Updated - Physics 10

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Unit 18
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS
After studying this unit, students will be able to:
• describe the structure of an atom in terms of a nucleus and electrons.
• describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons.
• explain that number of protons in a nucleus distinguishes one element from the other.
• represent various nuclides by using the symbol of proton number Z, nucleon
number A and the nuclide notation X.
• explain that some nuclei are unstable, give out radiation to get rid of excess energy
and are said to be radioactive.
• describe that the three types of radiation are ,  &  .
• state, for radioactive emissions:
o their nature
o their relative ionizing effects
o their relative penetrating abilities
• explain that an element may change into another element when radioactivity occurs.
• represent changes in the composition of the nucleus by symbolic equations when
alpha or beta particles are emitted.
• describe that radioactive emissions occur randomly over space and time.
• explain the meaning of hal-life of a radioactive material.
• describe what are radioisotopes. What makes them useful for various applications?
• describe briefly the processes of fission and fusion.
• show an awareness of the existence of background radiation and its sources.
• describe the process of carbon dating to estimate the age of ancient objects.
• describe hazards of radioactive materials.
Science, Technology and Society Connections

The students will be able to:
• describe how radioactive materials are handled, used, stored and disposed of, in a safe way.
• make a list of some applications of radioisotopes in medical, agriculture and industrial fields.
• make estimation of age of ancient objects by the process of carbon dating.
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Scientists were always interested to know the smallest For your information
The word atom is derived from
particle of matter. Greek Philosopher Democritus in 585 BC
the Greek word “otomos”,
postulated that matter is built from small particles called meaning "indivisible." At one
atoms. The atom means indivisible in Greek language. time, atoms were thought to
Rutherford in 1911, discovered that atom had a central part be the smallest particles of
called the nucleus. In this unit, we will describe different matter. Today we know that
atoms are composite systems
aspects of atomic and nuclear physics such as radioactivity,
and contain even smaller
half-life, nuclear reactions, fission and fusion. particles: protons, neutrons
and electrons.
18.1 ATOM AND ATOMIC NUCLEUS
Rutherford discovered that the positive charge in an atom

was concentrated in a small region called nucleus. The
nucleus contains protons and neutrons which are collectively
called nucleons. Atom also contains electrons which revolve
in nearly circular orbits about the positively charged nucleus
(Fig. 18.1). The simplest atom is that of hydrogen, nucleus of
which is a single proton. We describe an element with
respect to its nucleus and use the following quantities:
The atomic number Z is equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus.
The neutron number N is equal to the number of neutrons in Orbits
Nucleus p
the nucleus. n
p = protons
The atomic mass number A is equal to the number of n = neutrons
= electrons
nucleons (protons + neutrons) in the nucleus i.e., A= Z+N.
The mass of neutron is nearly equal to that of proton. But
proton is about 1836 times heavier than an electron. So the Fig.18.1: The nucleus of an
mass of an atom is nearly equal to the sum of masses of atom consists of protons and
neutrons
protons and neutrons.
A
Generally, an atom is represented by the symbol Z X. For example,
nuclide of hydrogen atom having only one proton is 11 H.
Example 18.1: Find the number of protons and neutrons in
the nuclide defined by 136 X.
Solution: From the symbol, we have
Atomic number Z = number of protons = 6
175 Not For Sale – PESRP
Atomic mass A = number of protons + number of neutrons = 13

But number of protons are 6, so number of neutrons will be 7.
So the element is an isotope of carbon-6, and is written as
13
6 C.
ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of an element which have same number
of protons but different number of neutrons in their nuclie.
Three isotopes of Hydrogen are shown in Fig.18.2. Protium
For your information
( 11 H) contains one proton in the nucleus and one electron that
revolves round the nucleus. Deuterium ( 12 H) contains one
proton, one neutron and one electron. Tritium ( 13 H) contains Atom 10-10m
one proton, two neutrons and one electron.

Nucleus 10-14 m
Proton
10-15 m
Neutron
Electron <10-18 m
Size of atom and its

Fig.18.2: Three isotopes of hydrogen Protium ( 11 H), Deutrium ( 12 H) and constituents.
Tritium ( 13 H) .
18.2 NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

In 1896, Becquerel accidentally discovered that uranium salt
crystals emit an invisible radiation that can darken a
photographic plate. He also observed that the radiation had the
ability to ionize a gas. Subsequent experiments by other
scientists showed that other substances also emited radiations.
The most significant investigations of this type were conducted
by Marie Curie and her husband Pierre. They discovered two Do you know?
The positively charged protons
new elements which emitted radiations. These were named
in a nucleus have huge
polonium and radium. This process of emission of radiations by electrical forces of repulsion
some elements was called natural radioactivity by Marie Curie. between them. Why do not
Subsequent experiments performed by Henrey Becquerel they fly apart in response to
suggested that radioactivity was the result of the decay or this force? Because there is an
disintegration of unstable nuclei. attractive force between the
nucleons called the strong
The spontaneous emission of radiation by unstable nuclei is
force. This force acts over only
called natural radioactivity. And the elements which emit a very short distance. Without
such radiations are called radioactive elements. this strong nuclear force, there
Three types of radiation are usually emitted by a radioactive would be no atoms beyond
hydrogen.
Not For Sale – PESRP 176
substance. They are: alpha () particles; beta () particles; and
gamma () rays. These three forms of radiations were studied Photographic film
by using the scheme shown in Fig. 18.3. The radioactive source -particles -rays
is placed inside the magnetic field. The radiation emitted from -particles
the source splits into three components:  and -radiations
bend.. in.. opposite.. direction ..in. .the.. magnetic.. field ..while
-radiation does not change its direction. Lead block Megnetic field
(into page)
Radiaoactive source
18.3 BACKGROUND RADIATIONS
Fig.18.3: Three types of
radiations can be distinguished
Radiations present in atmosphere due to different from their path followed in an
radioactive substances are called background radiations external magnetic field
(Fig.18.4). Everywhere in rocks, soil, water, and air of our
planet are traces of radioactive elements. This natural
radiation is called the background radiation. It is as much part Environmental sources
of ,  and  radiations
of our environment as sunshine and rain. Fortunately, our (alpha, beta and gamma only)
bodies can tolerate it. Only places where radiation is very
2%
high can be injurious to health. 21% Fallout 20%
The Earth, and all living things on it also receive radiation Cosmic Radon
from outer space. This radiation is called cosmic radiation rays gas
which primarily consists of protons, electrons, alpha particles
and larger nuclei. The cosmic radiation interacts with atoms
in the atmosphere to create a shower of secondary radiation,
including X-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, electrons,
57%
and neutrons. Natural radioactivity in
rocks and soil
18.4 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATIONS Fig.18.4: The sources of
background radiation from the
environment
We know that during natural radioactivity, an unstable nucleus
of radioactive element disintegrates to become more stable.
The spontaneous process in which a parent unstable nuclide

