.

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The seedlings should be raised in a nursery under 50–80% shade. Avoid raising seedlings
under the canopies of larger mango trees, as this practice promotes infection of the
seedlings with fungal diseases. Young mango trees can be field-planted when
approximately 12 months old and large enough to compete with minor weeds. At the time
of planting, seedlings should be at least 1 m tall and have a stem diameter of at least 15
mm. The best time to field-plant is at the onset of the wet season.

To avoid transplanting shock when field planting, trees should be hardened for at least a
week prior to field planting. If trees are excessively vigorous at the time of field planting,
they can be pruned to reduce leaf area and water demand on the establishing root system.

2.6.2 Vegetative Propagation

Many of the better mango varieties have mono-embryonic seeds which, when planted,
will not reproduce true to type. Grafting is therefore the most preferred method of
propagating mango varieties. Two popular methods for mangos are the cleft graft and the
whip-and-tongue graft. Veneer grafting and chip-budding are the other common and
successful methods used in mango production.

2.7 Planting

The recommended planting time in Zimbabwe is during the beginning of the rainy season,
in October.

2.7.1 Field planting

This is usually done 1–2 years after germination. At this stage the trees are usually 60–120
cm tall. Planting holes – 75cm x 75cm x 75cm (length, width, depth)

General recommendations for spacing is usually 8m x 8m, but larger spreading cultivars
can be planted at a spacing of 10m x 10m

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2.8 Orchard Care

2.8.1 Mulching

Mulching helps retain soil moisture, reduces weed problems next to the tree trunk, and
improves the soil near the surface. Mulch with a 5-to15 cm layer of grass bark, wood chips,
or similar mulch material. Keep mulch 20-30 cm from the trunk.

2.8.2 Pruning

Orchard trees require regular annual pruning to maintain an open canopy of manageable
size. Pruning is necessary to thin the canopy and remove any dead branches inside the
canopy. This allows air and sunlight to penetrate, which reduces pests and diseases and
enhances internal fruit colour.

2.8.3 Watering

Although mangos are able to withstand periodic drought, it is best to water the trees during
the dryer months. Watering mango trees when the flowers and fruit are on the tree will
improve the fruit set and size of the fruit at harvest.

Newly planted mango trees should be watered at planting and every other day for the
first week or so, and then 1 to 2 times a week for the first couple of months. During
prolonged dry periods (5 or more days of little to no rainfall) newly planted and young
mango trees (first 3 years) should be watered once a week to keep the soil moisture depth
at 600-1200mm. Once the rainy season arrives, irrigation frequency may be reduced or
stopped.

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2.8.3. Fertilizer Management

As a rule, mangos do not require large amounts of fertilizer. Over fertilization can be
detrimental to yield, promoting excessive vegetative vigour at the expense of flowering
and fruiting (rank growth). Mangos are especially sensitive to nitrogen, which not only
promotes vigour but also reduces fruit colour at harvest and reduces the fruits’ tolerance
of postharvest diseases.

Young trees should receive basal fertilizer applications every month during the first year,
beginning with 114g and gradually increasing to 455g. Thereafter, 3 to 4 applications per
year in amounts proportionate to the increasing size of the tree are sufficient.

Fertilizer mixtures containing 6 to 10% nitrogen, 6 to 10% available phosphoric acid, 6 to

10% potash, and 4 to 6% magnesium give satisfactory results with young trees. For bearing
trees, potash should be increased to 9 to 15%, and available phosphoric acid reduced to 2
to 4%.

Mango trees growing in neutral and acid- pH soils may be fertilized with soil-applied dry
materials of iron, zinc, boron, and manganese either separately or in mixes. Copper should
be applied as a nutritional spray and boron only as needed.

Table 2.1: Essential plant food elements

Macronutrients Micronutrients

Nitrogen Zinc

Phosphorous Iron

Potash Boron

Calcium Molybdenum

Sulphur Copper

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 Magnesium Manganese

Chlorine

2.9 Crop Protection

2.9.1 Weed control

Ring cultivation is recommended for young mango trees. This is done by scrapping or
hoeing the weeds around the base of the trunk. An area of about one meter radius should
be maintained weed free. Thick mulching will also prevent weed growth.

Inter-row cultivation using a disc harrow is necessary for big plantations, avoiding deep
discing near the root system.

Non-selective herbicides like Gramoxone and Roundup can be used for controlling weeds
in mature trees.

2.9.2 Pests and their management

Many insects live in and feed on mango trees, but only a few of these are considered major
pests.

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2.9.2.1 Scale insects

Several species of scale insects are known to be pests of mango, including Phenacaspis
dilatata, P. cockerelli, Ceroplastrs rubens, and Aulacaspis tubercularis. They suck sap from
all parts of the tree and are often a serious pest in the nursery. The infested areas turn pale
green or yellow and eventually die.

Control

• Spray Mineral oil, Parathion, Azynphos-Methyl.

2.9.2.2 Tip borers (Penicillaria jocosatrix, Chlumetia euthysticha)

The larvae of these species bore into and kill the young developing flushes. The pest activity
is worst during hot, wet, summer seasons. These can be controlled by use of registered
chemicals.

2.9.2.3 Fruit flies (Dacus sp., Strumenta sp., Bactrocera dorsaila, and Pardalaspis sp.)

Adult flies lay eggs in near-ripe or ripe fruit and the larvae tunnel and feed throughout the
flesh, destroying and decaying it.

Control

• Orchard hygiene, bury all decaying fruit in the soil at least 60cm deep.

