UPH004

Electromagnetic waves

Department of Physics and Material Science

Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology
 VECTOR CALCULUS
1 FIELD (Scalar and Vector fields)…
2 Gradient of a scalar field
3 Divergence of a vector field
4 Curl of a vector field
5 Laplacian of a scalar field
6 Integral calculus of vectors
7 Gauss’s divergence theorem
8 Stokes’s theorem
 FIELD ???
• Field: A field is a region of space in which physical quantity is
well defined (single valued, continuous and definite) at all
points at a given instant of time and in this region of space, a
physical quantity possesses different values at different points

Types of Field: Field can be divided into two types depending

upon the nature of physical quantity
1) Scalar field 2) Vector field

• Scalar field : Scalar field is a region of space in which a scalar

quantity is well defined at all points at a given instant of time
and in this region of space, scalar quantity has different values
at different points

The examples of scalar field may be the distribution of

temperature in a room, the distribution of potential energy around
a charge.
Vector field : Vector field is a region of space in which a
vector quantity is well defined at all points at a given instant of
time and in this region of space, vector quantity has different
values at different points

The examples of vector field may be the electric or magnetic

field around charge or current distribution, respectively
 2. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR field
For the present case let the temperature distribution in a room.
The temperature T(x,y,z) forms a scalar field.
Suppose T1(x,y,z) is the temperature at point P1(x,y,z), and
T2(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) is the temperature at another point
P2(x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) as shown.
 2. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR field

The differential distances dx, dy , dz are the components of the

differential distance vector dL:

dL  dxiˆ  dyˆj  dzk̂

However, from differential calculus, the differential

temperature:
T T T
dT  T2  T1  dx  dy  dz
x y z

dx  dL  iˆ
dy  dL  ĵ
dz  dL  k̂
 2. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR field
So, previous equation can be rewritten as:

T T ˆ T ˆ
dT  î  dL  j  dL  k  dL
x y z
 T T ˆ T 
  î  j kˆ   dL
 x y z 
The vector inside square brackets defines the change of
temperature dT corresponding to a vector change in position dL.
This vector is called Gradient of Scalar T.
For Cartesian coordinate:
T T T
T  î  ĵ  k̂
x y z
Gradient is the rate of change with respect to distance of a variable
quantity, as temperature or pressure etc.
 # Del “operator” #

It can be written also as:

   
T   î  ĵ  k̂ T
 x y z 
By looking at this one may ponder:

  
  î  ĵ  k̂
x y z
The operator  is called as “del” operator.
It is not a vector however, it behaves like a vector in terms of dot
product and cross product.
 2. Gradient and ‘del operator’
As one of the example you may think of a hill. The
height H(x,y) of the hill is a function of two
coordinates say x and y.
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇𝐻 = iƸ + jƸ + k෠ 𝐻
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑑𝐻 = ∇𝐻 . 𝑑𝐿 = ∇𝐻 . 𝑑𝐿𝜃 . 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑑𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∇𝐻 . 𝑑𝐿𝜃=0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇≡ iƸ + jƸ + k෠ “del” operator
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Vector operator
 3. DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
Divergence of a vector A is a measure of how much the vector
A spreads out (diverges) from the point in question

Ax Ay Az

A   
x y z
Illustration of the divergence of a vector field at point P:

Positive Negative Zero

Divergence Divergence Divergence
 4. CURL OF A VECTOR

Curl of vector A indicates that how much the vector quality

curls or twist around.

For Cartesian coordinate:

iˆ ˆj kˆ
  
A 
x y z
Ax Ay Az

𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥

∇×A= − iƸ − − jƸ + − k෠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
 4. CURL OF A VECTOR

The curl of the vector field is concerned with rotation of the

vector field. Rotation can be used to measure the uniformity of
the field, the more non uniform the field, the larger value of
curl.
 ՜
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘෠
CURL OF A VECTOR ՜
𝜔 = 𝜔 𝑖Ƹ + 𝜔 𝑗Ƹ + 𝜔 𝑘෠
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
Compute the curl of linear velocity v: ՜
𝑟 = 𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ + 𝑧𝑘෠
𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
՜ ՜ ՜
𝑣 = 𝜔 × 𝑟 = 𝜔𝑥 𝜔𝑦 𝜔𝑧 = 𝑖Ƹ 𝜔𝑦 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑧 𝑦 + 𝑗Ƹ 𝜔𝑧 𝑥 − 𝜔𝑥 𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 + 𝑘෠ 𝜔𝑥 𝑦 − 𝜔𝑦 𝑥