changes into a more stable daughter nuclide with the
emission of radiations is called nuclear transmutation
Now we represent radioactive decay by means of a nuclear

equation in which an unstable parent nuclide X changes into a
daughter nuclide Y with the emission of an alpha particle,
beta particle or gamma particle.
1. Alpha ()-decay
General Equation:
A
ZX
A-4
Z-2Y + 24 He + Energy For your information
parent daughter -particle The SI unit for radioactivity is
the becquerel, Bq. In SI base
nuclide nuclide units, 1 Bq = 1disintegration
Example: 226
88 Ra
222
86 Rn
4
+ 2 He + Energy per second (dps). This is a very
radium radon -particle small unit. For example, 1.0 g
It means in alpha decay, the proton number or atomic of radium has an activity of
3.7 3 × 1010 Bq. Therefore, the
number Z of the parent nuclide reduces by 2 and its mass
kilobecquerel (kBq) and the
number or nucleon number A decreases by 4. megabecquerel (MBq) are
commonly used. The activity
2. Beta ()-decay of 1.0 g of radium is
General Equation: 3.73×104MBq.
A A 0
ZZ Z+1Y + -1 e + Energy
parent daughter -particle
nuclide nuclide
14 14 0
Example: 6 C 6N + -1 e + Energy
carbon nitrogen -particle
In beta ()-decay , the parent nuclide has its proton number Z

increased by 1 but its mass number or nucleon number A
remains unchanged.
3. Gamma ()-decay
General Equation:
A Z
ZX 6X + 
parent daughter gamma rays
nuclide nuclide
60 60 0
Example: Co + 0  + Energy Physics Insight
27 27 Co
when alpha and beta particles
cobalt cobalt -rays
are slowed down by collisions,
Gamma rays are usually emitted alongwith either an alpha or they become harmless. in fact,
a beta particle. they combine to form neutral
Nature and Properties of Radiations helium atoms.
Alpha particle is a helium nucleus comprising of two protons
and two neutrons with a charge of 2e. An unstable nucleus
with large protons and neutrons may decay by emitting alpha
radiations. . Beta radiation is a stream of high-energy
electrons. An unstable nuclei with excess of neutrons may
eject beta radiations. Gamma radiations are fast moving light
photons. They are electromagnetic radiations of very high

frequency (short wavelength) emitted by the unstable lons
excited nuclie.
Ionizing Effect
The phenomenon by which radiations split matter into
positive and negative ions is called ionization. All three
kinds of radiations i.e., alpha, beta and gamma can ionize -particle Neutral gas
molecules
the matter. However, alpha particles have the greatest
Alpha particles cause
power of ionization as compared to beta particles and intense ionization in
gamma rays. It is due to large positive charge and large mass (a) a gas
of alpha particles. Beta particles ionize a gas much less than
alpha particles. The ionization power of gamma rays is even
lons
less than that of beta particles. Ionization of three
radiations in a gas is shown in Fig. 18.5.
Penetrating Ability
The strength of radiations to penetrate a certain material is
called penetrating power. The alpha particle has the -particle
shortest range because of its strong interacting or ionizing
power. The gamma rays can penetrate a considerable Beta particles ionize a
gas much less than alpha
thickness of concrete. It is due to their large speed and particles
(b)
neutral nature.
The beta radiation strongly interacts with matter due to its
charge and has a short range as compared to gamma  -ray
radiations. Fig. 18.6 shows the relative penetrating abilities

of three kinds of radiations.
Paper Lead
Alpha
particle
Beta
particle
Gamma
particle
Radioactive source Gamma rays ionize a

gas even less than beta
Aluminium particles
Fig.18.6: Penetrating power of radiations in different materials
Alpha particle has a range of only a few centimetres in air.
Beta particles have range of several metres in air. Fig. 18.5: Ionization effect of
radiations in a gas
However, gamma rays have a range of several hundreds
metres in air.
18.5 HALF-LIFE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Process of radioactivity is random and the rate of Alpha () Particles
radioactive decay is proportional to the number of unstable Positively charged particles
nuclei present. In the process, a constant fraction of large (helium nuclei), ejected at high
speed with a range of only a few
number of unstable radioactive nuclei decays in a certain centimetres in air. They can be
time. So the life time of the unstable nuclei is unlimited and stopped by an ordinary sheet of
is difficult to measure. We can get the idea about decay thin aluminium foil.
rate by the term half-life.
Beta () Particles
Remember Streams of high-energy
Three types of Radiations electrons, ejected at various
Alpha Particle Beta Particle Gamma Ray speeds as high as close to the
Charge +2 Charge – 1 No charge speed of light. Beta particles may
be able to penetrate several
Least penetration Moderate penetration Highest penetration millimetres of aluminium.
Transmutes nucleus: Transmutes nucleus: Changes only energy
A A – 4 A A A A Gamma () Rays
Z Z – 2 Z Z + 1 Z Z Electromagnetic radiation of very
N N – 2 N N – 1 N N short wavelenght. Their
wavelengths and energies can
Half-Life vary. High-energy gamma rays
can penetrate at least 30 cm of
The time during which half of the unstable radioactive lead or 2 km of air.
nuclei disintegrate is called the half-life of the sample of
radioactive element. For your information
Every radioactive element has its own characteristic half- i. Nuclear radiation is
life. For example, radium-226 has a half-life of 1620 years, measured in units of roentgen
equivalent man (rem), a unit of
which means that half of a radium-226 sample will be equivalent dose.
converted to other elements by the end of 1620 years ii. Patient should be exposed to
(Fig.18.7). In the next 1620 years, half of the remaining X-rays with the limit of 0.1 to
radium will decay, leaving only one-fourth the original 1.0 rem.
amount of radium, and so on. iii. Safe limit of radiation
N exposure is 5.0 rem per year.
Number of
Physics insight
nuclides
A half-life is the time a
radioactive element takes for
1/2N half of a given number of
nuclei to decay. During a
second half-life, half of the
1/4 N
remaining nuclei decay, so in
1/8 N two half-lives, three-quarters
of the original material has
1620 3240 4860 Years decayed, not all of it.
Fig.18.7: Radioactivity of radium

