ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELD THEORY (PC-EE-303) Introduction to Vector CalculusDel Operator The del operator, written V, is the vector differential operator. In Cartesian coordinates, a, ,0,,0 5a, t= a, +a, x Oy & v This vector differential operator, otherwise known as the gradient operator, is not a vector in itself, but when it operates on a scalar fiction, for example, a vector ensues. The operator is usefil in denning 1. The gradient of a scalar V, written, as VV ‘The divergence of a vector A, written as YW. A The curl ofa veetor A, written as Vx A The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as V?V In Cylindrical coordinates. V og ho ap? pa In Spherical coordinates, VOrdinary Derivative Question: Suppose we have a fimetion of one variable: f(x). What does the derivative “© do for us? Answer: It tells us how rapidly the function f (x) varies when we change the argument x i a tiny amount dx: are (Sax 0 dx. In words: If we change x by an amount dx, then f changes by an amount df; derivative is the proportionality factor. For example, in fig (1) the fimetion varies slowly with x. and the derivative is correspondingly small. In fig (2) fincreases rapidly with x, and the derivative is large, as we move away from x = 0. Geometrical Interpretation: The derivative df /dx is the slope of the graph of f versus x. f fi sew) JeeGRADIENT Suppose now we have a function of three variables ~ say, the temperature T(x, y, 2) in a room. ( Start out in one corner, and set up a system of axes; then for each point (x,y,z) in the room, T gives the temperature at that spot.) We want to generalise the notion of “derivative, to functions like T, which depends not on one but on three variables. ‘Now a derivative is supposed to tell us how fast the function varies, if we move a little distance. But this time the situation is more complicated, because it depends on what direction we move: If we go straight up, then the temperature will probably increase faitly rapidly, but if we move horizontally, it may not change much at all. In fact, the question “How fast does T vary?’ has an infinite number of answers, one for each direction we might chose o explore. Fortunately, the problem is not as bad as it looks. A theorem on partial derivatives states that wSeGee= ox \ & ‘This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx, dy, dz. Notice that we do not require infinite number of derivatives — three will suffice: the partial derivatives along each of the three coordinate directions.is the gradient of 7.7 is a vector quantity, with three components; it is the generalized derivative we have been looking for. Equation (3) is the three dimensional version of equation (1). ‘The gradient of a scalar field V is a vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the maximum. space rate of increase of V. For Cartesian coordinates: Gy = oN 4 4. i — oy Vs For Cylindrical coordinates, VV = 4 op wv. For Spherical coordinates, VV =——4, +The following computation formulas on gradient, which are easily proved, should be noted: L.V(V+U)=VV+VU 2. V(VU)=VVU+UVV _[Vv)_uvv_veu “(= } UVV-VVU U uv? 4. VV? =nV""VV ‘Where U and V are scalars and n is an integer. Properties of Gradient: 1. The magnitude of VV equals the maximum rate of change in V per unit distance. 2. DV points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V7 3. The projection (or component) of VV in the direction of a unit vector @ is is called the directional derivative of V. along @ . This is the rate of change of V in the direction of @ and given as VV-4Example 1: Find the gradient of the following scalar fields: (@v OU aye ‘200826 (©) W=10rsin? 8cos oz 8(p*z00s2) . 