∇×՜
𝑣 = ∇ × 𝑖Ƹ 𝜔𝑦 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑧 𝑦 + 𝑗Ƹ 𝜔𝑧 𝑥 − 𝜔𝑥 𝑧 + 𝑘෠ 𝜔𝑥 𝑦 − 𝜔𝑦 𝑥

𝑖Ƹ 𝑗Ƹ 𝑘෠
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×՜
𝑣 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜔𝑦 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑧 𝑦 𝜔𝑧 𝑥 − 𝜔𝑥 𝑧 𝜔𝑥 𝑦 − 𝜔𝑦 𝑥

∇×՜
𝑣 = 𝑖Ƹ 𝜔𝑥 + 𝜔𝑥 + 𝑗Ƹ 𝜔𝑦 + 𝜔𝑦 + 𝑘෠ 𝜔𝑧 + 𝜔𝑧 = 2 ՜
𝜔
 5. LAPLACIAN

The Laplacian of a scalar field, T written as:  2T

Where, Laplacian T is:

 2T    T
  ˆ  ˆ   T T ˆ T 
  iˆ  j  k    î  j kˆ 
 x y z   x y z 
 2
T  2
T  2
T
T 2  2  2
2

x y z

The Laplacian of a vector field, V written as:



 V   2 Vx iˆ  V y ˆj  Vz kˆ
2

    
  2Vx iˆ   2V y ˆj   2Vz kˆ
 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇≡ iƸ + jƸ + k෠
𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

՜ Gradient: ∇𝑇 Vector
𝑉𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐴 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
՜
՜ Divergence: ∇• 𝐴 Scalar
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 iƸ + 𝐴𝑦 jƸ + 𝐴𝑧 k෠
՜
Curl: ∇× 𝐴 Vector

5. Higher order derivatives

𝜵 • (𝜵𝑻) = 𝜵𝟐 T Laplacian
՜
𝜵 × (𝜵𝑻) = 𝟎 Check it 𝜵 • (𝜵 × 𝑨) = 𝟎 Check it
՜ ՜ ՜
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 ∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 = ∇ ∇ • 𝐴 − 𝜵𝟐 𝐴
𝜵𝟐 𝑇 = + +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝟐՜
𝜵 𝐴 = 𝜵𝟐 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝜵𝟐 𝐴𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝜵𝟐 𝐴𝑧 𝑘෠
 Questions
1. For find the gradients of
(a) F(x,y,z) = x2 + y3 + z4

2. Find the divergence and curl of (a) V a  x 2 iˆ  3xz 2 ˆj  2 zxkˆ

(b) V b  xyiˆ  2 xyˆj  3zxkˆ
(c) V c  y 2 iˆ  (2 xy  z 2 ) ˆj  2 yzkˆ

3. Find the Laplacian of (a) T(x,y,z) = x2 + 2xy + 3z + 4

(b) V  xyiˆ  2 xyˆj  3 zxkˆ

 6. Integral calculus of vectors

න 𝑽. 𝒅ℓ over a path ‘l’,

LINE INTEGRAL 𝐶

or ඵ 𝑽. 𝒅𝑺 over a surface ‘S’,

SURFACE INTEGRAL න 𝑽. 𝒅𝑺 𝑆
𝑆

or ම 𝑇𝑑𝜏
over a volume ‘τ’.
VOLUME INTEGRAL න 𝑇. 𝑑𝜏
𝜏
𝜏

ර 𝑽. 𝒅ℓ Closed integrals ඾ 𝑽. 𝒅𝑺
𝑃 𝑆

Example
of Line integral is the work
of surface integral is flux
of volume integral is total charge in a volume
 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR
The divergence of a vector A at a given point P is the outward
flux per unit volume:

   A  dS
div A    A  lim s

v 0 v

If the divergence of a
vector A vanishes in
space it is known to be
solenoidal.
 The integral of a derivative of a function over an interval is equal to the value
of that function at the boundary or the extremities of the interval.
The boundary of a volume is a
𝑏
𝑑 closed surface, that of a surface is
න 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑓𝑎 𝑥 a closed line. But the boundary of
𝑎 𝑑𝑥
a line is just two points.