If the half-life of the radioactive element is T1/2, then at the

end of this time the number of atoms in the sample will
become half i.e., 1/2. After a time 2T1/2, i.e., after second half-
life period, the number of remaining atoms will become
2
1/2.1/2 =1/2 =1/4, after a time 3 T1/2, the number of
3
remaining atoms left will be1/2.1/2.1/2 =1/2 =1/8 , and at
the end of ‘t’ half lives number of atoms that remain will be
t
1/2 . It means that if No is the original number of atoms in the
sample of radioactive element, then after ‘t’ half-lives
number of atoms left in the sample can be determined by
using the relation,
t
Remaining atoms = Original atoms 1/2
t
or N = No x 1/2
The process of radioactivity does not depend upon the
chemical combinations or reactions. It is also not. affected by
any change in physical conditions like temperature, pressure,
electric or magnetic fields. Be careful !
Example 18.2: The activity of a sample of a radioactive
bismuth decreases to one-eight of its original activity in
15 days. Calculate the half-life of the sample.
Solution: Let T½ is the half-life and Ao is the original
activity of the sample. After time T½ activity will be Ao/2.
After 2T½ activity will become1/2. Ao/2= Ao/4. While after
International symbol that
time 3T½, i.e., after three half-lives, the activity will drop
indicates an area where
to Ao/8. It means activity drops to one-eighth of original radioactive material is being
activity in a time of 3T½. handled or produced.
Therefore, 3T½ = 15. This means half-life T½ of the sample will
be 5 days.
Example 18.3: A radioactive element has a half-life of
40 minutes. The initial count rate was 1000 per minute. How
long will it take for the count rate to drop to (a) 250 per
minutes (b) 125 per minutes (c) Plot a graph of the Radiation Treatment
radioactive decay of the element. Gamma radiations destroy
Solution: The initial count rate is 1000, therefore, both cancerous cells and
healthy cells. Therefore, the
1000 40 min. 500 40 min. 250 40 min. 125 beam of radiation must be
directed only at cancerous
(a) As clear from above, it takes 2 half-lives for the count rate cells.

to decrease from 1000 to 250 per min, hence

Time taken = 2 × 40 min. = 80 min.
(b) It takes 3 half-lives for the count rate to decrease from For your information
1000 to 125 per min, hence
Time taken = 3 × 40 min. = 120 min = 2 h
(c) Graph is shown in Fig 18.8.
count-rate
per min.
1000
800 During brain radiotherapy,

patient is carefully positioned
600
in the helmet to ensure that
400 the gamma rays converge at
the desired point in the brain.
200 A lead apron protects the body
from exposure to radiation.
0
T½ 2T½ 3T½
Time/min.
Fig. 18.8: Decay of unstable element
18.6 RADIOISOTOPES AND THEIR USES

Nuclei which do not emit radiations naturally are called stable
nuclei. .In. general,. most .of. the .nuclei. with. atomic. number
1 to 82 are stable nuclei. While the elements whose atomic
number is greater than 82 are naturally unstable. They emit
different types of radiations, all the time, and hence
continuously change from one type of element to another.
The stable and non-radioactive elements can also be
changed into radioactive elements by bombarding them with
protons, neutrons or alpha particles. Such artificially
produced radioactive elements are called radioactive
isotopes or radioisotopes. Here are some examples of the
production of radioisotopes:
1 23 24
1. 0 n + 11 Na 11 Na + gamma ()-rays
neutron stable a sodium
sodium radioisotope
nuclide
4 30
2. 2 He + 13 Al
27
15 P + 01 n
alpha stable a phos-
particle aluminium phorous
nuclide radioisotope
Uses of Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are frequently used in medicine, industry and

agriculture for variety of useful purposes. Following are few
applications of radioisotopes in different fields.
1. Tracers
Radioactive tracers are chemical compounds containing some

quantity of radioisotope. They can be used to explore the
metabolism of chemical reactions inside the human body,
animals or plants. Radioisotopes are used as tracers in
medicine, industry and agriculture. For example, radio iodine-
131 readily accumulates in the thyroid gland and can be used
for the monitoring of thyroid functioning. For the diagnosis of
brain tumor phosphorous-32 is used. The malignant part of the
body absorbs more quantity of isotopes, and this helps in
tracing the affected part of the body. Fig.18.9: To check the action of
In industry tracers can be used to locate the wear and tear of the a fe r t i l i ze r, re s e a rc h e rs
moving parts of the machinery. They can be used for the location combine a small amount of
of leaks in underground pipes. By introducing a suitable radioactive material with the
radioactive tracer into the pipe, the leak can be conveniently fertilizer and then apply the
combination to a few plants.
traced from higher activity in the region of crack in the pipe. The amount of radioactive
In agriculture, radio phosphorous-32 is used as a tracer to fertilizer taken up by the plants
find out how well the plants are absorbing the phosphate can be easily measured with
fertilizer which are crucial to their growth (Fig.18.9). radiation detectors.
2. Medical Treatment
Radioisotopes are also used in nuclear medicines for curing

various diseases. For example, radioactive cobalt-60 is used
for curing cancerous tumors and cells. The radiations kill the
cells of the malignant tumor in the patient.
3. Carbon Dating
Radioactive carbon-14 is present in small amount in the

atmosphere. Live plants use carbon dioxide and therefore
become slightly radioactive (Fig. 18.10).

