Lecture 6: Vector Calculus II Gradient, Divergence and Divergence Theorem

Gradient of Scalars Consider scalar field V and its change dV between two infinitesimal neighbouring points: V V V dV = dx + dy + dz x y z

V V V = ax + ay + a z ( dx a x + dy a y + dz a z ) . y z x
First bracketed factor is easily identified to be the gradient of V :

V =

V V V ax + ay + az x y z

Geometrically,

dV = V cos . dl Maximum when = 0 implies V gives the direction and dV = V d l = V cos dl

magnitude of the maximum rate of change of V per unit distance. If instead, the neighbouring points lie on the surface V = constant, then dV = 0 which occurs when = / 2 . Hence V is perpendicular to V = constant and V V = normal derivative of V . n Generalising,

V a = directional derivative of V along a .

Using earlier definitions of del operator and unit vectors for different coordinate system, we have

V 1 V V a + a + az z V 1 V 1 V V = ar + a + a r r r sin V =
Other properties are linearity

( cylindrical polar ) ( spherical polar )

(V + U ) = V + U
and (variants of) Leibniz property

(VU ) = V U + U V U V V U V = U2 U V n = n V n1 V

; ; .

If a vector field A is in the form of a gradient i.e. A = V , then V is called the scalar potential of A . Example (Sadiku, partial Example 3.3): Find the gradient of scalar field W = 10 r sin 2 cos . Solution:

W =

W 1 W 1 W ar + a + a r r r sin

= 10 sin 2 cos a r + 10 sin 2 cos a 10 sin sin a .

Example (Sadiku, Example 3.5): Find the angle of intersection between the line x = y = 2 z and the ellipsoid x 2 + y 2 + 2 z 2 = 10 . Solution: Note that the line will be parametrised by one parameter, say and thus the line given by

r ( ) = 2 a x + 2 a y + a z

Substituting this relation into equation of ellipse gives the intersecting point(s):

( 2 )

+ ( 2 ) + 2 2 = 10
2

= 1 .

Taking = 1 gives the point

r = 2 ax + 2 ay + az

( x, y, z)

= ( 2, 2,1) .

The other point is the inversion image about the origin. The equation of ellipsoidal surface can be written as

f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + 2 z 2 10
(equals zero). Its gradient is

f = 2x a x + 2 y a y + 4z a z
which should be normal to the ellipsoid.

At point ( 2, 2,1) , a unit normal to the ellipsoid will be

an =

f f

=
( 2,2,1)

2(2) a x + 2(2) a y + 4(1) a z 42 + 42 + 42 ax + ay + az 3 .

The angle it makes with line r ( 1) can be obtained using the dot product formula:

cos =

an r an r

2(1) + 2(1) + 1(1) 3 2 + 2 +1

5 3 3

which gives 15.79 . The angle required for the question is however the angle the line makes with tangent to the surface, which is

90 15.79 = 74.21 .
Note that there are other answers due to options of and the normal assignment.

Divergence of Vector Field and Divergence Theorem Earlier:

A dS as net outward flux of A from closed surface.

Propose to define divergence of A at a point P is the outward flux per unit volume in zero volume limit around the point:

div A = A =

lim v 0

A dS v .

Consider

A dS for the durface of infinitesimal cuboid below.

A three-dimensional Taylor series of each component of A about P looks like

A x ( x, y, z ) = A x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + ( x x0 ) + ( z z0 ) A x z
P

A x x
P

+ ( y y0 )

A x y
P

+ higher order terms .

For the front side have x = x0 + dx / 2 and dS = dy dz a x , and thus

dx A x A dS = dy dz A x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + + higher order terms . 2 x P front For the back side have x = x0 dx / 2 and dS = dy dz ( a x ) , thus dx A x A dS = dy dz A x ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) 2 x back Together, + higher order terms . P

front +back

A dS = dx dy dz

A x x
P

+ higher order terms .

Similarly,

left +right

A dS = dx dy dz

A y y
P

+ higher order terms ;

top +bottom

A dS = dx dy dz

A z z
P

+ higher order terms .

Summing over all surfaces and dividing by v = dx dy dz , we have

lim v 0
Thus,

A dS v

A y A z A = x + + . x y z P

A =

A x x

A y y

A z z

For cylindrical polar coordinates, the divergence can be given by

A =

A 1 1 A ( A ) + + zz

The divergence for spherical polar coordinates is similarly given by

A =

1 2 1 1 A ( r Ar ) + r sin ( A sin ) + r sin r 2 r

Note that the divergence operates only on vector fields (dot product operation) and always give a scalar. The operation is distributive:

( A + B) = A + B ,
and also obeys a generalized Leibnitz rule:

(VA ) = V A + A V

Finally, by definition and summing over infinitesimal volumes, we have Divergence Theorem: The total outward flux of a vector field A through a closed surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A .

A dS =

A
v

dv

Example (Sadiku Example 3.7): If G ( r ) = 10 e 2 z ( a + a z ) , find flux of G out of cylinder = 1 , 0 z 1. Confirm result through divergence theorem.

Solution: For top end of cylinder, z = 1 and dS = d d a z . Flux through top end is

For bottom end of cylinder, z = 0 and dS = d d ( a z ) . Flux through bottom end is

1 2 2 G dS = 0 010 e d d = 10 e 2 2 0 = 10 e . = = top
1

1 2 G dS = 0 0 10 e d d = 10 ( 2 ) 2 0 = 10 . = = bottom
1 0

For curved surface of cylinder, = 1 and dS = dz d a . Flux through curved surface is

curved

G dS =

z =0 =0

10 e

2 z

e 2 z (1) d dz = 10 ( 2 ) = 10 (1 e2 ) . 2 0
2

Hence, total flux is

G dS = 10 e 2 + ( 10 ) + 10 (1 e 2 ) = 0 .

Since surface is closed, apply divergence theorem:

G dS
S

( G ) dv
v

but

G =

1 1 ( G ) + G + z Gz 1 = ( 210 e2 z ) 20 e2 z = 0 .

Thus,

( G ) dv
v

= 0 =

G dS
S

as required.