7. Gauss’s divergence theorem 8. Stoke’s theorem

න ∇ • A𝑑𝑉 = ර A • 𝑑𝑆 න ∇ × A • 𝑑𝑆 = ර A • 𝑑𝑙
𝑉 𝑆 𝑆 𝐿

It states that the total outward The circulation of a vector field

flux of vector field at the closed around a closed path L is equal to
surface is same as volume the surface integral of the curl of
integral of divergence of the field.
over the surface S bounded by L.
 Practice questions
1. For find the gradients of (a) r
(b) F(x,y,z) = x2 + y3 + z4
(c) F(x,y,z) = ex sin(y) Ln(z)

2. Find the divergence and curl of (a) V a  x 2 iˆ  3xz 2 ˆj  2 zxkˆ

(b) V b  xyiˆ  2 xyˆj  3zxkˆ
(c) V c  y 2 iˆ  (2 xy  z 2 ) ˆj  2 yzkˆ

3. Find the Laplacian of (a) T(x,y,z) = x2 + 2xy + 3z + 4

(b) T(x,y,z) = sin(x)sin(y)sin(z)
(c) V  xyiˆ  2 xyˆj  3 zxkˆ

4. Find the constant ‘a’ so that the vector v  ( x  3 y )iˆ  2( y  z ) ˆj  ( x  az )kˆ is

solenoidal (divergence less).

5. Prove that r n  nr n 1rˆ where r  xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ

 UPH004

Electromagnetic waves

Department of Physics and Material Science

Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology
 Electric and Magnetic fields

Coulomb’s law Biot Savart’s law

 1 1 rˆ  1  rˆ
E 
 0 4 
 ( r )
r 2
d B  0 
4 p
I (r )  2 dl
r

The form of both the equations for electrostatic and magnetostatic field is similar with
only difference in the coefficient ε0 and μ0, and the source of respective field. The
integral is in the dimensions in which the source has its span.

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1784) Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart (1820)

 Flux of the field
In the study of static fields the electric and magnetic flux is defined
as the number of electric and magnetic lines of force in a given area
of surface.

The surface integral of a vector field gives the flux of that vector
field (it is a scalar quantity):
՜
՜ 𝑑𝜑𝑚 = 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝜑𝑒 = 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆

՜
Φ = න 𝑑𝜑 = න 𝐸 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑆 = න 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆

𝑑𝜑𝑒 , 𝑑𝜑𝑚
 Gauss’s law
The total outward electric flux is equal to the total charge enclosed
by the surface divided by 𝜀0 .

The total outward magnetic flux is equal to zero.

The integral equations are not easy to handle. They may be

converted into differential equations with no alteration in their
physical meaning:
න ∇ • E𝑑𝑉 = ර E • 𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑆

𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐 1 න ∇ • B𝑑𝑉 = ර B • 𝑑𝑆
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = න ∇. 𝐸 . 𝑑𝜏 = = න 𝜌 . 𝑑𝜏
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝑉 𝑆
𝑆 𝜏 𝜏

ර 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 = න ∇. 𝐵 . 𝑑𝜏 = 0
𝑆 𝜏

  
.E  , .B  0
0
 Faraday’s law
When a coil of wire suffers a change in magnetic flux attached
to it, by any means, an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
established in the coil.
d m
e.m. f .  
dt

e.m.f. ???
The work done to flow a unit positive charge through the
whole circuit including the battery… (Work, not force!!!).
Line integral of electric field over a closed path.

e.m. f .   E.dl
p
 Faraday’s law
 d   
p E.dl   dt  m    dt  S B.dS 
d න 𝐵 • 𝑑𝑆 = magnetic flux
𝑆

 
  dB 
  E dS    .dS න ∇ × E • 𝑑𝑆 = ර E • 𝑑𝑙
S S
dt
𝑆
The comparison gives

 B
 E  
t
This is the differential form of Faraday’s law.
 Ampere’s law
As for highly symmetric charge distributions, we can calculate the electric
field more easily using Gauss’s Law than Coulomb’s Law . . . .
similarly Ampère’s Law relates …….

the tangential component Bt of the magnetic field summed

(integrated) around a closed curve C
to
the current IC that passes through any surface bounded by C.