Cosmic rays, passing through atmosphere,
produce fast neutrons
Neutrons strike nitrogen in the atmosphere,
producing carbon-14 and hydrogen
Neutron
Nitrogen atom
Hydrogen
Carbon 14 atom
Carbon-14 mixes with oxygen to
form radioactive carbon dioxide
Vegetation absorbs
radioactive carbon dioxide
Animals, fedding on
vegetation, absorb
carbon-14
Fig. 18.10: Radiocarbon dating is possible because plants and animals

absorb radioactive carbon-14 through their intake of Co2
When a tree dies, the radio carbon-14 present inside the
plant starts decaying. Since the half-life of carbon-14 is 5730
years, the age of a dead tree can be calculated by comparing
the activity of carbon-14 in the live and dead tree. The activity
of the live tree remains almost constant as the carbon-14 is
being replenished while the carbon-14 in the dead tree is no
more replenished. Therefore, by measuring the activity in the
ancient relic, scientists can estimate its age.
Other radioisotopes are also used to estimate the age of
geological specimens. For example, some rocks contain the
unstable potassium isotope K-40. This decays to the stable
argon nuclide Ar-40 with half-life of 2.4 × 108 years. The age of
rock sample can be estimated by comparing the
concentrations of K-40 and Ar-40.
Example 18.4: The C-14: C-12 ratio in a fossil bone is found to be
th
1/4 that of the ratio in the bone of a living animal. The half- life of
C-14 is 5730 years what is the approximate age of the fossil?
Solution: Since the ratio has been reduced by factor of 4
therefore, two half-lives have passed.
Therefore age of the fossil is given by: 2 x 5730 = 11460 years
18.7 FISSION REACTION

Nuclear fission takes place when a heavy nucleus, such as
U-235, splits, or fissions, into two smaller nuclei by absorbing
a slow moving (low-energy) neutron (Fig. 18.11) as
represented by the equation:
Kr
Uranium nucleus
235 236
92 U 92 U + Energy
Neutron
Intermediate Ba
nucleus
Ba 3 Neutrons
Fig. 18.11: Nuclear fission reaction

1 235 236
0 n + 92U 92 U* X + Y + neutron
where U*-236 is an intermediate state that lasts only for a fraction of
second before splitting into nuclei X and Y, called fission fragments.
Nuclear fission was first observed in 1939 by Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassman. The uranium nucleus was split into two nearly equal
fragments after absorbing a slow moving (low-energy) neutron.
The process also resulted in the production of typically two or
three neutrons per fission event. On the average, 2.47 neutrons
are released per event as represented by the expression
1 235 141 92 1
0 n + 92 U 56 Ba 36 Kr + 3 0 n
In nuclear fission, the total mass of the products is less than
the original mass of the heavy nucleus. Measurements
showed that about 200 MeV of energy is released in each For your information
fission event. This is a large amount of energy relative to the Electron volt is also a unit of
energy used in atomic and
amount released in chemical processes. For example, If we nearly physics:
burn 1 tonne of coal, then about 3.6 × 1010 J of energy is -19
1eV = 1.6 x 10 J
released. But, during the fission of 1 kg of Uranium-235 about
6.7×1011 J of energy is released.
We have seen that neutrons are emitted when U-235
undergoes fission. These neutrons can in turn trigger other
nuclei to undergo fission with the possibility of a chain
reaction (Fig.18.12). Calculations show that if the chain
reaction is not controlled, it will proceed too rapidly and

possibly results in the sudden release of an enormous
amount of energy (an explosion).
235
92
U
Ba
Uranium nucleus
235 235
U
92
U
92 Ba
Neutron
Ba
235
Neutrons U
92
Ba
Fig. 18.12: Fission Chain reaction in U-235
This fission chain reaction is controlled in nuclear reactors. A
nuclear reactor provides energy for useful purposes. In this
sort of self sustained reaction, extra neutrons liberated in
fission reactions are absorbed using some material to slow
down the chain reaction.
Half-lives of Selected Isotopes

Element Isotope Half-Life Radiation
Produced
Hydrogen 1
0H 12.3 years 
Carbon
14
C
6 5730 years 
14
Cobalt Co
6 30 years 
131
Lodine I
53 8.07 days 
212
Lead Pb
82 10.6 hours 
194
Polonium Po
84 0.7 seconds 
210
Po
Polonium 84
235
138 days 
U
Uranium 92
238 7.1 x 108 years 
U
Uranium 92
236 4.51 x 109 years 
Pu
94
Plutonium 242 2.85 years 
Pu
94 5
Plutonium 3.79 x 10 years 

18.8 NUCLEAR FUSION

When two light nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, the
process is called nuclear fusion.
The mass of the final nucleus is always less than the masses of
the original nuclei. According to mass-energy relation this loss
of mass converts into energy. If an atom of Deuterium is fused
with an atom of Tritium, then a Helium nucleus or alpha
particle is formed as given by
2 3 4 1
1 H + 1H 2He + 0 n + energy
Pictorally fusion reaction is shown in the following figure:
Deuterium Helium
Tritium Neutron
Energy coming from the Sun and stars is supposed to be the

result of fusion of hydrogen nuclei into Helium nucleus with
release of energy. The temperature at the centre of the Sun is
nearly 20 million kelvin which makes the fusion favourable.
According to this reaction, four hydrogen nuclei fuse
together to form a helium nucleus alongwith 25.7 MeV of
energy.
18.9 HAZARDS OF RADIATIONS AND SAFETY

MEASURES
Although, radiations are very useful in medicine, agriculture
and industry, they can also cause considerable damage if not
used with precautions. Radioactive, nuclear materials are
now widely used in nuclear power plants, nuclear-powered
submarines, intercontinental ballistic missiles etc. Some of
the harmful effects on human beings due to large doses or
prolonged small doses of radiations are:
1. Radiation burns, mainly due to beta and gamma radiations,
which may cause redness and sores on the skin.
2. Sterility ( i.e., inability to produce children).
3. Genetic mutations in both human and plants. Some