• Use insecticides like Malathion and Trichlorfon. Suffocation

2.9.2.4 Mango Seed weevil (Sternochetus mangiferae, S. gravis)

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The mango seed weevil bores into the seed early in the development of the fruit, with
little or no damage to the edible fruit. In the seed, the larvae destroy the cotyledons, thus
reducing seed germination.

The presence of seed weevils is a major quarantine barrier for the export of mango to
many countries.

Control

• Orchard hygiene, bury all decaying fruit in the soil at least 60cm deep.

• Use insecticides like lebaycid and Malathion.

Other pests

Other insect and mite pests of mango include fruit spotting bugs, seed caterpillars, plant
hoppers, flower-feeding caterpillars, thrips, leaf miners, fruit piercing moths, termites,
mites, and coccids.

2.9.3 Diseases

2.9.3.1 Anthracnose

It is a serious fungal disease caused by the fungus, Colletotrichum gloeosporiodi, which

affects flowers, fruits, and leaves. Wet conditions during flowering promote anthracnose
development.

Symptoms

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Flowers and young fruit develop black lesions and are aborted from the inflorescence.
After the fruit reaches approximately 4 cm in diameter, the fruit’s natural defence
mechanisms protect it from anthracnose by inducing the fungus into a quiescent period.
When the fruit softens during the ripening process, the natural defence mechanisms break
down, and latent infections of anthracnose develop into black lesions that rot the whole
fruit in days. Post-harvest anthracnose is the major reason for losses of mangos during
storage and transport.

Control

• Very susceptible cultivars, such as Haden and Irwin require a diligent fungicide
program. Begin fungicide applications at the first appearance of panicles and
continue spraying at recommended intervals until the pre-harvest waiting period is
reached.
• Fungicides include Copper oxychloride and Prochloraz.

2.9.3.2 Mango scab

It is a fungal disease caused by the fungus Elsinoe mangiferae. The disease affects leaves,
stems, and young fruit.

Symptoms

Results in slightly raised, gray, oval to elliptical lesions on the stems and leaves. In young
fruit, black, scabby lesions develop that can cause the fruit to drop off. As the fruits grow,
scar tissue develops around the black lesions, making them unmarketable due to blemishes.

Control

• Spray Copper oxychloride, Copper+ Zineb mixture

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2.9.3.3 Bacterial black spot

It is a bacterial disease caused by the bacteria, Xanthomonas campestris, which affects

leaves and fruits. The disease is worse in windy areas and on trees with low growth vigour.

Symptoms

The disease results in black lesions on the leaves, with greasy margins delineated by leaf
veins. Fruit lesions initially appear as small, irregular, water-soaked spots. Later, lesions
become raised with a greasy appearance, cracking, and oozing bacteria-laden sap. The
disease is spread in winddriven water from lesions to natural openings and wounds on the
tree.

Control

• Plant disease-free propagules.

• Spray Copper oxychloride.

Other mango diseases

• Alternaria rot – caused by Alternaria alternate fungus

• Powdery mildew – caused by Oidium mangiferae fungus

• Stem end rot (Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Dothiorella dominicana or Phomopsis

mangiferae)
• Mango malformation (Fusarium sp.)

2.9.4 Physiological Disorders

2.9.4.1 Mango Decline

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This is caused by deficiencies of manganese and iron. These deficiencies may predispose
trees to infection by fungal pathogens (Botryosphaeria ribis and Physalospora sp.), which
attack shoots, or by root feeding nematodes (Hemicriconemoides mangiferae).

Symptoms

The disorder results in interveinal chlorosis, stunting, terminal and marginal necrosis of
leaves as well as retention of dead leaves that gradually drop. Dieback of young stems and
limbs is common and even tree death may occur.

Control

• Increased applications of iron, manganese, and zinc micronutrients.

2.9.4.2 Internal physiological disorders

Jelly seed — premature ripening from around the seed.

Soft nose — premature softening of the nose of the fruit.

Spongy stem end — breakdown of the flesh and vascular tissue at the stem end.

Internal breakdown — premature ripening and cellular breakdown of the flesh.

• All of the above disorders are associated with low fruit calcium levels.

2.10 Harvesting

The harvesting period in Zimbabwe is early December to mid April. The maximum eating
quality of fresh mangos is obtained when the fruits are harvested when fully mature. Early
or immature picking can reduce eating quality.

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Fruits are usually picked as mature or green fruit and then ripened in crates or baskets. If
the fruit is left to ripen on the tree, birds and bats usually eat the fruit first.

Fruits are usually harvested by hand or with the help of picking devices. The fruits are
handled gently as they are easily damaged by abrasion and sap contamination. Care should
be taken to avoid sap contacting the fruit during the harvesting and packing operations, as
it is caustic and causes dark, unsightly blemishes on the fruit.

Maturity Indices

• The background green colouring of the fruit begins to lighten

• The fruit pedicle (stem) begins to shrivel and is more easily separated from the fruit
Flesh colour changes from white to a uniform pale yellow.

2.11 Post-harvest care

To maximize the storage life of mangos, fruits are generally dipped in hot water and
fungicides to slow the development of postharvest fungal rots. Controlled cool
temperatures are also essential if fruit quality is to be maintained during storage. Dipping
the fruits in Calcium chloride solutions have been seen to increase the shelf life.

2.12 Yield potential

Average yields of 100 to 150 kg / tree per season can be expected from mature trees.
Greater yields are possible with good management and favourable weather conditions.

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