 
 B.dl  0 I
• The line integral (circulation) of the magnetic
field around some arbitrary closed curve is
proportional to the total current enclosed by that
curve

André-Marie Ampère in 1826

 Ampere’s law

ර𝐵. 𝑑𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇0 𝐼

න ∇ × B • 𝑑𝑎 = ර B • 𝑑𝑙
Use Stock’s law on left side 𝑆

 
   
  B  da  0  J  da
S S
OR

 
  B  0 J
Laws before Maxwell

 
1 Gauss’s law in electrostatics .E 
0

2 Gauss’s law in magnetostatics .B  0
 B
3 Faraday’s law  E  
t
 
4 Ampere’s law   B  0 J
 Equation of continuity
Suppose in a given volume τ, the charge is decreasing at some
rate. Assume that we have no “sources” or “sinks” of charge in
the system. This means that it has to go outside the region.

The amount of charge decreased per unit time has to go down as

a flux of the charge (current) through the boundary of the
volume. 𝜕
𝑑𝑄
𝐼=− ⇒ ර𝐽Ԧ • 𝑑𝑆Ԧ = − න 𝜌. 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 න ∇ • J𝑑𝑉 = ර J • 𝑑𝑆
𝜏
𝑉 𝑆
𝜕
⇒ න ∇ • 𝐽Ԧ 𝑑𝑉 = − න 𝜌. 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡
𝜏 𝜏

𝜕𝜌
Comparison gives ∇ • 𝐽Ԧ = −
𝜕𝑡
 Inconsistency in Ampere’s law
∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽Ԧ

Divergence on both sides gives

∇. ∇ × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 ∇. 𝐽Ԧ

Left hand side of the equation is zero essentially but the right
hand side needs not to be zero always.

For steady currents the right hand side becomes zero but when
you go beyond the limit of magnetostatics (electric currents are
steady) the Ampere’s law does not satisfy.
 Ampere’s law
Another way in which the inconsistency in Ampere’s circuital law
can be seen utilizes an electrical circuit containing a capacitor.
Let’s charge the capacitor by connecting a DC supply.
Ampere’s law says in its integral form
 
C1
 B.dl  0
  C1 C2
 B.dl   0 I inc
C2

But once they come closer to each other infinitesimally they

must give the same results.
   
 B.dl   B.dl ...xxx…
C1 C2
 Ampere’s law
There is a flaw in the calculation by Amperes’ law as the
infinitesimally close Amperian loops result for the different
answers.

This discrepancy in Ampere’s law was removed

theoretically by Maxwell by the introduction of the concept
of displacement current.
 Ampere’s law
Displacement current:
The discrepancy is at RHS of equation .  B    0 .J 

Continuity equation (the statement of conservation for charge in

electrodynamics) says: .J   / t  0

   E 
.J     ( 0 .E )  .  0 
t t  t 
 E 
or . J   0 0
 t 

Therefore albeit divergence of J is not zero but the divergence of J

plus something is always zero.
 Ampere’s law
The extra term which makes J divergenceless has the dimensions
of J and was called the Displacement current by Maxwell.
E
Jd  0
t
With this modification Ampere’s law becomes
  E 
  B  0  J   0 
 t 
J is the conduction current which is the actual current.
Jd term represents that varying electric field causes magnetic
field, even without an electric current. (converse Faraday’s law.)

Without this correction one cannot talk about electromagnetic

radiation.
Consistency in Ampere’s law
ර 𝐵. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐶2

C1 C2

𝜕∅𝐸 𝜕 𝜎 𝜕
ර 𝐵. 𝑑 𝑙Ԧ = 𝜇0𝜀0 = 𝜇0𝜀0 𝑆 = 𝜇0 𝑞 = 𝜇0 I
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜀0 𝜕𝑡
𝐶1

Total electric field inside a

capacitor due to two parallel
𝜎
plates (E)=
𝜀0
 Maxwell’s equations

Helmholtz theorem: provided the field vanishes far from its source, the curl and
divergence of it are sufficient to determine the field at any point of question.
 q Gauss’s Law

N
No magnetic monopoles

E
Faraday’s Law of Induction
S
∂B/∂t

∂E/∂t B
Ampere’s Circuital Law
i