children are born with serious deformities.
4. Leukemia (cancer of the blood cells).
5. Blindness or formation of cataract in the eye.
During the nuclear accident at Chernobyl, Russia, the
explosion of the nuclear reactors melted through a few
metres thick concrete housing. This caused a massive
destruction of local community and also contaminated
vegetation and livestock in the large surrounding area.
Millions of dollars were lost as the contaminated vegetable
and livestock had to be destroyed.
Because we cannot detect radiations directly, we should
strictly follow safety precautions, even when the radioactive
sources are very weak.
1. The sources should only be handled with tongs and forceps.
2. The user should use rubber gloves and hands should
be washed carefully after the experiment.
3. All radioactive sources should be stored in thick lead
containers.
4. Never point a radioactive source towards a person.
5. Frequent visits to the radiation sensitive areas should
be avoided.
SUMMARY
 There are two parts of an atom. Its central part is called the nucleus which contains
neutrons and protons called nucleons. The nucleus is positively charged and
electrons revolve around it in nearly circular orbits.
 The number of protons present inside a nucleus is called the charge number or the
atomic number and is denoted by the letter Z.
 The sum of neutrons and protons present in a nucleus is called its atomic mass
number. It is denoted by the letter A.
 The atoms of same element with same atomic number but different atomic mass
number are called isotopes.
 The elements whose atomic number is greater than 82 are unstable. The process of
decaying such elements into daughter elements is called natural radioactivity and
such elements are called radioactive elements.
 Radioactivity is a random process which does not depend on space and time.
 The time during which the atoms of a radioactive element are reduced to one half is
called the half-life of that element.
 Background radiations are caused by some radioactive elements present in rocks,
soil and water.
 A process in which nucleus of an unstable heavy element breaks into two nuclei of
lighter elements with the emission of radiation is called nuclear transmutation.
 The isotopes which emit radiations are called radioactive isotopes. They are used in
medicine, agriculture and industry for a variety of purposes.
 The age of a dead human, animal or tree can be estimated by comparing the activity
of carbon-14 in the live and dead tree. The technique is called carbon dating.
 A process in which a heavy nucleus breaks into two nearly equal parts with the
release of large energy is called nuclear fission.
 A process in which two light nuclei diffuse to form a heavier nucleus with release of
enormous amount of energy is called fusion reaction.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Choose the correct answer from the following choices:
i. Isotopes are atoms of same element with different
(a) atomic mass (b) atomic number
(c) number of protons (d) number of electrons
ii. One of the isotopes of uranium is 23892 U. The number of neutrons in this isotope is
(a) 92 (b) 146

© 238 (d) 330
iii. Which among the following radiations has more penetrating power?
(a) a beta particle (b) a gamma ray
(c) an alpha particle (d) all have the same penetrating ability
iv. What happens to the atomic number of an element which emits one alpha
particle?
(a) increases by 1 (b) stays the same
(c) decreases by 2 (d) decreases by 1
v. The half-life of a certain isotope is 1 day. What is the quantity of the isotope
after 2 days?
(a) one-half (b) one-quarter
(c) one-eighth (d) none of these
vi. When Uranium (92 protons) ejects a beta particle, how many protons will be in the
remaining nucleus?
(a) 89 protons (b) 90 protons
© 91 protons (d) 93 protons

vii. Release of energy by the Sun is due to

(a) nuclear fission (b) nuclear fusion
(c) burning of gases (d) chemical reaction
viii. When a heavy nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei, the process would
(a) release nuclear energy (b) absorb nuclear energy
(c) release chemical energy (d) absorb chemical energy
ix. The reason carbon-dating works is that
(a) plants and animals are such strong emitters of carbon-14
(b) after a plant or animal dies, it stops taking in fresh carbon-14
(c) there is so much non-radioactive carbon dioxide in the air
(d) when plants or animals die. they absorb fresh carbon -14
REVIEW QUESTIONS
18.1. What is difference between atomic number and atomic mass number? Give a
symbolical representation of a nuclide.
18.2. What do you mean by the term radioactivity? Why some elements are radioactive
but some are not?
18.3. How can we make radioactive elements artificially? Describe with a suitable
example.
18.4. What are the three basic radioactive decay processes and how do they differ from
each other?
18.5. Write the alpha decay process for 234 91 Pa. Identify the parent and daughter nuclei in
this decay.
18.6. Explain whether the atomic number can increase during nuclear decay. Support
your answer with an example.
18.7. What do you understand by half-life of a radioactive element?
18.8. Is radioactivity a spontaneous process? Elaborate your answer with a simple
experiment.
18.9. What is meant by background radiations? Enlist some sources of background
radiations.
18.10. Describe two uses of radioisotopes in medicine, industry or research.
18.11. What are two common radiation hazards? Briefly describe the precautions that are
taken against them.
18.12. Complete this nuclear reaction: 235 92 U
140
54 X + ? + 2 0 1n. Does this reaction
involve fission or fusion? Justify your answer.
18.13. Nuclear fusion reaction is more reliable and sustainable source of energy than
nuclear fission chain reaction. Justify this statement with plausible arguments.
18.14. A nitrogen nuclide 147 N decays to become an oxygen nuclide by emitting an
electron. Show this process with an equation.
18.15. Determine which of these radioactive decay processes are possible:

(a) 214
84 Po
214 4
84 Po + 2 He (b) 230
90 Th
226 4
88 Ra + 2 He
233 233 0
(c) 91 Pa 92 U + -1  (d) 126 C 14
7N + 0
-1 
CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
18.1. Is it possible for an element to have different types of atoms? Explain.
18.2. What nuclear reaction would release more energy, the fission reaction or the
fusion reaction? Explain.
18.3. Which has more penetrating power, an alpha particle or a gamma ray photon?
18.4. What is the difference between natural and artificial radioactivity?
18.5. How long would you likely have to wait to watch any sample of radioactive atoms
completely decay?
18.6. Which type of natural radioactivity leaves the number of protons and the number
of neutrons in the nucleus unchanged?
18.7. How much of a 1 g sample of pure radioactive substance would be left undecayed
after four half- lives?
3
18.8. Tritium, 1 H is radioactive isotope of hydrogen. It decays by emitting an electron.
What is the daughter nucleus?
18.9. What information about the structure of the nitrogen atom can be obtained from
its nuclide 147 N ? In what way atom in 147 N is different from the atom in 167 N ?
NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
16
18.1. The half-life of N is 7.3 s. A sample of this nuclide of nitrogen is observed for 29.2 s.
7
Calculate the fraction of the original radioactive isotope remaining after this time.
Ans. (1/16)
18.2. Cobalt-60 is a radioactive element with half-life of 5.25 years. What fraction of the
original sample will be left after 26 years? Ans. (1/32)
18.3. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. How long will it take for the quantity of
carbon-14 in a sample to drop to one-eighth of the initial quantity?
Ans. (1.72 × 104 years)
18.4. Technetium-99 m is a radioactive element and is used to diagnose brain, thyroid,
liver and kidney diseases. This element has half-life of 6 hours. If there is 200 mg of
this technetium present, how much will be left in 36 hours. Ans.(3.12 mg)
18.5. Half-life of a radioactive element is 10 minutes. If the initial count rate is 368 counts
per minute, find the time for which count rates reaches 23 counts per minute.
Ans. (40 minutes)
18.6. In an experiment to measure the half-life of a radioactive element, the following