1 A(p?zc0824) . _ A(p*zcos 24) . = 4,+— a+ a, op pa az = 2pzcos 2a, ~ 2pzsin 29a, +p? cos 264, © owoWs 1aW 5, 1 aw a 1@ * rsind @(1Orsin? Bcos) , 1 O(10rsin” cos) | 1 A(10rsin® cos} ae een rsin® a =10sin’ Ocos6a, +10sin20cos 4, —10rsin Osin ga,Solut or or x or Vr ey ee = _ xa +ya, +2, or Up T apae or =fExample 3: Find the directional derivative of the function W = xy? + xyz. at the point (2, ~1,0) in the direction of the vector Bay + 4@, +124, Solution: oo . »_ A _ 3a +48, +12 sa, +4a, +128, A —=S—Ss OT?) * . WaPo? 13 Given, W=x¢y? 4x7 2 0w oy =(2xy? +yz) a, +(2x°y+xz)a, +(xy) a, At point (2,—1,0), VW =4a, -84, Hence the directional derivative of the fumetion W = VW-A =(4a, -8a, ~24,)-Divergence The divergence of vector A at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P. Hence, das lim div d= 0-A = fim 2 where Av is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in which P is located. Physically, we may regard the divergence of the vector field A at a given point as a measure of how much the field diverges or emanates from that point. Figure (a) shows that the divergence of a vector field at point P is positive because the vector diverges (or spreads out) at P. In Figure (b) a vector field has negative divergence (or convergence) at P and in Figure (¢) a vector field has zero divergence at P. The divergence of a vector field can also be viewed as simply the limit of the field's source strength per unit volume (or source density): it is positive at a source point in the field, and negative at a sink point, or zero where there is neither sink nor source. NZ Nw lll AIS ZIN IIIT o » oIn Cartesian coordinates: div A In Cylindrical coordinates: div A=V-A OA, © (a, sino) ++ Ae In Spherical coordinates: — div — rsin@ 20 rsind & Observe that the divergence of a vector function A is itself a scalar VA . You cannot have the divergence of a scalar: that’s meaningless. Properties of Divergence: 1. 9-(A+B) 2. 0-(VA) =VW-A+A-W 3. Divergence may be (+) ve, (ve or zero. A vector field with constant zero divergence is called solenoidal; in this case no net flow can occur across any closed surface.Example 4: Find the divergence of a vector field F = 2xyd, + 2@y + yz?4, at the point (2,-1,3). Solution: The divergence of a vector field F is given as: I &, op -F He = Sy a ox ay ozExample 5: An electric field at point P, expressed in the cylindrical coordinate system is given by, # = 6p? sin a, + 2p? cos diy . Find the value of the divergence of the field ifthe location of the point P is given by (1,1,1) in the Cartesian coordinate system. Solution: The divergence in Cylindrical coordinates is given as, div E=V-B = Z 2 (e,) + 1s, SE. pop po o% 1.0(2p" cos) =18psing—2psing or V-E=16psing Weknow that, p=x'+y’ =~2 and sing 6xV2Divergence Theorem The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed surface S is the same as the ‘volume integral of the divergence of A. Proofof the theorem: To prove the divergence theorem, subdivide volume v into a large number of small cells (see the adjacent figure). If the k* cell has volume Avy and is bounded by surface S, feds = Yeh, Ads = AE any Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some neighbouring cells, there is cancellation on every interior surface, so the sum of the surface integrals over Sx's_ is the same as the surface integral over the surface S. Taking the limit of the right-hand side of the above equation and incorporating the definition of divergence gives fa -d8=S(7-A)dv | which is the divergence theorem.Example 6: Given that 4 = 2xya, + 34, + 274, . evaluate fA - dS , where S is the surface of the cube defined by Osx <1, OS ysl, 0 = cos og" = Hence, Stoke’s theorem is verified. a 4] 6A]. 1[0(0Ag) A4y 62) wl? tal ap ae ® 4,l Ip = pcos, Ag =0 and A, =zsing pag az aa a a 2 8 |. zcos pa, + sing a, ap iz 4% ¢ 0 zsing 60° 60° (eeora ay + sna.) cndpaan=[°_f pind dpdg = J singdg IpLaplacian of a scalar For practical reasons, it is expedient to introduce a single operator which is the composite of gradient and divergence operators. This operator is known as the Laplacian. ‘The Laplacian of u scalar field V, written as 72V Js the divergence of the gradient of V. ‘Thus, in Cartesian coordinates, Laplacian ¥ i ~ ax? * ay? * az? InCylindreal coordinates: 92V = 42 (p22) 4 22% 4 SY pap Pap. az i oy= 4£2.