results were obtained:
Count rate / minute 400 200 100 50 25
Time (in minutes) 0 2 4 6 8
Plot a graph between the count rate and time in minutes. Measure the value for
the half-life of the element from the graph. Ans. (half-life is 2 minutes)
18.7. A sample of certain radioactive element has a half-life of 1500 years. If it has an
activity of 32000 counts per hour at the present time, then plot a graph of the activity of
this sample over the period in which it will reduce to 1/16 of its present value.
18.8. Half-life of a radioactive element was found to be 4000 years. The count rates per
minute for 8 successive hours were found to be 270, 280, 300, 310, 285, 290, 305,
312. What does the variation in count rates show? Plot a graph between the count
rates and time in hours. Why the graph is a straight line rather than an exponential?
Ans. (Variation in count rate shows the random nature of radiactive decay, graph
is almost horizontal line rather than exponential curve which is due to long
half-life as compared to period of 8 hours)
18.9. Ashes from a campfire deep in a cave show carbon-14 activity of only one-eighth
the activity of fresh wood. How long ago was that campfire made?
Ans. (17190 years)

GLOSSARY
AMMETER: An instrument which measures larger current.
AMPERE: If one coulomb of charge passes through any cross section in one second, then
current will be equal to one ampere.
AMPLITUDE: The maximum displacement below or above the mean position of a vibrating
body.
ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS: The branch of electronics which processes in the form of
analogue quantities.
ANALOGUE QUANTITIES: Those quantities which change continuously with time or
remain constant.
APERTURE: The line joining the end points of a spherical mirror.
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER: The sum of neutrons and protons present in a nucleus.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA: The branch of mathematics which deals with the relationships of
logic variables.
BOOLEAN VARIABLES: Such things which have only two possible states.
CAPACITANCE: The ability of the capacitor to store charge.
CAPACITOR: A device used to store electric charge.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES: In this combination, the capacitors are connected side by side.
CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE: An instrument be used to display the magnitudes of rapidly
changing electric current or potential as a function of time.
CATHODE-RAY TUBE: A vacuum tube used to accelerate electrons which emit from the
cathode by applying high voltage between cathode and anode.
CENTRE OF CURVATURE: The centre of the hollow sphere of which a spherical mirror is a
part.
ATOMIC Number: The number of protons present in a nucleus.
CLADDING: The inner part of the fibre optics.
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY: An electronic based system of information
transmission, reception, processing and retrieval.
COMPACT DISC: A molded plastic disc containing digital data that is scanned by a laser
beam for the reproduction of recorded sound or other information.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE: A light microscope used to investigate small objetcs.
COMPRESSIONAL WAVES: The longitudinal waves comprising series of compressions and
rarefactions.
COMPUTER: An electronic device used to perform mathematical and logical operations at
high speed.
CONCAVE MIRROR: A spherical mirror whose inner curved surface is reflecting.
CONVEX MIRROR: A spherical mirror whose outer curved surface is reflecting.
CONVEX LENS: A lens that causes incident parallel rays to converge at the focal point.
CONCAVE LENS: A Lens which diverges the parallel rays of light from its surface.
COULOMB'S LAW: The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is
GLOSSARY
directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between their centres.
CRESTS AND TROUGHS: In transverse waves, the highest points and the lowest points of the
particles of the medium from the mean position.
CYCLE: One complete vibration of a wave.
DATA MANAGING: To collect information for a special purpose and to store it in a computer
in a file form.
DATA: Facts and figures that are used by programs to produce useful information.
DIFFRACTION OF WAVES: The bending of waves around obstacles or sharp edges.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS: The branch of electronics which processes data in the form of
digits.
DIGITAL QUANTITIES: The quantities which change in non continuous steps.
ELECTRIC CURRENT: The time rate of flow of electric charge through any cross section.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL: The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from
infinity to a particular point in an electric field.
ELECTRIC POWER: The amount of energy supplied by current in a unit time.
ELECTROMAGNET: The type of magnet which is created when current flows through a coil.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: The production of an electric current across a conductor
moving through a magnetic field.
ELECTRON VOLT: The kinetic energy that an electron gains when accelerated between two
points with a potential difference of 1 V. 1eV = 1.6 x 10 -19J
ELECTRONICS: The branch of applied physics which discusses those principles and ways by
means of which we control the flow of electrons using different devices.
ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION: In the presence of a charged body, an insulated conductor
having positive charges at one end and negative charges at the other end.
EMF: The total amount of energy supplied by the battery or the cell in moving one coulomb
of positive charge from the positive to the negative terminal of the battery.
ENDOSCOPE: A medical instrument used for exploratory, diagnostic, and surgical purposes.
FARSIGHTEDNESS (HYPERMETROPIA): The disability of the eye to form distinct images of
nearby objects on its retina.
FAX MACHINE: A mean to send the documents from one place to another through
telephone lines.
RIGHT HAND RULE: Grasp a length of wire with your right hand such that your thumb
points in the direction of the current. Then fingers of your right hand circling the wire will
point in the direction of the magnetic field.
FISSION REACTION: The process of splitting up a heavy nucleus into two smaller nuclei with
release of large amount energy.
FLASH DRIVE: A small storage device that can be used to transport files from one computer
to another.
FLEMING'S LEFT HAND RULE: Stretch the thumb, forefinger and the middle finger of the
left hand are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger points in the direction
of the magnetic field, the middle finger in the direction of the current, then the thumb
GLOSSARY
would indicate the direction of the force acting on the conductor.

FLOW OF INFORMATION: The transfer of information from one place to another through
different electronic and optical equipments.
FOCAL LENGTH: The distance between the principal focus and the pole.
FREE ELECTRONS: Loosely bound electrons in metals which can move from one point to
another inside the metals.
FREQUENCY: The number of cycles or vibrations of a vibrating body in one second.
FUSE: A short piece of metal that melts when excessive current passes through it.
FUSION REACTION: A process in which two light nuclei diffuse to form a heavier nucleus
with release of enormous amount of energy.
GALVANOMETER: A sensitive electrical instrument which detects current in a circuit.
GENERATOR: A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE: A sensitive instrument used to detect electric charge.
GROUNDED: An object connected to a conducting wire or copper pipe buried in the Earth.
HALF-LIFE: The time during which half of the unstable radioactive nuclei disintegrate.
HARDWARE: The parts of a computer that we can see and touch.
LENZ’S LAW: The direction of the induced current is always such that it opposes the cause
that produces it.
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT): It is concerned with the scientific
methods and means to store and process vast amounts of information instantly.
INFORMATION STORING DEVICES: Devices used to store information for later use and
benefits.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY: The scientific method used to store information to arrange
them for proper use and to communicate them to others.
INTERNET: A computer networks which spreads all across the globe.
ISOTOPES: The elements with same atomic number but different atomic mass number.
KILOWATT-HOUR: The amount of energy obtained by a power of one kilowatt in one hour.
LIGHT PIPE: A bundle of fibre optics bonded together.
LOGIC GATES: The digital circuits which implement the various logic operations.
LONGITUDINAL WAVES: The sound waves in which particles of the medium vibrate along
the direction of propagation of the waves.
LOUDNESS: A feature of sound by which a loud and a faint sound can be distinguished.
MAGNIFICATION: The ratio of the image height to the object height.
MECHANICAL WAVES: Those waves which require some medium for their propagation.
MOBILE PHONE: An electronic device with two-way communication. It sends and receives
the message in the form of radiowaves.
MUSICAL SOUND: Sound having pleasant effect on our ears.
MUTUAL INDUCTION: The phenomenon of production of induced emf in one coil due to
change of current in a neighbouring coil.
NEARSIGHTED (MYOPIA): The defect of eye due to which people cannot see distant
objects clearly without the aid of spectacles.

GLOSSARY
OHM'S LAW: The current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends, provided the temperature and physical state of
the conductor do not change.
OPTICAL CENTRE: A point on the principal axis at the centre of a lens.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT: A circuit in which voltage remains the same across each resistor.
PERIODIC MOTION: The regular motion of a body which repeats itself in equal intervals of
time.
PITCH: The characteristics of sound by which a shrill sound can be distinguished from a
grave one.
POLE: The mid-point of the aperture of the spherical mirror.
POWER OF ACCOMMODATION: The ability of the eye to change the focal length of its lens
so as to form clear image of an object on its retina.
PRINCIPAL AXIS: The straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature of a
spherical mirror.
PRINCIPAL FOCUS: A point on the principal axis of mirror/lens where a beam of light
parallel to the principal axis converges to or appears to diverge after reflection from the
spherical mirror/lens.
PRISM: A transparent triangular piece of glass with at least two polished plane faces
inclined towards each other from which light is reflected or refracted.
QUALITY OF SOUND: The characteristics of sound by which two sound waves of same
loudness and pitch are distinguished from each other.
RADIOACTIVITY: A phenomenon in which radioactive element emits radioactive rays.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE: The radius of the hollow sphere of which a spherical mirror is a
part.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT: When light travelling in a certain medium falls on the surface of
another medium, a part of it returns back in the same medium.
REFRACTION: The change of path of waves/light while passing from one medium into
another medium due to change in speed.
REFRACTIVE INDEX: The ratio of the speed of light in air to the speed of light in a material:
RESISTANCE: The measure of opposition to the flow of current through a conductor.
RIPPLE TANK: A device used to produce and manipulate water waves.
S.H.M: To and fro oscillatory motion in which acceleration of the body is directly
proportional to the displacement of the body from the mean position and is always
directed towards the mean position.
SERIES CIRCUIT: A circuit in which current remains the same across each resistor.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE: A convex lens of short focal length which is used to produce
magnified images of small objects.
SOFTWARE: It refers to computer programs and the manuals that support them.
SOLENOID: A coil of wire consisting of many loops.
SOUND: A form of energy that is passed from one point to another in the form of waves.
SPHERICAL MIRROR: A mirror whose polished, reflecting surface is a part of a hollow

GLOSSARY
sphere of glass or plastic.