(2%) pt 1 ow In Spherical coordinates: V?°V-= 25-(r#E) + 2 (7) 4 Notice that the Laplacian of a scalar field is another scalar field, A scalar field V is said to be harmonic in a given region if its Laplacian vanishes in that region. In other words, if 7?VExample 10: Find the Laplacian of the scalar field V = xy + xyz. Solution: = Fay + aya) 4 3 (a2y + aye) +2 (ety 4x92) 2 a @ Zen ty) tae ya OF 422) +55 ze XY) ayClassification of vector fields A vector field is uniquely characterized by its divergence and curl, From these properties vector fields are classified into four categories: 1. Solenoidal and irrotational vector fields (7 - 4 = 0,7 x A = 0) Example: Electrostatic fields in a charge free region, magnetic fields within a current free region. 9) Non-solenoidal and irrotational veetor fields (7 - A # 0,9 x A Example: Electrostatic fields in a charged medium, 3, Solenoidal and sotational vector fields (F'- 4 = 0, x A +0) Example: Magnetic fields within a current carrying conductor. 4. Non-solenoidal and rotational vector fields (7 -A # 0,7 x 4 + 0) Example: Rotational motion of compressible fluids.Helmholtz Theorem ‘A vector field is uniquely described within a region by its divergence and curl. A vector field ifit exists is uniquely determined jin aregion R surrounded by the closed surface S by giving its divergence and curl in R and its normal component on S. Proofof the theorem: Assume that there are two vector fields /, and V; that satisfy the required condition, ic., they have the same divergence, curl and normal component. We now need to show that if this be the case, then these two fields must be identical. Since the divergence, the curl, the dot product are all linear operators we define a new field 77 as W=%-% (1) Which satisfies 7xW=0 ink Q) v-W=0 mR (3) a-W=0 ons (4) Since 7 x W = 0, we introduce a scalar potential p as W=-P@ (5)Using Green’s second identity, §,d3- (ub v) = f.dolPu- Fo—uh 6 ‘With substitution u = v = @, we write fas (6¥0) = [avlte-¥6— 98 0 ‘When equation (5) is substituted this becomes fas (oi) = [al-W-- oF w) ) Is IY Since the first integral, 4, d3- ($17) = 4, ds #(f- W) is zero because of equation (4), and the integral J, dup? - W is zero because of equation (3) Equation (8) reduces tof, dvi’ -W = J, dvliv |? Since || [is always a positive quantity, the only way to satisfy this equation for a finite volume is to have W VY thereby proving the theorem.Example : Verify that the vector Solution: Be 1 a Here, A= yl, +2xdy txy@, + a, ay sya. la 4 So, ae , Wed OS yz 2x field A = yz@y + zx@y + xyé, is both irrotational and solenoidal. 4, a aa, Ay]. [AAr Az], [Ay 94.) , ae|~ [ay az | * ae ax | * [ax — ay | A, Ay=yz, Hy =2x and Hy =3y a, a|_[axy azx]. fayz axy], | fazx ayx] . wal [ay 02° * [az ax | [ae ay | xy! =e — x]y + Ly — yldy + [2 — 214, = 0 Hence, the vector field is irrotational, a, 2 aa, , 24, Bay 4 My ax tay Henee, the vector field is solenoidal,Example 12: Find 7 (2), where # = x@y + yay + 2@,. Solution: xdy + yay + 28, Fl = fat hy? oe? 28(2)= 45 eame) 4 o(gime) G+ y?+22y2 lasExample 13: Prove that the curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes, that is, 7 x (PV) = 0 Solution: =, Vv. av. av. Wea ha ea, ay ay a, oaa4 ax(v)= lax ay aa] = af 24] +a, [2%- 24] sa [2-24] =o Therefore, 7 x (PV) = fox dy 42 = 4x layaz~ ayaa) * 4y Laxaz ~ axael + * Laxay— axon! av av AV jax dy Gz Example 14: Prove that the divergence of the curl of a vector field vanishes, thatis, 7 - (F x A) = 0 Solution: e ® * aA, aA. ‘aA, aA, aA, OA, Yeas, & 2). |e Sega Ree ee ge eel a xan lee ay oy | ie [e ela, + ax lag la. Ay 0 a Jaa, aay) 9 faa, aa aa Therefore,V + (Vx A)= — |—#-— 4) 4 Sao — Neate PRAY ay | ae | ‘ay OA, @*Ay 07, | O*Ay | O*Ay D*Ay @xdy dxdz dxdy Aydz dxdz dydz 0