THERMIONIC EMISSION: The process of emitting of electrons from hot cathode.
TRANSFORMER: An electrical device which is used to increase or decrease the value of an
alternating voltage.
TRANSVERSE WAVES: The mechanical waves in which particles of the medium vibrate
about their mean position perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves.
TRUTH TABLES: The truth tables are tables which give the values of the inputs and outputs
of the basic types of logic gates or combination of such gates.
ULTRASONICS: Sound waves of frequency higher than 20, 000 Hz.
WAVE: A disturbance in a medium which travels from one place to another.
WAVELENGTH: The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs.
WORD PROCESSING: Such a use of computer through which we can write a letter, prepare
reports and books, etc.
Electromagnetic
INDEX
A E lectromagnetism 119
A .C . Generator 128 Electronic Mail 169
Analogue And Digital Electronics 143 Electroscope And Its Use 71
Audible Frequency Range 30 E lectrostatics 69
B F
Ball And Bowl System 4 Fax Machine 160
Browsers 169 Fission R eaction 185
C Flow Of Information 158
Capacitors and Capacitance 77 Force On A Current-Carrying Conductor 121
Capacitors In Parallel 79 H
Capacitors In Series 80 Half-Life 180
Cell Phone 160 Half-L ife And Its Measurement 180
Characteristics Of Sound 22 Hazards Of Radiations 187
Charging By Electrostatic Induction 71
Charging By Rubbing 70 I
Combinations Of Capacitors 79 Induced E.M.F And Lenz’s Law 128
Components Of Information Technology 156 Information Storage Devices 164
Compound Microscope 56 Insulators 100
Computer 162 Internet 168
Conventional Current 93 Internet Services 169
Coulomb’s Law 73
Current From A Generator 129 Investigating The Properties Of Electrons 141
D Isotopes 176
D . C. Motor 124 K
Damped Oscillations 6 Kilowatt - Hour 106
Data Managing 168 L
Deflection By Electric Field 141 L aws Of Reflection 37
Deflection By Magnetic Field 141 Laws Of Refraction 43
Determining The Force’s Direction 122 Logic Gates 145
Direct Current And Alternating Current 107 Logic Operations 146
Longitudinal Nature Of Sound 21
E M
Effect Of Temperature Upon R esistance 99 Magnetic Effect Of A Steady Current 119
Electric Field 74 Measuring Speed Of Sound 28
Electric Field Intensity 75 Motion Of A Simple Pendulum 4
Electric Field Lines 75 Mutual Induction 130
Electrostatic Potential 76
N
Electric Power 106
Nature And Properties Of Radiations 178
Electrical Energy And Joule’s Law 104
Noise Pollution 28
Electricity Hazards 109
Nuclear Fusion 187
Electromotive Force 95
Nuclear Transmutations 177
Electromagnetic Induction 125
INDEX
O U
Ohm’s Law 97 Ultrasonics 31
P Ultrasound 31
Parallel Circuits 102 Ultrasonics In Navigation 31
Photo Phone 161 Uses Of R adioisotopes 183
Potential Difference And E.M.F 94 Using Logic Gates 146
Producing Electric Current 91 W
Production Of Electrons 140
Production Of Sound 20 Wave Motion 7
Propagation Of Sound Waves 21 Waves As Carriers Of Energy 10
R Word Processing 167
Radio Isotopes And Their Uses 182
Radio receiver 158
Radio Transmission 159
Radioactivity 169
Reflection (Echo) Of Sound 26
Reflection Of Light 37
Refraction of Light 42
Resistance 98
Ripple Tank 12
S
Simple Harmonic Motion 2
Some Hazards Of Static E lectricity 85
Some Properties Of Nuclei 175
Sources Of Background R adiation 177
Specific Resistance (Resistivity) 100
Spherical Mirrors 3 8
Supply to a House 108
T
Telescope 57
The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (C .R .O) 142
The Human eye 59

The MeasurementOf C urrent 93
The MeasurementOf E.M.F 97
Totally Internal Reflecting Prism 45
Transformers 131
Transition Of Radio waves Through Space 159
Transmission Of Electrical Signal 159
Types of lenses 47
Types Of Waves 8

BIBLIOGRAPHY
No. NAME OF BOOKS NAME OF AUTHORS
Prof. M. Ali Shahid,
1. Physics 10 and others, 1st Ed 2003.
Punjab Textbook Board
Charles Chew and

2. others, 2nd Ed, Federal
Physics A Course for O Level
Publications, 2000
Peter S. P. Lim,
3. Pacific O-Level Guide Physics Pan Pacific Publications,
Pt. Ltd., 1988
K. Ravi, and others,

4. New School Physics
FEP International, 1987
Jay Bolemon,
5. Physics A Window on Our World 3rd Ed., Prentice hall,
1995.
Frederick Bueche and

6. Technical Physics David L.Willach, 4th Ed.,
Wiley Publisher, 1994
John D. Cutnell and

7. Physics Kenneth W. Johnson,
8th Ed., John Wiley &
Sons, 2009
John Avison,
8. The World of Physics 2nd Ed., Thomas Nelson
& Sons Ltd, 1989.
Machines and Inventions, Time-Lif’s Illustrated Priest, Book Publisher,

9.
World of Science. 1997.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Paul G. Hawiti,
10. Conceptual Physics 9th Ed., Addison Wesley,
2001.
Peter J. Nolan,
11. Fundamentals of Physics 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill
Education, 1995.
Tom Duncan, 4th Ed.,

12. GCSE Physics John Murray, 2001.
A. F. Abbot, 5th Ed.,

13. Physics Heineman Educational,
1989.
14. By Igor Nowikow and

Physics Concepts and Connections
Brian Heimbecker, 2001
James E. Ackroyd and

15. The Pearson Physics Others, Read McAlpine,
2009.
Hugh D. Young and

16. University Physics Others, 13the Ed.,
Prentice Hall, 2011
Paul W. Zitzewit and

17. Physics Principles and Problems
Others, McGraw Hill,
2005.
Dale Ewen and others,

18. Applied Physics 10th Ed., Prentice Hall,
2012.
Giambattista and others,

19. Physics 2nd Ed., McGraw Hill,
2010.
Tom Hsu,
20. Foundation of Physics 1st Ed., CPO Science,
2004.

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Science, Technology and Society Connections

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Rutherford discovered that the positive charge in an atom

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Atomic mass A = number of protons + number of neutrons = 13

one proton, two neutrons and one electron.

Size of atom and its

18.2 NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

The spontaneous process in which a parent unstable nuclide

Now we represent radioactive decay by means of a nuclear

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

In beta ()-decay , the parent nuclide has its proton number Z

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

photons. They are electromagnetic radiations of very high

radiations. Fig. 18.6 shows the relative penetrating abilities

Radioactive source Gamma rays ionize a

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

18.5 HALF-LIFE AND ITS MEASUREMENT

Not For Sale – PESRP 180

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

If the half-life of the radioactive element is T1/2, then at the

181 Not For Sale – PESRP

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

to decrease from 1000 to 250 per min, hence

800 During brain radiotherapy,

18.6 RADIOISOTOPES AND THEIR USES

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Radioisotopes are frequently used in medicine, industry and

Radioactive tracers are chemical compounds containing some

Radioisotopes are also used in nuclear medicines for curing

Radioactive carbon-14 is present in small amount in the

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Fig. 18.10: Radiocarbon dating is possible because plants and animals

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

18.7 FISSION REACTION

Fig. 18.11: Nuclear fission reaction

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

reaction is not controlled, it will proceed too rapidly and

Half-lives of Selected Isotopes

Not For Sale – PESRP 186

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

18.8 NUCLEAR FUSION

Energy coming from the Sun and stars is supposed to be the

18.9 HAZARDS OF RADIATIONS AND SAFETY

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

3. Genetic mutations in both human and plants. Some

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

(a) 92 (b) 146

189 Not For Sale – PESRP

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

vii. Release of energy by the Sun is due to

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

18.15. Determine which of these radioactive decay processes are possible:

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

18.6. In an experiment to measure the half-life of a radioactive element, the following